Mathematics Year 1

SECTION

8 DATA ORGANISATION,
ANALYSIS AND
PRESENTATION
SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

MAKING SENSE OF AND USING DATA

Statistical Reasoning and Its Application in Real Life

INTRODUCTION
Data is important in today’s world and it comes in different types like numbers,
categories and rankings. We can collect and organise data in many ways, then
illustrate it using graphs, charts or tables to make it easier to understand. To
summarise data we use the mean, median and mode, which give us one number
that shows the “average” of the data. These numbers help us compare and make
conclusions. Doing real-life projects with data helps us learn how to collect,
analyse and present information. These projects can be connected to different
subjects, like science, history, geography and economics. Learning these skills
helps us make smart decisions and prepares us for more advanced studies in areas
like statistics and data science. In this section, we will explore the collection and
study of data in order to get facts or information. This process is termed ‘Data
collection’ or ‘collection of data’. In JHS, you have learnt some data types and
how to analyse them, so let us do a quick recall of some of the things you have
learnt on data and data types.

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Classify data (primary and secondary) as quantitative (discrete and

continuous), qualitative (nominal and ordinal), numerical, categorical,
grouped, ungrouped, etc.
• Identify and validate quantitative data collection methods (Survey/
Questionnaire, Interviews, Observation, Existing Data, and Probability)
and use it to collect everyday- life data.
• Identify and validate qualitative data collection methods (interviews,
observations, s groups, oral histories, online tracking, social media
monitoring, etc.) and use it to collect everyday-life data.
• Organise and present data (grouped/ungrouped) using frequency tables,
line graphs, pie charts, multiple bar graphs, info graphics, etc., including
generating 3D graphs/ charts with appropriate digital technology (where
available) and solve problems on them.

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• Analyse (include using appropriate computer applications) and interpret

data using descriptive statistics (i.e., measures of central tendency/
location and minimum & maximum values) and justify which of the
averages best represent the data.
• Use mathematical arguments to support personal choices as well as
incorporate the views and perspectives of others to assess and make
inferences of data presented in everyday life (including class discussions,
school debates, textbooks, school clubs, etc.)
• Develop and execute a project with a team by collecting and analysing
data within the school environment and give useful conclusions and
recommendations (including the use of appropriate computer applications,
e.g., excel).
• Present a project report to your class or at a school forum. Include the
use of presentation software such as power point, infographics, etc., and
publish the report in a school magazine, school notice board, school
social media platforms

Key Ideas

• A variable is a characteristic or attribute that can take on different values

or levels.
• Data collection is gathering data through surveys, experiments, or
observations.
• Data analysis means using statistical methods to summarise, visualise
and model data.
• Frequency refers to the number of times a particular value or category
occurs in a dataset.
• A frequency distribution table is a table that displays the frequency of
each value or category in a dataset.
• An interval refers to a range of values between two specific limits,
inclusive or exclusive.
• Inference means drawing conclusions about a population based on a
sample of data.
• Tally involves marking vertical lines for each occurrence of a value.

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WHAT IS DATA?
Data refers to the collection/gathering of pieces of information or facts in order
to analyse them, make decisions or gain insights. Data can be in various forms,
such as numbers, text, images or audio. In a more technical sense, data is often
raw and unprocessed (ie, it has yet to be organised or analysed) to reveal patterns
or meaning. In short, data is information gathered from various sources through
observation or from results of an experiment.
For example:
• Numbers like 24, 55 and 12 are data points that can represent ages,
temperatures, or other quantities.
• A list of customer reviews and their ratings is data that can be analysed to
understand customer satisfaction.
Data becomes more useful when it is processed and interpreted to generate
information and knowledge. In fields like statistics, data science and information
technology, data plays a crucial role in drawing conclusions and making informed
decisions.
Let us now consider some types of data

Types of Data
Primary and secondary data are two fundamental types of data used in research
and analysis. They serve different purposes and have distinct characteristics, each
contributing to the understanding of a given subject.

Primary data
Primary data refers to information collected first-hand, specifically for a particular
research study or investigation. This data is original and directly obtained from the
source. Primary data collection methods include surveys, interviews, experiments,
observations or direct measurements.

Secondary data
Secondary data refers to existing data that has been collected by someone else for
a different purpose but can be repurposed for new research or analysis. Secondary
data sources include published literature, reports, databases, government records
and data collected by other researchers.

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Grouped and Ungrouped Data

When working with data, it can be classified as either grouped or ungrouped,
depending on how the values are organised and presented.
Ungrouped data is a raw set of individual observations or values without any
categorisation or grouping. Each data point is unique and stands alone. For
instance, if you record the heights of a group of individuals without categorising
them into ranges, you would have ungrouped data.
Grouped data involves categorising values into intervals or classes, creating a
summary of data within each category. Grouping data helps simplify large data
sets and provides a broader overview of the distribution.

Example 1

Height (in inches) – the raw data: 62, 65, 67, 62, 70, 65, 66, 64, 67, 71
Table 1: Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

Height (in inches) Frequency

62 2
64 1
65 2
66 1
67 2
70 1
71 1

In the above frequency table, each data point is unique and stands alone, this
makes it ungrouped.

