1.
Cells
Plant cells
Basic structured and functional units of life.
●
● Cellular=slime mold.
● Very very small, use a microscope to see them.
Cells can exist:
● Singly as independent unicellular
organisms.
● As part of multicellular organisms
● (such cells are modified for specific
functions).
Cell Wall
● Every plant cell has a cell wall. The cell wall
is made of cellulose and is strong and stiff,
holding the plant cell in shape.
Cell membrane
● All cells have a cell membrane. The cell
membrane is very thin and flexible. It is like
the thin skin of a soap bubble. It lies along
the inner edge of the cell membrane and
Controls what goes in and out of the
cell—made of fats and proteins. These are
also present in all living cells.
● Porous (Permeable to water, air, or other
fluids.)
● Partially permeable.
Cytoplasm
● All cells have cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is like a
clear jelly. Chemical reactions happen
inside the cytoplasm. These reactions keep
the cell alive.
Nucleus
● Most cells have a nucleus. The nucleus
Controls the activities of the cell. This
contains genetic material.
Sap Vacuole
● This is a large, fluid-filled space inside a
plant cell. The liquid inside it is a solution
of sugars and other substances dissolved in
water. The solution is called cell sap.
Mitochondria
● All plant cells have mitochondria (singular:
mitochondrion). Inside mitochondria, energy
is released from food.
Chloroplast
● Plant cells exposed to sunlight often
contain chloroplasts. These are where plants
make food using photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts look green because they
contain a green substance called
chlorophyll.
Structure of genetic material:
● Genetic material is packed tightly into
chromatin
● Chromatin form chromosomes
What are chromosomes?
● They are thread-like structures located inside
the nucleus of animal and plant cells.
Animal cells
● The estimated 100 trillion animal cells in
animals/humans.
● Humans/We are animals, we have these cells in
our body.
● Like plant cells, they have cytoplasm, cell
membrane, mitochondria, and a nucleus.
Specialized cells
ifferentiation (Modification/adaptation of cell
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structure for specialized functions).
● Differences in size, shape, and structure
(specialized structures).
Perform different specific functions.
●
● Special chemical reactions in cytoplasm.
● E.g. Synthesis of special kinds of
proteins/enzymes.
What are specialized cells?
● Specialized cells are cells designed to carry out
a particular role in the body, like red blood cells
and nerve cells.
Red blood cells
Function: Carry oxygen
Nucleus absent
● Allows the cell to carry more Hb (hemoglobin) for
absorption of oxygen.
Cytoplasm
● Has hemoglobin (Hb)
● Hb binds with oxygen (reversibly)
Flattened biconcave shape
● Increases total surface area for diffusion of
oxygen into and out of the RBC.
Neurons
● Neurons are typically classified into three types
based on their function. Sensory neurons
respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light
that affect the cells of the sensory organs.
Ciliated cells
● Ciliated cells are adapted in the respiratory
tract to form an epithelial lining of coordinated
metachronal ciliary activity that provides the
propelling force for the transport of mucus
along the airways. This mechanism is central to
the maintenance of patent airways and
pulmonary homeostasis.
2 . Materials and their
structure
Solids, Liquids and Gasses
Solids
articles are very close and have a fixed shape.
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Forces stop the particles from moving around; they
can only vibrate.
Liquids
In liquid, the particles are very close together and
cannot be compressed. They touch each other and
can also move past each other.
Gases
he particles can move quickly in all directions,
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they can also move easily because there areno
attractive forcesbetween them.
Changes of state
Changing state
If you heat water and it reaches 100oC, it will boil.
All of the water changes to steam.
Steam water is heated to the point that turns into
gas.
Measuring volume
he curved thing on the top is called the meniscus.
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If you want to measure, always measure the bottom
side of the meniscus.
