INDIAN INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY HYDERABAD

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VIGHNESH EE24BTECH11205
DR

MAHENDAR EE24BTECH11213

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

Under the guidance of Gajendranath Sir

EXPERIMENT-3

February 21, 2025

Contents

1 Introduction To Bode Plots 2

1.1 Phase Calculation of a Low-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Phase Angle Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Generalized Phase Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 EXPERIMENT 10

3 Results 15

4 Conclusion 16
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Chapter 1

Introduction To Bode Plots

[1]
Bode plots are a useful way to visualize how a system responds to different frequencies.
Developed by Hendrik Bode, these plots consist of two graphs—one showing the magni-
tude (or gain) and the other showing the phase shift, both plotted against frequency on
a logarithmic scale. They help engineers and researchers understand how signals behave
when they pass through a system, making them an essential tool in electronics, control
systems, and signal processing.
One of the main reasons Bode plots are so important is that they make it easier to
analyze and design systems that work with different frequencies. Instead of dealing with
complex mathematical equations, engineers can simply look at these plots to understand
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how a system amplifies or attenuates signals at various frequencies. Bode plots also help
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in determining stability by providing insights into phase and gain margins, which are
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key factors in designing reliable systems. Since they use logarithmic scaling, they can
represent a wide range of frequencies in a clear and manageable way.
Bode plots are especially useful when working with filters, such as low-pass and
high-pass filters. In a low-pass filter, for example, the magnitude plot remains steady at
lower frequencies but starts to drop sharply after a certain point, indicating that higher
frequencies are being blocked. On the other hand, a high-pass filter does the opposite,
allowing higher frequencies to pass while reducing the strength of lower-frequency sig-
nals. By analyzing these plots, engineers can fine-tune filters for applications like audio
processing, communication systems, and noise reduction.

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 LOW PASS FILTERS
A low pass filter is a type of electronic filter that allows signals with lower frequencies to
pass through while blocking or reducing higher-frequency signals. It plays a crucial role
in various applications such as audio processing, signal conditioning, and communication
systems.
The basic working principle of a low pass filter is simple: it permits signals below
a certain frequency threshold, known as the cutoff frequency, to pass unaffected while
attenuating frequencies above this limit. This can be achieved using different configura-
tions, including passive and active components. Passive low pass filters rely on resistors
and capacitors to achieve the desired effect, whereas active low pass filters use operational
amplifiers for better performance and signal control. In modern digital systems, low pass
filtering is also implemented through software-based algorithms.
Mathematically, a simple RC (resistor-capacitor) low pass filter is described by the
transfer function
1
H(s) =
1 + sRC
where R is the resistance, C is the capacitance, and s is the complex frequency variable
in the Laplace domain. Low-pass filters have numerous real-life applications across various
fields, including audio processing, communication systems, and medical devices. In audio
engineering, they are used to eliminate high-frequency noise, ensuring clear and smooth
sound output in speakers and recording systems. In communication systems, low-pass
filters help in demodulating signals by removing high-frequency interference, enhancing
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signal quality in radios, televisions, and mobile networks. They are also crucial in medical
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imaging, such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), where they filter out unwanted noise to
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provide accurate heart rate monitoring. s represents the complex frequency variable.
This equation helps determine how the filter responds to different input frequencies.
Low pass filters are widely used in practical applications. In audio systems, they
help eliminate high-frequency noise, resulting in clearer sound quality. In image process-
ing, they are used for blurring effects by removing sharp transitions in pixel intensity. In
control systems, they smooth out signal fluctuations to ensure stable operation. Addition-
ally, in communication systems, they help remove unwanted high-frequency interference,
improving the clarity of transmitted signals.
Overall, the low pass filter is an essential component in both analog and digital sys-
tems, playing a key role in enhancing signal quality and ensuring smooth system perfor-
mance.

10kΩ
Vin Vout

100µF

GND

A low-pass filter allows low-frequency signals to pass while attenuating higher frequencies.
The simplest form is a first-order RC low-pass filter, consisting of a resistor (R) and a
capacitor (C) in series, with the output taken across the capacitor.
The circuit’s transfer function is derived from voltage division:

3
 Vout (s) 1
H(s) = =
Vin (s) 1 + sRC
where:
• s = jω (Laplace transform variable)
• ω is the angular frequency in radians per second
• j is the imaginary unit
The magnitude of the transfer function is:
1
|H(jω)| = q
1 + (ωRC)2

Expressed in decibels (dB):

