Reproduction:

- Process by which organism can produce young ones of their own kind for the continuation of
its race.
- Human beings are dioecious or unisexual i.e. male and female reproductive system found in
separate individuals.
- Primary sex organ in male is testes.
- Primary sex organ in female is ovary.
- The growth of the sex organs are controlled by Gonadotropin hormone secreted by anterior
pituitary gland.

Male reproductive organ:

In male, reproductive organs are:
1. Testes
2. Epididymis
3. Vas deferens
4. Ejaculatory duct
5. Urethra
6. Penis
7. Accessory glands

1. Testes:
- They are the primary sex organs in male.
- They are in pair of oval and pinkish bodies of about 4.5cm long and 2.5cm wide.
- Present just outside the abdominal cavity inside the scrotum.
- Such position of testes just outside abdominal cavity as it requires 2-3℃ lower temperature
than the body temperature for the production of
sperms.
- During foetal development testes are present
inside the abdominal cavity just below kidney but
descent down into the scrotum before birth.
- Testes are held in sectoral sac by thick fibrous
tissue called spermatic cord or gubernaculum.
- Testes are differentiated into 3 layers.
[Link] vaginalis: outer covering of testis.
ii. Tunica albuginea: fibrous covering around the
testis.
iii. Tunica vasculosa: inner layer consisting of a network of blood capillaries.
- Internally, testes divided into 200-300 testicular lobules by septa.
- In each lobule, there are about 1-4 seminiferous tubules which are functional and structural unit
of testes.
- Seminiferous tubules open into straight tubules called tubuli recti.
- These tubuli recti forms a network of small tubules called rete testis and end to epididymis with
help of 12-20 efferent ductules.
- Seminiferous tubule is lined with germinal epithelium consisting of two types of cells.
[Link] cells: These cells produce spermatozoa by spermatogenesis process.
ii. Sertoli cells: also called nurse cells and supply nourishment to developing sperms.
- In between seminiferous tubules there are group of rounded interstitial or Leydig cells.
- These cells are endocrine in function and produce male hormone called Testosterone.

2. Epididymis:
- Long, highly convoluted tubule measuring about 6m.
- Lies outside testis enclosing it.
- It is divided into 3 parts:
i. Caput epididymis: Broad anterior part which receives efferent ductules.
ii. Corpus epididymis: middle part, narrower than caput. Stores sperm for short duration.
iii. Cauda epididymis: posterior end which opens into vas deferens.
- It stores sperms and secretes a fluid which nourishes the sperms.
3. Vas deferens:
- Also called seminal duct.
- Thick walled muscular tube about 40cm in length.
- It emerges from cauda epididymis and ascends into abdominal cavity.
- It forms a loop around urinary bladder and then joins by a duct from seminal vesicle to form
ejaculatory duct.
- It carries sperms from testis to urethra.
4. Ejaculatory duct:
- Two short tubes measuring about 2 cm in length.
- Each duct is formed by the union of ducts from seminal vesicle and vas deferens.
- These ducts carry the mixture of the sperms and secretion of seminal vesicle.
5. Urethra:
- A tube arising from urinary bladder about 20cm long.
- Common tube for the discharge of urine and semen.
6. Penis:
- Erectable and highly muscular organ used for copulation.
- Composed of three columns of erectile tissues.
- Two are dorsolateral and made of yellow fibrous ligament called corpora cavernosa.
- One is corpus spongiosum.
- Tip of penis enlarges slightly to form glans penis which is highly sensitive.
- Penis is enveloped by a fold of skin called prepuce.
- Erection of penis is due to the rush of arterial blood into the sinuses of corpus spongiosum.
- Function of penis is to deposit semen into the vagina.
7. Accessory glands:
a) Seminal vesicle:
- Two small fibro muscular pouches lying on posterior side of urinary bladder.
- Each seminal vesicle opens into short ejaculatory duct.
- These vesicles secrete a yellowish alkaline fluid containing fructose that provides energy to
sperm.
b) Prostate gland:
- Single large gland situated behind urinary bladder.
- Discharges its secretion directly into the urethra.
- Secretion is thin milky and slightly acidic.
- Secretion contains lipids, bicarbonate ions and some amount of citric acid.
- Contributes 15-30% of total volume of semen.
- Helps in mobility of sperms.
c)Cowper’s gland:
- Paired pea sized glands situated below the prostate gland at the base of the penis.
- Secretion is alkaline and serve as lubricant for smooth movement of penis during copulation.

Semen: fluid ejaculated at the time of sexual intercourse. It contains sperms and secretions of
seminal vesicles, prostate gland and Cowper’s gland. In male humans, the amount of semen
discharged per ejaculation varies from 2.5 to 3.5ml. 1ml semen contains 100millions sperms.
It is slightly acidic in nature (pH=7.5).

Female Reproductive organs:

In female, reproductive organs are:

1. Ovaries
2. Fallopian tubes (oviducts)
3. Uterus
4. Vagina
5. Vulva
6. Accessory glands

1. Ovaries:
- They are the primary sex
organs in female.
- Pair of small grayish pink
and almond shaped.
- Situated in the abdominal
cavity one on either side of vertebral column behind kidney.
- Internally, ovary is differentiated into 3 parts:
Germinal epithelium: outer covering lined with cuboidal cells.
Tunica albuginea: delicate layer of connective tissue beneath germinal epithelium.
 Stroma: inner mass of connective tissue (outer cortex and inner medulla).
- There are about 40000 ovarian follicles which develop from germinal epithelial cells.
- Immature ovarian follicle are called primordial follicles.
- Mature ovarian follicle is called Graafian follicle which develops into ovum or egg.
- Ovum is surrounded by two transparent membrane: Zona pellucida and Zona radiata.
- Matured ovum is released upon the rupture of ovary.
- The release ovum from ovary is called ovulation.
- The ruptured follicle is filled with blood clot to form corpus luteum.
- Corpus luteum secretes progesterone hormone which activates the uterus and
mammary glands for their development.