Table 2: Grouped Frequency Distribution

Height Range (in inches) Frequency

60 - 64 3
65 - 69 5
70 - 74 2

In the table above, the heights have been grouped into three categories: 60-64
inches, 65-69 inches and 70-74 inches. The frequency column represents the

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number of observations falling within each category. This means the data is
grouped.
Let us now look at and draw out the differences, with examples, between discrete
and continuous data.

Discrete and Continuous Data

Discrete data
This typically consists of whole numbers or counts of items and does not include
decimal values. However, in certain cases, discrete data may be represented as
decimal values for practical purposes. It also represents items that can be counted
and each item is unique and cannot be divided into smaller parts.
Discrete data includes discrete variables that are finite, numeric, countable and
non-negative integers and rarely involve decimals.
E.g.:
• The number of students who have attended the class.
• The number of customers who have bought different products.
• The number of groceries people are purchasing every day.
• Population of a country
For instance, consider a situation where you are measuring the number of
defective items produced in a factory per hour. While the number of defects is
a discrete variable (you cannot have half a defect), it might be represented as a
decimal to indicate the average number of defects per hour over time. In such
cases, the decimal values are used for measurement or calculation purposes, but
the actual data points remain discrete. Another example is that in the UK, shoe
sizes come in half sizes. But nothing in between. For example, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5 etc.
– therefore, this is discrete data.

Continuous data
This is the unspecified number of possible measurements between two presumed
points. Continuous data is a type of data that can take any value within a certain
range or interval, including fractions and decimals. It represents measurable
values that can be divided into smaller parts and can be expressed on a continuous
scale. For example, time can be measured in hours, minutes, seconds and fractions
of seconds, such as [Link].123. Also, a person’s height can be measured in

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centimetres or inches and can include fractional values, like 175.5 cm or 68.3
inches etc.
Other examples are;
• The weather temperature
• The wind speed
• The weight of the children
With these definitions and examples, I hope you can state some differences
between the various types of data. Discuss them with your classmates.

Activity 1

Suppose these are the exam scores of some of your classmates in Mathematics
in the last semester.
70, 60, 87, 90, 65, 90, 65, 76, 87, 95, 71, 85, 90, 62, 90
Below are the steps to help organise these exams scores in an ungrouped
frequency distribution table.
Step 1: Identify all the unique values in the dataset (in this case, exam scores)
from the smallest to the largest. These values will form the basis of your
table’s categories. These are 60, 63, 65, …, 98
Step 2: For each unique value, count how many times it appears in the dataset.
Step 3: Draw a frequency distribution table with two columns: one for the
unique values (exam scores) and one for their frequencies.
Step 4: Organise this information into the table.
Step 5: Ensure that the total of the frequencies equals the total number of
data points. This step verifies that all data points have been accounted for.
Total Frequency: 2 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 1 = 15

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Step 6: Review the data entry by double-checking for any errors in the
frequency counts.
Table 3: Frequency Distribution

Exam Scores (in %) Frequency

60 2
62 1
65 2
70 1
71 1
76 1
85 1
87 2
90 3
95 1

Let us proceed to that of a grouped frequency distribution table using the same
exam scores.

Activity 2

Raw Data of the exam scores: 70, 60, 87, 90, 65, 90, 65, 76, 87, 95, 71, 85,
90, 62, 98
Step 1: Determine the Number of Groups (categories or intervals) you want
to create. Typically, 5-7 groups are sufficient.
Step 2: Determine the Group Size:
• Calculate the range of the data (maximum value - minimum value).

• Divide the range by the number of groups to determine the group

size, tweak as necessary for it to make sensible group sizes.
• In this example, group size = (98 - 60) /4 = 9.5. Therefore, to the
nearest whole is 10, which seems a sensible group size.
Steps 3: Create Group Boundaries
• Start with the minimum value and add the group size to create
the upper boundary of the first group. Note, this is discrete data,

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so it is OK to have a gap between the upper bound of one group

and the lower bound of the next, but if the data is continuous this
cannot happen so you would need groups such as ​60 ≤ x < 70​
and ​70 ≤ x < 80​.
• Repeat this process to create the boundaries for each group.
- 60-69
- 70-79
- 80-89
- 90-99
Step 4: Create the Frequency Distribution Table
• Write the group boundaries in the exams scores column.

• Write the frequency in the frequency column.

Step 5:Review the data entry by double-checking for any errors in the
frequency counts.
Table 4: Grouped Frequency Distribution

Exam Scores (in %) Frequency

60-69 5
70-79 3
80-89 3
90-99 4

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Quantitative data
Quantitative data is anything that can be counted or measured. It refers to numerical
data. Data collected about a numeric variable will always be quantitative.
Characteristics of Quantitative data:
• It is numerical: Quantitative data is represented by numbers.
• It is measurable: Quantitative data can be measured or counted.
• Quantitative data is objective: It is based on facts, not opinions.
• Quantitative data is reliable: It is consistent and accurate.
• It can be generalised: Quantitative data can be applied to a larger population.