The water cycle
E vaporation- liquid to gas
Transpiration- water evaporates into the
atmosphere through plants
Condensation- forming into a cloud
process Explanation
Evaporation the process of a liquid changing to a gas, especially by heating
ranspiratio
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n the process of losing water through the surface or skin of a body or a plant
arm air
W arm air rises because it is less dense (crowded) than cold air. As it grows, it carries water
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rises vapor upward.
ondensatio
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n The process by which water vapour in the air is changed into liquid water.
he process in which atmospheric water falls onto the Earth's surface. This includes rain,
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Precipitation snow, sleet, and hail.
urface
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runoff all water flowing downhill over the surface of land via spontaneously formed channels
Infiltration The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.
roundwater
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store The water is stored underground in aquifers.
Throughflow The horizontal movement of water through the soil.
toms, elements, and the Periodic
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Table
Atoms
here are different types of atoms. A substance
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made of just one kind of atom is called anelement.
Each type of atom has different properties. (for
more info refer to page52)
luminum - Al
A
Zinc, Zn
Lead, Pb
Copper, CU
Iron, Fe
Bromine, Br
Materials and their structure
Compounds
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium Chloride
Particle diagrams
alcium oxide, CaO
C
Carbon Dioxide, CO2
Hydrogen Sulfide, H2S
Calcium Carbonate, CACO3
Sodium Hydroxide, NaO
H
3. Forces and energy
Types of Energy
Energy name Description tore,
S
Transfer
Kinetic nergy stored due to
e Store
the movement of an
object
Chemical E nergy stored in Store
food, batteries, and
chemical fuels such
as wood, oil, and
coal
Thermal eat energy stored
h tore or
S
in hot objects and Transfer
transferred to colder
objects
Elastic potential nergy stored When
e Store
things are stretched
or squeezed to
change their shape
ravitational
G E nergy is stored Store
potential When an object is
lifted away from the
source of gravity
Electric he flow of current in a
T Store
circuit transfers electrical
energy
Sound E nergy transferred from Transfer
vibrating objects
Light isible energy from
V Transfer
luminous objects (objects
that give out their light)
that you can see
Kinetic:
ny object that is moving has kinetic energy.
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Eg: a car traveling down a highway
Chemical:
n object that stores chemical energy.
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Eg: batteries, food, candles Burning
Thermal:
n object that Transfers heat to colder objects to store in.
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Eg: toaster, kettle, baking in an oven
Elastic potential:
. Grouping and
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identifying organisms
4.1- Characteristics of living organisms
If a thing has all or one of these characteristics,
they are called anorganism(a living thing)
Nutrition- eating for energy
Growth- growing throughout its life
Movement- living things move
Sensitivity- the ability to sense changes around
them
Excretion- getting rid of waste products
Reproduction- producing young
Respiration- food is broken down inside cells to
provide energy s
4.2- Viruses
- V
irusesare tiny. You need a special type of
microscope (electron microscope) to see them.
- They are not made of cells.
- T his is a more complicated diagram (I need help
finding a simple one online). The green outer layer
is a coat made out of protein, and there are pegs
on the outside of it. The inner areas contain a
substance called RNA, which is a set of instructions
for making new viruses.
- How they replicate: Viruses cannot do anything on
their own. They have to go inside a living cell
before they can photocopy themselves(not really
heheh). When viruses are in the cell, each one
bursts open and forces the cell to do what the RNA
says (lowkey like a gangster hold up) this is called
replication.It kills the cell, and then the viruses
come out of the cell, ready to infect more.
.3- What is a species?
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- One kind of organism is called a species.
- Organismsin aspeciesshare the same
characteristicsbut are not identical.
- If animals from 2 different species breed, the
offspring isinfertile.
4.4- Dichotomous keys
● Adichotomous keyis a tool used to identify
organisms based on their characteristics. The word
"dichotomous" means "divided into two parts." It
works by providing a series of choices that lead
you step-by-step to the correct identification.
