Standard Results

R
f (x) f (x)dx

1 x+C
1
xn n+1
xn+1 +C
cos x sin x + C
sin x − cos x + C
ex ex + C
1
x
ln |x| + C

3.2.1 Finding Integrals

1. By parts

We have already seen that: (uv)0 = u0 v + v 0 u.

If we integrate this:
Z Z
0
(uv) dx = u0 v + v 0 u
Z
⇒ uv = u0 v + v 0 u
Z Z
so, u v = uv − v 0 u
0
(29)

e.g. Find:
Z
x sin (x) dx

Let:
Z
f= x sin (x) dx, v = x, and u0 = sin x.

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 Therefore:
Z
f = − cos xx − 1(− cos x) dx

= − cos xx + sin x + C

 d 
Check! (−x cos x + sin x) = − cos x + x sin x + cos x = x sin x
dx

2. By substitution

For example, suppose we want to find

Write

u = x2 + 1, (30)

du du
so that dx
= 2x or rearranging to give dx = 2x
. Substituting all ‘x’ variables for ‘u’
variables gives
Z Z
2 du
x cos(x + 1) dx = x cos u
2x
Z
1
= cos u du
2
1
= sin u + C
2
1
= sin (x2 + 1) + C.
2

As another example, suppose we want to find:

Z 1
1
(1 − x2 )− 2 dx (31)
0

30
Choose x = sin u, so that dx = cos u du. The integral then becomes,

Z 1
1  1
cos u du = u 0 = 1.
0 cos u

31
4 Complex Numbers
⇒ Library link ([Link] numbers/ )
⇒ Wolfram link ([Link]
⇒ Video link ([Link]
differential-equations-and-linear-algebra-fall-2011/part-i/lecture-1-the-complex-numbers/ )
⇒ Video link ([Link]

4.1 Motivation
It was not so long ago that equations like x + 5 = 0 or 2x = 3 were considered absurd - how
3
can you have −5 or 2
cows? Nevertheless, these mathematical representations of negative and
fractional numbers are extremely useful.

Along similar lines, it wasn’t very long ago that the equation: x2 = −1, was consid-
ered ridiculous, for how can a squared number be negative? But if we proceed anyway and
define a solution, it turns out to be very useful indeed.

4.1.1 Graphical concept

How might we visualise the solution to: x2 × 1 = 9 ? That is, what transformation applied
twice to 1, gives 9? The answer of course is 3 or −3.

But let’s consider, x2 × 1 = −1. What transformation, applied twice to 1, gives −1?

We can express this as a rotation of 2 × 90◦ , (see Figure 4).

A rotation of 2 × −90◦ also works as in Figure 5,

To make sense of this, we need to define a new “imaginary dimension”; i or −i is what becomes
of 1 or −1 after a rotation of 90◦ or −90◦ .

What happens if we keep multiplying by i?

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 imaginary

real
-1 1
Figure 4

imaginary

-1 1
real

-i

Figure 5

1, i, i2 , i3 , i4 , · · · = 1, i, −1, −i, 1, i, −1, −i, 1, . . . as depicted below in Figure 6.

4.2 Definition
A complex number z is written (x, y) or x + iy where x is the real part of z and y is the
imaginary part. The number i satisfies i2 + 1 = 0. For any complex number z, its real part x
is x = <(z) or Re(z), and the complex (or imaginary) part y, is y = =(z) or Im(y). If y = 0,

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