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Examples of data that can be considered as quantitative:

• Kwabena is 5 feet and 7 inches tall
• They have size 6 feet
• They weigh 63 kilograms
• Mariama has one older sibling and two younger siblings
• They have two cats
• Setor lives twenty miles away from the school
• They go swimming four times a week

Qualitative data
Qualitative data is descriptive, referring to things that can be observed but not
measured, such as colours or emotions. Data collected about a categorical variable
will always be qualitative.
Characteristics of qualitative data:
• It is non-numerical: Qualitative data is descriptive, not numerical.
• Qualitative data is based on personal opinions and experiences.
• Qualitative data is contextual, meaning it is influenced by the research
context
• It is rich and detailed: Qualitative data provides in-depth insights.
• It is flexible: Qualitative data collection methods can be adapted during
research.
Examples of data that can be considered as qualitative;
• Maxjane has curly brown hair.
• They have brown eyes.
• Yamusah is funny, loud and a good listener.
• They can also be quite impatient and impulsive at times.
• Tinyor Raymond drives a red car
• They have a very friendly face and a contagious laugh.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods

1. Surveys: This involves using close-ended questions with fixed response
options to gather numerical data from a large number of respondents.
2. Experiments: This is the method of conducting controlled experiments to
collect quantitative data on the effects of variables on outcomes.

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3. Tests and Assessments: This involves administering standardised tests or

assessments to measure specific characteristics or abilities quantitatively.
4. Observational Studies: Observational studies involve collecting data
through observation, without intervening or manipulating variables.
Systematically observing and recording behaviours or events to gather
numerical data is called observational studies.
5. Sensor Data Collection: Sensor data collection involves gathering data from
sensors. These are devices that detect and measure physical or environmental
parameters. Thus, using sensors and devices to collect quantitative data on
physical phenomena such as: Temperature, Humidity, Light, Sound, Motion
etc.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

1. Interviews: An interview is a qualitative data collection method that
involves a conversation between the researcher and the participant. It is a
powerful tool for gathering in-depth, detailed information about people’s
experiences, attitudes and behaviours. In short, it is a method of conducting
one-on-one or group interviews to gather in-depth information and insights
from participants.
2. Focus Groups: Focus groups are a qualitative research method used
to gather information from a small, diverse group of people. It involves
bringing together a small group of people to discuss specific topics and
gather opinions and perceptions.
3. Observations: Observation is a research method used to collect data by
systematically observing (watching) and recording behaviours, interactions
and phenomena in natural or controlled settings.
4. Surveys: A survey is a method of collecting data from a group of people
through a series of questions. Surveys aim to gather information, opinions
or feedback from a sample of individuals, often to understand their attitudes,
behaviours or characteristics. Using open-ended questions to gather detailed
responses and opinions from participants is termed a survey.
5. Document Analysis: This is a method of analysing written or visual
materials such as documents, photographs or videos to understand a specific
topic or phenomenon.
I hope you have noticed that survey and observation can be both quantitative and
qualitative methods of data collection depending on the nature of the questions/
observations made.

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Take note of the differences between all these different types of data collection
and discuss them with your classmates. Then have a look at the following samples
of survey questionnaires, observation checklist and interview guide in the activity
below.

Activity 3

Identify some features of each of the sample data collection tools below. Share
these with your classmates.

A Sample Survey Questionnaire

Instructions: Please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with
each of these statements regarding QRZ Family Restaurant. Place an “X”
mark in the box of your answer.
Q1: How many times per year do you visit QRZ Family Restaurant?
____________________________________________________
Q2: Do you visit QRZ Family Restaurant with family or friends?
Yes No

Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Neutral
Agree
Agree

1. The store is accessibly located.

2. Store hours are convenient for my dining
needs.
3. Advertised dish was in stock.
4. A good selection of dishes was present.
5. The meals sold are good value for the
money.
6. Store has the lowest prices in the area.
7. Meals sold are of the highest quality.
8. Store atmosphere and decor are appealing.

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Q9: How would you rate your overall experience at the QRZ Family
Restaurant?
Highly satisfactory
Satisfactory
Neutral
Unsatisfactory
Highly Unsatisfactory
Q10: What could we do to make your restaurant dining experience better?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Q11. Demographic Data
Name (optional):_________________________________
Age: ____
Gender: ________________________________________
Number of Family Members:
1-2
3-5
6-10
more than 10
Email Address (optional): _______________________________

Notes: This section is optional. The questions asking for demographic data
should be relevant to the survey goal and must point to the characteristics of
the target population.
IV. Thank you for sharing your thoughts with us. We hope you enjoy
dining at QRZ Family Restaurant and look forward to seeing you
back with us soon.
Note: This section may also include further information regarding on how to
claim the incentive that you wish to provide to the respondent.

