CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Overview

This chapter deals with the reviews of related literature. It talks about what has already been

written on the topic in terms of theories or concept and empirical evidence or scientific research

studies. The researcher therefore, sub-divided this chapter in to the following headings;

1. The meaning of mathematics.

2. The meaning of multiplication

3. Concept of the place value chart.

4. Causes of pupils inability to understand multiplication of numbers.

5. The role of the teacher in mathematics teaching

6. The activities that can be used to improve pupil's understanding in multiplication of

numbers.

2.1 Theoretical review, Conceptual review, and Empirical review

Theoretical review

Information processing theory was proposed by George miller in the (1950s), this theory

focuses on the mental processes involved in learning and in problem – solving. When students

are learning to multiply two digits numbers by three digits numbers, they must retrieve

information from their long- term memory and use it to perform calculations. Teachers can also

help students develop their information –processing skills by using repetition, providing clear

example sand practice problems, and giving feedback to correct errors.

proposed by Sweller J (2000). This theory focuses on the amount of cognitive effort required for

learning. When students are first learning to multiply two digits by three digits numbers, the

multiplication problem may be too complex for them to handle. However, by breaking down the

problem into smaller, manageable steps, students can reduce their cognitive load and build their

confidence. This could involve breaking the problem into partial products or using mental math

strategies to simplify the calculation.

Meaning of mathematics

Mathematics as a subject cannot be given a single definition. However, scholars like

Robert Asafo (2001) defined "mathematics as a way of finding answers to problems”. As

stipulated in Encyclopedia, page 302303 defined mathematics as “to study," "inclined “or "to

learn".

Mathematics though has no specific definition. This can simply be defined as the study

of relations. It can simply be defined as finding answers to problems. The importance of

mathematics cannot be underscored in the curriculum of the basic level and at all educational

levels. For the saying that if a problem emerges, finding solution is next, which is an

indisputable fact? Mathematics in itself is a problem; as such the right antidote must be

prescribed to it, to help alleviate problems of pupil's knowledge acquired because it is needed to

institute in the child the concept of mathematics thinking at the earliest stage using the right

approach.

Moreover, mathematics is a growing body that is used extensively in the contemporary

world. It entails multiplication, addition, division and subtraction. Therefore the researcher will

look at operation on the part of multiplication of numbers. Multiplication begins with the
'grouping' together various number of objects using repeated addition while bearing in mind

possible misconceptions as it is quantitatively different from additive thinking. From

mathematical point of view, multiplication of integers and rational numbers may be considered

relatively simple. Nevertheless, it can be modeled by many distinguishable classes of situations

and its product is not always a larger number (Greer, 1992).Thus, a fundamental conceptual

restructuring is necessary when multiplication is extended beyond the domain of positive

integers.

Meaning of multiplication

Burn (1987) defined multiplication as a way of finding out how many you have altogether when

things come in groups, such as chopsticks.

Biggs and Sutton (1983) described multiplication as “an efficient way of adding sets of
equal numbers of objects.

The Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia standard (2006) indicated that multiplication is simply

repeated addition and often indicated by the times sign (x).The expression 3x4 means that 3 is to

be added to itself 4 times. Thus 3+3+3+3=12

Conceptual review

Place Value Chart

Place value of a number determines the value of that digit on its position in a given

number. Therefore, the place value of digits depends on its place in a number. In the standard

system known as base ten, each place value is represented ten times the place to its right. The

smallest place value is ones, followed by tens, as we can see the place values in the number

below. The tens are ten times the ones, the hundreds are ten times the tens, and the thousands are
ten times the hundreds, in that order. For example in the number like 6542, the place values are

as follows;

6-thousands = 6*100=6000

5-hundreds =5*100=500

4-tens =4*10=40

2-ones =2*1=2

The summation gives us the numbers in question. Therefore, the value of digit 6 in the

above number is thousands, while that of 5 is hundreds, 4 being tens and 2 is ones.

According to Afful and Appronti (2001) a sound knowledge of place value is important

for a full understanding of the algorithms for multiplication. In view of this, it gives the child the

basis in terms of multiplying numbers in this manner.

Empirical review

Causes of Pupils’ Inability to Understand Multiplication of Numbers

According to Fishchbien, DeriNello and Marino (2004) argued that "students"

conceptions of and performance in multiplication and division application towards problems

(hereafter multiplicative problems) are unconsciously derived from primitive models that

correspond to features of human mental behavior that are primarily and natural. They suggest

their theory to account for conceptions such as; multiplication makes bigger and division makes

smaller. From the above, children have the perception that mathematics is difficult and it's that

behaviors they put towards it.

In my study, it is clear the simple cause of the mass failure in Mathematics of most

students in the basic schools is the inability of Mathematics teachers to use the right method of

teaching.
It is true that the poor usage of instructional technique employed by the teacher is one of the

major causes of the poor achievement among the basic and senior high schools in Mathematics.

The usage of irrelevant teaching methods and absence of Mathematics resource materials that

militate against students taking career choice in furthering students requiring the knowledge of

mathematics

Most of our pupils have negative attitudes towards mathematics .Some are even

indifferent when given mathematical task to complete on the excuse that, they do not know or

don't like the subject at all and hence always copy from their friends. This is confirmed by

Approntti and Afful (2001) when they outlined such attitudes;

a) The pupil's say they don't like the subject.

b) Some of them say they don't know mathematics.

These among other things frown out by the stakeholders in education so as to remove these

behaviors in our pupils.