 
1
20 log10 |H(jω)| = 20 log10  q 
1 + (ωRC)2

1
At the cutoff frequency ωc = RC
, the gain is:
!
1
20 log10 √ = −3 dB
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The phase angle θ(ω) of the transfer function is given by:

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θ(ω) = tan−1 (−ωRC)

• At very low frequencies (ω → 0), θ(ω) ≈ 0◦

• At ω = ωc , θ(ω) = −45◦
• At very high frequencies (ω → ∞), θ(ω) → −90◦

Magnitude Plot:
• At low frequencies (ω ≪ ωc ), the gain is approximately 0 dB.
• After ωc , the gain decreases at -20 dB/decade (one-tenth increase in frequency
reduces gain by 20 dB).
Phase Plot:
• The phase starts at 0° at low frequencies.
• It decreases gradually, reaching -45° at ωc , and approaches -90° at high frequencies.
The Bode plot of a first-order RC low-pass filter consists of a magnitude plot that
rolls off at -20 dB/decade beyond the cutoff frequency and a phase plot that transitions
from 0° to -90°. This analysis helps in designing and understanding filtering effects in
various electronic applications.

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 Bode Plot of Low-Pass Filter

−10
Magnitude (dB)

−20

−30

−40

100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Frequency (Hz)

Bode Phase Plot of Low-Pass Filter

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0
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−1,000
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Phase (Degrees)

−2,000

−3,000

−4,000

−5,000

100 101 102 103 104 105 106

Frequency (Hz)

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 SINGLE CASCADE FILTER

R1 R2 Vout

C1 C2

• ⇒ Increased Gain
A single-stage amplifier may not provide sufficient gain, whereas cascading multiple
stages amplifies the signal significantly, improving overall performance.

• ⇒ Better Filtering Performance

In filters, cascading multiple stages sharpens the cutoff response and improves at-
tenuation of unwanted frequencies compared to a single-stage design.

• ⇒ Improved Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

By carefully designing cascaded stages, noise can be minimized, leading to a clearer
and stronger output signal.

• ⇒ Higher Bandwidth
In communication systems, cascading helps extend the bandwidth of amplifiers and
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filters, allowing efficient signal transmission.

• ⇒ Greater Stability and Control

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Cascading enables better control over the circuit parameters, reducing distortion
and ensuring a more stable system operation.

• ⇒ Enhanced Selectivity in Filters

In filters, cascading results in a steeper roll-off, improving the ability to distinguish
between desired and undesired frequencies.

A cascaded filter consists of multiple filtering stages connected in series. Each stage
contributes to the overall attenuation and phase shift. The total transfer function of an
n-stage cascaded filter is obtained by multiplying the individual transfer functions.
For a single-stage low-pass RC filter, the transfer function is given by:
1
H1 (s) =
1 + sRC
When multiple such stages are cascaded, the overall transfer function becomes:
n
1

H(s) =
1 + sRC
where n represents the number of cascaded stages.
The magnitude response is given by:
n
1
|H(jω)| =
1 + jωRC

6
 Converting this into decibels (dB):
 
1
Magnitude (dB) = 20n log10  q 
1 + (ωRC)2
The phase response is:
̸ H(jω) = −n tan−1 (ωRC)
The cutoff frequency fc of a single-stage RC filter is given by:
1
fc =
2πRC
For an n-stage cascaded filter, the effective cutoff frequency is adjusted as:
1 1
fc′ = fc · (2 n − 1)− 2
which lowers the cutoff frequency as the number of stages increases.
The overall magnitude roll-off beyond the cutoff frequency follows:
Roll-off rate = −20n dB/decade
which means that each additional stage increases the attenuation rate, improving
signal suppression at higher frequencies.
The phase shift also increases with more stages, leading to a total phase shift of:
Total Phase Shift = −90n◦ (for high frequencies)
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This means that for a two-stage cascaded filter, the total phase shift approaches
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−180◦ , and for three stages, it approaches −270◦ .

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By increasing the number of cascaded stages, the filter achieves a steeper roll-off,
better suppression of unwanted signals, and an improved transition band. However,
the increased phase shift and potential signal distortion must be considered in practical
applications.
[colback=orange!20, colframe=orange!80, title=Note] This calculations are for Cas-
cading of low pass filter with the same low pass filter multiple times.

1.1 Phase Calculation of a Low-Pass Filter

A low-pass filter allows low-frequency signals to pass while attenuating high-frequency
signals. The phase shift of a first-order RC low-pass filter is derived as follows.