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A Sample Observation Guide

Date: _____________________________________
Time: _____________________________________
Observer’s Name: ___________________________
Location: __________________________________
Observer’s Role: ____________________________
1. Context and Environment
• Classroom Setting:
o Layout (e.g., rows, groups, seating arrangement)
o Resources available (e.g., computers, books, materials)
o General atmosphere (e.g., quiet, noisy, relaxed)
• Time of Day:
o (e.g., Morning, Midday, Afternoon)
• Type of Activity:
o (e.g., Group Work, Lecture, Independent Study)
2. General Behaviour
• Student Engagement:
o Active/Passive/Neutral
o Participation level (e.g., frequently participates, seldom
participates)
• Attention:
o Focused/Distracted/Varies
• Emotional State:
o Positive/Negative/Neutral
3. Specific Behaviours
• Interactions with Peers:
o Cooperative/Competitive/Isolated
o Examples: [e.g., Student A helps Student B with a problem]

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A Sample Interview Guide

Look for other samples and discuss the features of each of them with your
classmates.

Activity 4

Your school is wondering about increasing the contact hours to provide

students with more instructional time to interact with their teachers. If the
school management wants to gather the students’ opinions on this, which data
collection method(s) would you recommend and why? Organise yourselfs in
small groups to discuss your ideas and come together as a class. There are
many different ways to go about this. Which one would work best in your
school?

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DATA PRESENTATION METHODS: FREQUENCY

DISTRIBUTION TABLE
In Junior High School, you learned about various methods for presenting data,
such as bar charts, frequency tables, pie charts and line graphs. These methods
have many real-world applications for both categorical and numerical data.
Frequency tables can be used for datasets of any size, while pie charts can show
part-to-whole relationships but they can be misleading if not used carefully. Line
graphs can be used for representing continuous data.

Frequency Tables
Ungrouped data
Example 2

A jar contains beads of different colours. Here is the raw data for this: red, green,
blue, black, red, green, blue, yellow, red, red, green, green, green, yellow, red,
green, yellow.
Organise the data in a frequency distribution table.

Solution

• Create the frequency distribution table with respective columns

• fill in the data, tally (count) and frequency column
• Compare your final result to the table below

Table 5: Frequency Distribution

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Grouped data
Example 3

The raw data below represents the number of trees that survived in a survey by
100 schools who decided to plant 100 tree saplings in their gardens on world
environment day.
95, 67, 28, 32, 65, 65, 69, 33, 98, 96, 76, 42, 32, 38, 42, 40, 40, 69, 95, 92, 75, 83,
76, 83, 85, 62, 37, 65, 63, 42, 89, 65, 73, 81, 49, 52, 64, 76, 83, 92, 93, 68, 52, 79,
81, 83, 59, 82, 75, 82, 86, 90, 44, 62, 31, 36, 38, 42, 39, 83, 87, 56, 58, 23, 35, 76,
83, 85, 30, 68, 69, 83, 86, 43, 45, 39, 83, 75, 66, 83, 92, 75, 89, 66, 91, 27, 88, 89,
93, 42, 53, 69, 90, 55, 66, 49, 52, 83, 34, 36
Represent the given data in the form of a grouped frequency distribution table.

Solution

• Create the frequency distribution table with respective columns

• fill in the data, tally (count) and frequency column
• Compare your final result to the table below

Table 6: Grouped Frequency Distribution

Line Graphs
A line graph is a type of chart used to display data points connected by straight
line segments

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Steps in drawing a line chart

1. Choose a suitable scale for the ​x​and ​y​ axes.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines and label the axes:
​x​-axis (horizontal): independent variable (e.g., time, categories)
​y​-axis (vertical): dependent variable (e.g., values, amounts)
3. Mark each data point on the graph with a small dot or cross.
4. Ensure accurate placement according to ​x​and ​y​ values.
5. Connect the data points with straight lines using a ruler.
6. Add a title to the graph.

Example 4

The temperature recorded in a city from 5 a.m. to 8 p.m. on a day was recorded
in the form of a line graph as shown below. Study the graph and answer the
following questions.

Figure 1: Line graph

a. At which time(s) of the day was the temperature 40° F?

b. What was the maximum recorded temperature?

Solution

a. 5:00 a.m. and 5-8 pm.

b. 60° F

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Bar Graphs
A bar graph (or bar chart) is a visual representation of data using rectangular
bars, where the length or height of each bar corresponds to the value it represents.
Steps in drawing a bar graph
1. Choose a suitable scale for the ​x​and ​y​ axes.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines and label them:
​x​-axis (horizontal): categories
​y​-axis (vertical): numerical values
3. Decide on a uniform bar width.
4. Leave equal spaces between bars (at least 1/2 bar width).
5. Measure and draw each bar’s height according to its value.
6. Ensure bars are aligned with corresponding ​x​-axis labels
7. Label each bar with its corresponding value (optional).
8. Add a title to the graph.