2. Fallopian tubes (Oviduct):

- These are pair of long muscular and ciliated tubes of 10-20cm in length.
- They arise near the ovary and extends up to uterus.
- It is differentiated into 4 parts:
[Link]: funnel shaped situated close to the ovary and has finger like
projections called fimbriae to collect ovum.
ii. Ampulla: widest curved part behind the infundibulum where fertilization takes
place.
[Link]: short, narrow and straight part of fallopian tube.
iv. Uterine: just behind isthmus and close to the uterus which communicates with the
uterine cavity.
3. Uterus:
- It is hollow, thick walled, muscular and pear shaped organ.
- Highly elastic organ specialized for development of embryo for nine months during
pregnancy.
- The cavity of uterus can expand during pregnancy.
- Wall of uterus has three layers: Peritoneum, Myometrium and Endometrium.
- Uterus is divided into three parts:
[Link]: Upper dome shaped above opening of fallopian tubes.
ii. Body: broad at above and narrow towards the lower side.
[Link]: lower portion, connected to the body of uterus by an opening called internal
OS and to vagina below by opening called external OS.
4. Vagina:
- It is fibro muscular tubular female copulatory organ.
- About 10-12 cm long extending from cervix to outside of the body.
- It provides passage for menstrual flow.
- Serve as to receive sperm during sexual intercourse.
- Acts as birth canal during child birth.
5. Vulva:
- External genitalia collectively called vulva.
- Consists of following parts:
i) Mono pubis: it is anterior portion consisting of pubic hair.
 ii) Clitoris: it is small erectile organ which is homologous to penis.
iii) Labia majora: it is two thick large fold of skin which forms the boundary of vulva. It is
partially covered with pubic hair and possess large number of sebaceous glands.
iv) Labia minora: These are two small folds of skin which lie between labia majora. It lacks
pubic hair but have many sebaceous glands. The area between labia minora is called
vestibule.
6. Bartholin’s glands:
- These are two bean shaped glands one on either side of vaginal opening.
- Secretes a fluid which lubricates the vulva during sex.
7. Mammary glands:
- Pair of rounded glands situated on ventral thoracic
wall.
- Breasts are covered with skin and has nipple in
centre made up of erectile tissue.
- Nipple is surrounded by pigmented are called
areola and has many sebaceous glands called
areolar glands.
- Internally, each mammary gland has 15-25 lobules.
- Each lobule is made of group of milk secreting
gland cells called alveoli.
- The ducts from different lobules unite to form lactiferous duct towards nipple.
- These lactiferous duct expands to form lactiferous sinuses which stores milk.
- The formation of milk is controlled by prolactin.
- Ejection of milk is controlled by oxytocin.

Menstrual cycle (Ovarian cycle)

- A Series of cyclic changes that occur in reproductive tract of human females within
periodicity of 28 days.
- Characterized by loss of vaginal blood for few days.
- Menstruation occurs at about (11-14yrs) of age and continue till 50-55years.
- From puberty to menopause, the reproductive organs: ovaries, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands and external genitalia undergo series of changes in periodic manner
at the interval of 28days.
- Menstruation is influenced by certain hormones secreted by pituitary gland and
ovaries.
- It also occurs in monkeys, gorillas, chimpanzee, etc.
It involves three phases:
i) Menstrual phase or bleeding phase:
- Called the menstruation or menstrual cycle.
- It involves the discharge of blood, connective tissues and mucus.
- It is caused of cast off epithelial lining of endometrium of uterus.
- It continues for 3-5 days.
- At this time, level of oestrogen and progesterone is very low in blood.
- Menstruation is observed when ovum remains unfertilized.
- There is loss of 50-100ml of blood along with the connective tissue and mucus
through vaginal orifice.
- Also called weeping of uterus for lost ovum.
ii) Proliferative or follicular or ovulatory phase:
- This phase lasts for 9-10 days (from 5th to 14th day of menstruation).
- During this phase there is repair and proliferation (multiplication) of damaged
endometrium of the uterus and ruptured blood vessels.
- The release of FSH from anterior pituitary gland stimulates the development of
graafian follicles. This phase is called follicular phase.
- Graafian follicles helps to increase the oestrogen hormone which is maximum on 12 th
day of menstrual cycle.
iii) Luteal or secretory phase:
- This phase lasts for 12-14 days (from 14th to 28th day of menstrual cycle).
- Luteinizing hormone is secreted by anterior pituitary gland which stimulate the
ovulation.
- The ruptured follicles form the corpus luteum which secretes the progesterone
hormone.
- Progesterone hormone inhibits further maturation of any follicle from ovary.
- Progesterone hormone also stimulates the thickening of endometrium of uterus for
implantation of fertilized ovum.
- If the fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum reduce their size to form corpus albicans
which continuously produce progesterone hormone during pregnancy period and make
proper wall of uterus for implantation of foetus and stops menstruation.
- If fertilization absent, the corpus luteum degenerates and level of both progesterone
and oestrogen hormone decreases. The blood vessels constricts and prevent blood
supply to endometrium resulting in cast off endometrium along with blood vessels for
another menstrual cycle.
Menopause: Period when ovulation and menstrual cycle stops. It is the end phase of
reproductive life of women. It occurs at age of 50-55years. Female loss ability to
reproduce and ovaries become less responsive to FSH and LH.