1.1.1 Transfer Function

The transfer function for a first-order RC low-pass filter is:
1
H(jω) = (1.1)
1 + jωRC
where:
• R is the resistance (Ω)
• C is the capacitance (F)
• ω = 2πf is the angular frequency

7
1.1.2 Phase Angle Calculation
The phase shift θ(ω) of the filter is given by:

θ(ω) = arg(H(jω)) = − tan−1 (ωRC) (1.2)

At specific frequencies:

• At low frequencies (ω ≪ 1/RC), θ ≈ 0◦ (no phase shift).

• At the cutoff frequency (ω = 1/RC), the phase shift is:

θ = − tan−1 (1) = −45◦ (1.3)

• At high frequencies (ω ≫ 1/RC), θ ≈ −90◦ , meaning the output lags the input
significantly.

1.1.3 Generalized Phase Response

Expressing the phase shift in terms of frequency:
!
−1 f
θ(f ) = − tan (1.4)
fc
1
where fc = 2πRC is the cutoff frequency.
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This shows a gradual transition from 0◦ at low frequencies to −90◦ at high frequen-
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cies, indicating that the low-pass filter introduces progressive phase lag as frequency
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increases. The phase difference θ can be calculated using the formula:

∆t
θ= × 360◦ (1.5)
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where:

• ∆t is the time difference,

• T = 1
f
is the time period of the signal.

Calculations for Given Frequencies: For f = 0.159 Hz:

1
T = ≈ 6.289 sec (1.6)
0.159
0.96
θ= × 360◦ ≈ 54.9◦ (1.7)
6.289
For f = 1.59 Hz:
1
T = ≈ 0.629 sec (1.8)
1.59
0.10
θ= × 360◦ ≈ 57.2◦ (1.9)
0.629
For f = 15.9 Hz:
1
T = ≈ 0.06289 sec (1.10)
15.9

8
 0.010
θ= × 360◦ ≈ 57.2◦ (1.11)
0.06289
For f = 159 Hz:
1
T = ≈ 0.006289 sec (1.12)
159
0.0014
θ= × 360◦ ≈ 80.1◦ (1.13)
0.006289
Thus, the phase differences for the respective frequencies are approximately:

• 0.159 Hz: 54.9◦

• 1.59 Hz: 78.2◦

• 15.9 Hz: 120.2◦

• 159 Hz: 176.1◦

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Chapter 2

EXPERIMENT

[2]

10kΩ
Vin Vout

10µF

GND
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Figure 2.1: phase1

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 Image Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)

[Link]

0.1f 4.97 -0.04

[Link]

f 3.5 -3.1

[Link]

10f 0.49 -20.03

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[Link]
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100f 0.050 -40.2

[Link]

1000f 0.005 -59.6

Table 2.1: Table with Images, Frequencies, Output Voltages, and Bode Plot Values

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 Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)
0.1f 4.97 -0.04
f 3.5 -3.1
10f 049 -20.03
100f 0.050 -40.2
1000f 0.005 -59.6

Table 2.2: Frequency Response of Low-Pass Filter

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Figure 2.2: phase2

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10kΩ 10kΩ
Vin Vout

100µF 100µF

GND

SINGLE CASCADING

DOUBLE CASCADING

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 Image Frequency (f ) Output Voltage (V) Bode Plot (dB)

[Link]

0.1f 4.99 -0.01

[Link]

f 2.79 -5.04

[Link]

10f 0.009 -54.19

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[Link]

100f 0.0001 -114.4

[Link]

1000f 0 -1
Table 2.3: Table with Images, Frequencies, Output Voltages, and Bode Plot Values

Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)

0.1f 4.99 -0.01
f 2.79 -5.04
10f 0.009 -54.19
100f 0.0001 -114.4
1000f 0 -1

Table 2.4: Frequency Response of Low-Pass Filter

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 Image Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)

[Link]

0.1f 4.92 -0.13

[Link]

f 1.77 -9.1

[Link]

10f 0.004 -60.8

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[Link]

100f 0.00 -120.2

[Link]

1000f 0.00 -178.22

Table 2.5: Table with Images, Frequencies, Output Voltages, and Bode Plot Values

Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (V) 20 log |H(jω)| (dB)

0.1f 4.92 -0.13
f 1.77 -9.1
10f 0.004 -60.8
100f 0.00 -120.2
1000f 0.00 -178.22

Table 2.6: Frequency Response of Low-Pass Filter

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Chapter 3

Results

[3]

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Chapter 4

Conclusion

[4]

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