Example 5

The following table shows the percentage of monthly salary saved by each
employee in a 100-person company. Create a vertical bar graph to represent it

Table 7: Distribution table

Savings (in percentage) Number of Employees

15 20
25 45
35 25
45 10
Total 100

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Solution

Figure 2: Bar graph

Example 6

The bar chart below is the summary of cases and recoveries of corona virus
pandemic recorded in various regions in Ghana from March 2020 to August 2022.

Figure 3: Double bar graph

Using the data in the graph answer the following questions:

1. Which region recorded the least cases over the period?
2. What percentage of the total cases recorded were in Greater Accra?

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Solution

1. Savannah recorded the least cases.

2. Approximately 57% ​​(______
95723
​168457 ​× 100)​​

Pie Charts
Example 7

The data below shows the amount of money that Akosua spent on buying some
items:
• Pepper - GH4
• Onions - GH4
• Salt - GH2
• Fish - GH10
Draw a pie chart for the data.

Solution

To draw a pie chart for a given data

Step 1. Find the sum of the frequencies i.e. 4 + 4 + 2 + 10 = 20. Since a circle
contains a total of 360°, we need to express each fraction for a sector as an angle
per 360°.
Step 2. Calculate the angle for a data value of each sport as follows:
360
i. Find the angle for a data value ​​___
20
​ = 18°​
ii. Next, we find the angle for each sector by multiplying the number of pupils
(frequency) for that sector by 18 as shown in the table below.
Alternatively, express each frequency over the total frequency and multiply by
360°.

Table 8: Calculating Angle of Sector

Items Amount Spent Angle of sector Alternatively, Angle of

(GHc) sector

Pepper 4 4 × 18 = 72° __ 4 ​​× 360° =72°

​​ 20
Onions 4 4 × 18 = 72° __
​​ 20 4 ​​× 360° =72°

Salt 2 2 × 18 = 36° __​​ 20 2 ​​× 360° =36°

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Items Amount Spent Angle of sector Alternatively, Angle of

(GHc) sector

Fish 10 10 × 18 = 180° ​​ 10
__
20
​​× 360° =180°
Total 20 360° 360°

Step 3. Use a pair of compasses to draw a circle with a radius of at least 5cm.
Step 4. Use a protractor to draw (measure) the angles for each sector in the circle.
Step 5. Write and label each sector.
Step 6. It is usually appropriate to write the angles (magnitudes) inside the sectors.

Figure 4: Pie chart

Measures of Central Tendency

As data analysts, statisticians or curious learners, understanding the central
tendencies of a dataset is crucial in gaining a meaningful understanding of its
characteristics. These statistical measures provide us with a concise summary
of the central or typical values within a dataset. They help us identify the centre
around which the data clusters and give us insights into the overall distribution.
We will look at three primary measures of central tendency: the mean, the median,
and the mode.

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Mode, Median and Mean

The mode refers to the value or values which appear most frequently in a dataset.
It helps identify the most common or popular value(s) within a dataset and is
especially useful in categorical or discrete data analysis.
The median represents the middle value of a dataset when arranged in ascending
or descending order. It is not affected by very high or very low numbers and is
especially helpful when the data is uneven or has values that are very different
from the rest.
The mean, often referred to as the average, is computed by summing all the values
in the dataset and dividing by the total number of observations. It represents the
arithmetic centre and provides a measure of the typical value in the dataset.
Let us consider the steps in finding the mean, median and mode of a raw data set.

Calculating mean, median and mode for raw data

Example 8

The marketing department of a company has collected the following sales figures
(in thousands of Ghana cedis) for its top 10 sales representatives for the previous
quarter:
11, 18, 15, 22, 19, 14, 17, 20, 16, 22
Calculate the following measures of central tendency for the given sales figures:
1. Mode
2. Mean
3. Median

Solution

1. Calculating the Mode: The mode is the value that appears most frequently
in the data set. In the given data, 22 appears twice, everything else only
appears once, so the mode in this data set is 22.
2. Calculating the Mean: The mean is the sum of all the values divided by
the total number of values.
Sum of all values = 11 + 18 + 15 + 22 + 19 + 14 + 17 + 20 + 16 + 22
= 174
Total number of values = 10
174
Mean ​= ​___
10
​ = 17.4​

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3. Calculating the Median: The median is the middle value when the data is
arranged in ascending or descending order. Arranging the data in ascending
order:
11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 22
Since there are 10 values, the median is the average of the 5th and 6th
values.
(17 + 18)
Median = ​​_______
2
​​ = 17.5

Therefore, the measures of central tendency for the given sales figures are:
• Mode: 22
• Mean: 17.4
• Median: 17.5
Now that you know how to calculate measures of central tendencies with a raw
data set, let us now look at how to find mean, median and mode from a frequency
distribution table.

Calculating the mean, median and mode from an

ungrouped frequency distribution table
Example 9

The data below shows the marks obtained in a short science test.
Organise the data in a frequency distribution table and find the mode and median.