Agwagah (2004) stated categorically that traditional teaching of mathematics is still the

norm in our nation's schools and has continued to dominate in the mathematics classroom;

students acquire mathematics skills by imitating demonstrations by the teacher and textbooks

while the teacher is the center in the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, in the

traditional mathematics instruction, the teacher on daily basis shows the students by working

more examples alone for the students to imitate him or her instead of engaging the students fully

in the classroom. This practice will not allow students to understand the multiplication lesson

properly.

The Role of the Teacher in Mathematics Teaching

time. It is on this note that Mike Askew (1995) stated that, “it is the teacher’s duty to prepare a

detailed lesson plan”. He emphasized that every lesson plan should have instructional objectives

that describes what pupils are to do at the end of the instructional period. These objectives should

specify the content of the context in which they are to do it. It should contain only one verb

which tells what pupils will do. According to Askew, some teachers fail to define clearly pupils’

behavior after the lesson so that, it does not lead to misinterpretation. In addition, teachers should

make the content of an instructional objective specific and must convey a uniform meaning to

teachers in the same subject discipline. For example, the objectives ‘pupils will be able to tell the

time’ has the content ‘time’ which can be interpreted to mean reading the time to the hour or

half-hour or to the minute. There is the need for further clarification as to what is meant by

‘time’ in this statement of objective. He gave examples of well stated instructional objectives;

1. Pupils’ will be able to find the mode of a given set of numbers,

2. Pupils’ will be able to add three and four whole numbers

3. Pupils’ will be able to arrange three of four numbers in order of sizes.

Skemp (1989) also stated that, “Practices given to pupils enhance their understanding in

mathematics”. He said, teachers must give more practical exercises to pupils. He continued that

teachers should teach pupils with much practice on the concept that has been acquired, they will

then understand, retain and be able to recall. The practices exercise in the mathematics

textbooks, are designed to help pupils understand the lesson and to recall the new knowledge

when it is required of them with the help of a teacher. Some teachers for fear of too much work

load – marking of exercises for the day and tiredness – fail to give pupils adequate practices for a
day’s work. Margaret Brown made these observations and said that some teachers find it tedious

in going through pupils’ mistakes with them. They just mark the exercises and go their way.

Margaret Brown (1985) said “pupils make mistakes in working out problems which are

given them either as class working out problems or homework”. It is the role of the teacher to

identify and bring to their notice if there is any mistake in the solution of a problem. It is not

sufficient for the teacher to just mark the answer wrong. The teacher needs to underline or circle

the stages where the errors occurred, particularly the first error. The teacher should bring these

errors to pupil’s attention. A summary of the type of mistakes made by the pupils will suggest

the kind of remedial teaching that has to be done. It is also the teacher’s duty to bring some

individual own peculiar mistakes out to them to be identified, corrected and explained

adequately.

Margaret Brown added that teachers should not cultivate the habit of working out all the

problems in the assignment or test on the chalkboard and then ask pupils to copy the solution.

This is very wrong though this practice is useful in assisting pupils to record the correct solution

for future reference. It is also helpful in making them learn the correct method and skill. It

becomes much more beneficial if pupils are given new problems similar to the ones they missed

out or gotten wrong and asked to solve them.

Lorraine Mottershead (1977) said, “Teachers important role is to help pupils understand

lesson taught by collecting instructional materials relevant to the topic to be taught”.

Instructional materials arouse and sustain pupils’ interest during teaching, thus making their

foundation very solid and permanent.

Factors influencing students’ participation are diverse and often personal. However, there

are a number of factors more commonly perceived as influential. The students belief about the

usefulness of mathematics in later life is perceived as a major contributing factor to their

continued participation in mathematics (Kaiser-Mesmer 1993).This is when choosing methods

of instruction, the teacher should take students participation in to consideration. He or she should

choose the one which will motivate his learner's to participate fully in the activities or class work

in other to achieve the set of objectives.

In the teaching and learning of mathematics, teaching and learning materials are very important

if lesson objectives are to be achieved. Since children learn a lot when they are dealing with

concrete materials, teachers must learn to use them in their lessons. Ghana education service

(GES) on the teaching and learning materials preparation (2003) confirmed the importance of

teaching and learning materials to pupil's when they say, by using teaching and learning

materials ,the teacher attempts to excite as many sense areas in the children, as much as possible

to bring them in to complete involvement in the learning situation so that their senses will be

taught to bear on the topic being treated .A multiple approach through by hearing, seeing,

touching, smelling and tasting make a complete understanding of the lesson.

To Martin (2004),"in every mathematics lesson, children should be given the opportunity

to do, talk about and record their own work.

It is the responsibilities of teachers to make pupils who attain very little in mathematics perform

better in future. Teachers must sometimes use their ingenuity and creativity to make them catch

up with their counterparts. This can be achieved by employing a lot of simulating and interesting

activities.
 According to Appronti and Afful (2001) to make pupils who achieve very little in

mathematics perform better; we must concentrate most of our efforts on them. In this direction,

teachers must make good use of games, puzzles, interesting activities and simulations in our

lessons". Teachers should try to give our pupil's tasks and allow them to do so as to enable them

demonstrate their mathematical thinking abilities.

Also, pupils learn a lot from their peers, so group work is very important if the effort of the

teacher is to be augmented. When pupils are put in to small groups, it offers them the

opportunity to communicate freely to share their mathematical ideas and thoughts. It will also let

them brainstorm to come out with solutions to a problem through their own effort which will be

motivation to them.

Summary of the Literature Review

In summary, it can be seen that Appronti and Afful viewed that most low attainders in

multiplication and mathematics in general do not know their multiplication tables. Teachers must

therefore use appropriate teaching and learning materials as well as effective teaching methods in

teaching it. This will enable the children to develop positive attitude towards mathematics and

further enhance their performance in the topic under study.