2 2 4 3 1 4 1 0
1 2 3 1 2 1 3 0
4 2 3 3 3 4 3 1
1 0 1 4 0 0 1 4

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Solution

Construct your frequency distribution table:

Table 9: Frequency Distribution

Marks Tally Frequency

0 //// 5
1 //// //// 9
2 //// 5
3 //// // 7
4 //// / 6

To obtain the mode, look for the mark with the highest frequency. From our
frequency table “mark 1” had the highest frequency of 9, hence it is the mode of
the data set.
To obtain the median from the frequency table, follow these steps:
1. Find the total frequency. To do this, sum up all the frequencies.
2. Divide the total frequency by 2.
3. Find the item that correspond to the frequency from your answer in point
two above. In the example, total frequency = 32
32
∴ ​​__
2
​​ =16

Table 10: Frequency Distribution

From the frequency table the 16th and 17th frequencies fall within 2. Therefore, the
median is 2.

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

N.B.: When the total frequency is an even number, it means there are two numbers
in the middle. It means the median will halfway between the 16th and the 17th
number.

To calculate the mean we use the formula below:

The mean formula for ungrouped data is
_ fx
​Mean = X ​ = ∑_​
∑f
Where:
∑ = is the summation sign, meaning total sum of…
_
​X ​= the mean value of the set of given data
f = frequency of the individual data
​x​= the data point
Therefore, for our data:

Table 11: Frequency Distribution

Marks / ​x​ Tally Frequency / f f × ​x​

0 //// 5 5×0=0
1 //// //// 9 9×1=9
2 //// 5 5 × 2 = 10
3 //// // 7 7 × 3 =21
4 //// / 6 6 × 4 = 24
Total ​𝚺f =​32 ​𝚺fx = ​64
fx
​∴ Mean = 𝚺_
𝚺f
​64
​= ___
32
​ = 2​

Example 10

The data below are marks obtained in a social studies test in JHS 1. Calculate the
mean for this data.

3 2 2 3 4
2 5 4 2 2
2 2 1 4 2
4 5 3 2 7
2 3 2 6 3

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Solution

To obtain the mean from the frequency table, continue as follows:

Step 1. Organise the data into a frequency distribution table.
Step 2. Find the total frequency (f). To do this, sum all the frequencies.
Step 3. Multiply the frequency (f) by the test score (x)
Step 4: Sum all the values under the (fx) column.
Step 5. Divide the summation of fx by the summation of f

Table 12: Frequency distribution table

Marks (x) Tally Frequency ( f ) fx

1 / 1 1
2 //// //// / 11 22
3 //// 5 15
4 //// 4 16
5 // 2 10
6 / 1 6
7 / 1 7
Total 25 77

∑f = 25, ∑fx = 77
_ ∑ fx
​Mean (​ x​ )​ ​ = _ ​77
​ ​= _25
​ = 3.08​
∑f
∴ the mean score is 3.08

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Calculating the Mean, Median and Mode from a grouped

frequency distribution table
Example 11

You grew fifty carrots using special soil. You dig them up and measure their
lengths (to the nearest mm) and group the results.
Calculate the mean, median and mode of the lengths of carrots.

Table 13: Frequency Distribution

Length (mm) Frequency

150 - 154 5
155 - 159 2
160 - 164 6
165 - 169 8
170 - 174 9
175 - 179 11
180 - 184 6
185 - 189 3

Solution

Step 1: Calculate the mean from the table below. In this case x is the mid-
point of the group.

Table 14: Frequency Distribution

Length (mm) Midpoint (x) Frequency (​f​) ​fx​

150 - 154 152 5 760
155 - 159 157 2 314
160 - 164 162 6 972
165 - 169 167 8 1336
170 - 174 172 9 1548
175 - 179 177 11 1947
180 - 184 182 6 1092
185 - 189 187 3 561
Totals: 50 8530

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

8530
​∑fxf ​ = ​____
_
Estimated Mean = ∑ 50
​​ = 170.6 mm
Note, it is only an ‘estimated’ mean as we have not used each exact
carrot length, but only estimated by taking the mid-point of the group.
Step 2: Find the median group.
The median is the mean of the 25th and the 26th length, so it occurs in the
170 – 174 group.
Step 3: Find the mode, or, modal group
The modal group is the one with the highest frequency, which is
175 – 179:

Establish that the mean is a form of average

The term average is frequently used in everyday life to denote a value that is
typical for a group of quantities. For example, average rainfall in a month or the
average age of employees of an organisation are typical examples.
• Average is the value that indicates what is most likely to be expected.
• They help to summarise large data into a single value.

Table 14: Differences between mean and median

Mean Median
The mean, also known as the The median represents the middle
average, is calculated by summing value in a dataset when arranged in
all the values in a dataset and ascending or descending order.
dividing by the total number of
observations.
It is influenced by extreme values or It is not affected by extreme values
outliers in the dataset. or outliers in the dataset.
The mean represents the arithmetic The median is particularly useful
centre or the typical value of the when dealing with skewed
dataset. distributions or datasets with
outliers.
It is widely used and provides a It provides a measure of the central
measure of the central tendency value that is robust to extreme
that takes into account all values in values.
the dataset.

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Justifying which of the averages best represents

given data
Example 12

A department of an organisation has 5 employees which include a supervisor and

four executives. The executives draw a salary of GH 10 000 per month while the
supervisor gets GH 40 000.
Calculate the mean and median for the data.
Which do you think better represents the data set?

Solution

Step 1: Find the mean salary

10000 + 10000 + 10000 + 10000 + 40000 80000
Mean = ​​______________________________
       ​ = ​_____​ = 16 000​
  
5 5
Thus, the mean salary is GH 16 000 per month.
Step 2: Find the median by arranging the given data in ascending order:
10000, 10000, 10000, 10000, 40000.
There are 5 pieces of data, so the middle piece of data is the 3rd piece.
Thus, the median is = GH10 000 per month
Step 3: Compare the two measures of central tendencies:
We can observe that the mean salary of GH 16,000 does not give even
an estimated salary of any of the employees whereas the median salary
represents the data more effectively. One of the weaknesses of the mean
is that it gets affected by extreme values, which, in this case, is that of the
supervisor. The median is not skewed by this data, but the mean is.

Effect of an extreme value on the mean

The following graphs show how extreme values affect mean and median:
• Symmetric Data
- Data sets whose values are evenly spred around the centre
• Skewed Data
- Data set that are not symmetric

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Figure 5: Effect of an extreme value on the mean

So, the mean can be used when we do not have extreme values in the data but the
median is better if we have extreme values.

Revision Activity: Mean, Median and Mode

To review and reinforce the concepts of mean, mode, and median from raw
data sets and frequency distribution tables follow these instructions.

Instructions:
1. Watch the Videos: Click on the following links to watch videos that
demonstrate how to find the mean, median and mode from both raw data
sets and frequency distribution tables

• Video on Finding Mean, Median and Mode from Raw Data Set
([Link]

• Video on Finding Mean, Median and Mode from Frequency

Distribution Tables ([Link]

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

2. Take Notes: While watching the videos, take notes on the key steps
and methods used to calculate the mean, median and mode. Pay special
attention to any examples provided in the videos.
3. Practice Problems: Think about what raw data/frequency distribution
tables you could use to make your own problems on which to practise.
Use these to challenge your classmates. Ensure all steps are shown, with
calculations clearly written.
4. Review and Discuss: After completing the practice problems, review
your answers with a classmate or in a group. Discuss any difficulties or
questions you might have. If needed, refer back to the videos, or ask your
teacher for clarification.

Use of mathematical language in making

inferences of data
Example: 13

The table below is the summary of cases and recoveries of coronavirus recorded
in various regions in Ghana from March 2020 to 11th August 2022. Use the
information from the table to make recommendations to the government on
resource allocation to the various regions.

Table 15: Cases and recoveries of coronavirus in Ghana from March 2020 to 11th
August 2022

Regions Cases Recovered and Active cases

discharged
Ahafo 1,210 1174 1
Ashanti 22,527 22130 8
Bono east 2523 2422 4
Central 5911 5852 17
Eastern 7425 7267 5
Greater Accra 95723 95362 43
North East 407 396 0
Northern 1882 1850 0
Oti 1015 1006 0
Savannah 316 305 7

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Regions Cases Recovered and Active cases

discharged
Upper east 1801 1738 0
Upper west 945 891 10
Volta 6140 6048 2
Western 8655 8573 7
Western north 1162 1138 10
International 7644 7642 2
Travellers
Total 168,457 166,872 126

Examples of recommendations and their justifications

Recommendation 1: More resources should be allocated to Greater Accra region
and Ashanti region since they recorded the highest cases, i.e., Greater Accra
95723 (56.8%) and Ashanti 22,527 (13.4%).
Recommendation 2: More resources should be allocated to Greater Accra region
and Central region since they have the highest number of active cases, i.e., Greater
Accra 43 (34%) and Central 17 (13.5%).
The two recommendations are based on the data. Each of the recommendation has
a good basis from the given data. You must learn to make such recommendations
based on data and accept alternative views of others since it can also be useful.

Real-life Project on Data collection, analysis and

presentation
Project 1
• In convenient groups, obtain the West Africa Secondary School Certificate
Exams (WASSCE) result of your school for the past five years and analyse
it by looking at the overall differences in the performance by years, by
programme/courses/subject.
• As part of the analysis, obtain the frequencies and percentages, then draw
charts (line, pie, bar etc.) for the data.
• Also, from the analysis make conclusions and give recommendations to the
school.

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Project 2
• Design Student Course Evaluation Questionnaires and use them to collect
data from students in your school.
• Analyse the data and make conclusions and recommendations based of the
results.

Publishing Data Findings

Example 14

i. Make summaries of your results, conclusions and recommendations of your

project and present them using power point, infographics design, Microsoft
word or handwritten notes to the class or at a mini forum (including school
clubs) in the school.
ii. Make oral presentations on the project by explaining the choice of project
topic and its relevance, choice of data collection method(s) and the analysis
and talk about the challenges faced.
iii. Publish the summary of the findings and recommendations of the project on
school notice board or magazines, school social media platforms, etc.

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Classify each of the following data types as primary or secondary data;

a) interviews
b) reports
c) experiments
d) observations
e) published literature
f) databases
2. The data below are the scores of 21 learners in a creative arts test.
Organise it into a grouped frequency distribution table
59, 65, 61, 62, 53, 55, 60, 70, 64, 56, 58, 58, 62, 62, 68, 65, 56, 59, 68, 61,
67
3. Design an interview guide for your school to be used to collect qualitative
data on students who are aspiring for House Prefect’s positions in the
schools.
4. A non-governmental organization (NGO) wants to embark on a
developmental project in your community but would like to know the
most preferrable project the community needs. Suggest the data collection
tool(s) that will be appropriate in seeking the views of the members of the
community.
5. A survey is conducted to ask 15 households how many pets they have in
their home.
The results are as follows:
1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8
Construct both an ungrouped and a grouped frequency table for the data.

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

6. The table shows Russel’s height at 3-year intervals.

Make a line graph to display the data.

Age Height(ft)
3 1.9
6 2.4
9 2.7
12 3.0
15 4.6
18 5.5
21 6.1
24 6.2

7. A survey of 145 people asked them “Which is your favourite fruit?”

Construct a bar chart for the information below:

Fruit People
Apple 35
Orange 30
Banana 10
Kiwifruit 25
Blueberry 40
Grapes 5

8. The table below shows the number of boys and girls in all JHS classes at
Winneba Don Bosco B JHS.
Construct a bar chart for the data.

SEX JHS1 JHS2 JHS3

BOYS 14 19 23
GIRLS 20 18 21

9. Find the mode of the data {14, 16, 16, 16, 17, 16, 18}.

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

10. The ages of the members of a community have been listed below:
{42, 38, 29, 37, 40, 33, 41}
Calculate the median of the given data.
11. Find the mean, median and mode for the following list of values:
13, 18, 13, 14, 13, 16, 14, 21, 13
12. Estimate the mean, median and mode for the data set.

Seconds Frequency
51 - 55 2
56 - 60 7
61 - 65 8
66- 70 4

13. The ages of the 112 people who live on a tropical island are grouped as
follows:

Age Number
0-9 20
10 - 19 21
20 - 29 23
30 - 39 16
40 - 49 11
50 - 59 10
60 - 69 7
70 - 79 3
80 - 89 1

(a) Estimate the mean, median and mode for the data.
(b) Analyse the three central scores (mean, median and mode) calculated
and justify why a particular one best represents the data

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

14. Estimate the mean, median and mode for the data set.

Length (mm) Frequency

150 - 154 5
155 - 159 2
160 - 164 6
165 - 169 8
170 - 174 9
175 - 179 11
180 - 184 6
185 - 189 3

Analyse the three central scores (mean, median and mode) calculated and
justify why a particular one best represents the data.
15. State and explain, with practical examples two differences between mean
and median.
16. Explain, with practical examples the effect of an extreme value on the
mean

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

GLOSSARY
• Data: Raw facts or information.
• Data Organisation: Arranging data systematically.
• Data Analysis: Examining and interpreting data.
• Data Presentation: Showing data visually (charts, graphs).
• Qualitative Data: Descriptive, non-numerical data.
• Quantitative Data: Numerical, measurable data.
• Frequency Distribution: How often values occur in data.
• Mean: Average of data values, found by the sum of data pieces divided by
the total number of pieces of data.
• Median: Middle value in ordered data.
• Mode: Most frequent value in data.
• Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.
• Pie Chart: Circular chart showing parts of a whole.
• Bar Chart: Bars representing different data values.
• Line Graph: Graph showing changes over time.
• Outliers: Data points far from others.
• Trend: General direction of data over time.
• Survey: Method to collect data via questions.
• Census: Data collected from an entire population.
• Sample: Subset of a population for analysis.

EXTENDED READING
• Akrong Series: Core mathematics for Senior High Schools New
International Edition (Pages 645 – 698)
• Aki – Ola series : Core Mathematics for Senior High Schools in West
Africa, Millennium edition 5 (Pages 267 – 294)
• Baffour Asamoah, B. A. (2015). Baffour BA series: Core mathematics.
Accra: Mega Heights, (Pages 259 - 298)

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

REFERENCES
• Akrong Series: Core mathematics for Senior High Schools New
International Edition (Pages 645 – 698)
• Aki – Ola series: Core Mathematics for Senior High Schools in West
Africa, Millennium edition 5 (Pages 267 – 294)
• Baffour Asamoah, B. A. (2015). Baffour BA series: Core mathematics.
Accra: Mega Heights, (Pages 259 - 298)
• Basic mathematics for TTC volume one by [Link] Appau, October 2001

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SECTION 8 DATA ORGANISATION, ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

List of Contributors
NAME INSTITUTION
Janet Waponade OLA SHS
Yamusah Issahaku Kumbungu SHS
Joseph Bakpil Nagbija Nchumuruman SHS, Chinderi
Modzaka Godfred Keta SHTS, Keta

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