● At each step, you are given two options. Depending
on which one matches the organism's
haracteristics, you move on to the next step, and
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so on, until you identify the organism.
For example:
1.Does the organism have feathers?
○ Yes → It is a bird.
○ No → Go to step 2.
2.Does the organism have fur?
○ Yes → It is a mammal.
○ No → It might be a reptile or a fish.
6. Earth Physics
6.1-Sound waves
- T hings that vibrate make sounds. For example,
when you hit a table, it vibrates and makes a
sound.
- Sounds come in all pitches and loudness.
- When an object vibrates forward, the air in front of
it is pushed forward, and particles in the air move
back and forward in time with the sound, and this
is called a sound wave.
- Speed of sound waves in air = 343 meters per
second
- Sound can travel through everything (solid, liquid,
gas) except for vacuums (space). Space has no
particles, so there is nothing to vibrate, and
therefore no sound in space.
6.2- Reflections of Sound
- All sound waves can be reflected off surfaces. If a
sound wave hits a wall, it will come back.
- They reflect best on smooth, flat surfaces, and not
very well, on soft, curvy surfaces.
- The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo.
- Usage of echoes in the real world: Dolphins and
whales use echolocation to communicate with one
another, and boats also use echoes to figure out
how deep the water is under the boat. Some
theaters and recording studios are designed to
stop echoes, with spiky walls and less flat surfaces
to minimize echoes ruining the music.
- V
ery important :Use this equation to figure out
distances using sound and and stuff: Speed x Time
÷ 2 = Distance
6.3- Structure of the Earth
- T he earth is about 4500 million years old and has 4
basic layers in it. The crust, mantle, outer core,
and inner core.
- The crust is solid rock, and the mantle is molten
rock. The outer core is molten metal, mainly
composed of iron and nickel, and the inner core is
solid and also composed of mainly iron and nickel.
- The earth’s crust is made up of tectonic plates. The
ones under the ocean are called oceanic plates,
and the ones that form the continents are called
continental plates.
6.4- Changes in the Earth
- P
late boundariesare where tectonic plates meet.
Geological changehappens to them. Most GC is
slow, but some can be fast and violent. Geological
change includes earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
he Pacific Ring Of Fire is where many plate boundaries
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meet, and most volcanic eruptions happen here.
- Movement of plates-
Plates moving together: Some plates may slide under
one another, and the bottom plate usually sinks into
the mantle. This is calledsubduction.
lates moving apart: When they move apart, they break
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and crack as they become thinner than normal. Lava
rises out from the mantle and forms a new crust with
new rock, which causes avolcano.
lates sliding past: Plates are large and heavy, so there
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is a lot of friction between them. Over time, they stick
together, which causes force on the tectonic plates,
and when the pressure eventually becomes too much,
nd causes a violent shaking of the ground, also
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known as anearthquake (Measured in magnitude).
F old mountains- Sometimes when plates move
together, rocks squash together and fold upwards,
formingfold mountains.
olcanoes- Usually formed at plate boundaries, when
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magma rises through cracks in the earth’s surface. At
the surface, it erupts to form lava flows and ash. (Lava
is the name for liquid rock on the surface, magma for
underground), when the lava and ash cool, they form
new rocks, so every time a volcano erupts, it grows in
size. Some volcanoes are active and may erupt at any
given moment, and others are dormant, which means
they have not erupted in years. Extinct volcanoes will
never erupt again.
6.5- Solar and Lunar eclipses
- Solar eclipse: Sun - Moon - Earth
- Lunar eclipse: Sun - Earth - Moon
- If you are in the middle of the shadows, you
observe a total eclipse, but otherwise, you get a
partial eclipse.
- Eclipses only happen when the sun, moon, and
earth are exactly in a straight line.
- The darkest part of the shadow is called the
umbra, and the lighter part is called the
penumbra.
- Annular solar eclipses are when the moon is the
farthest from Earth as it can go.
- Average amount per year:
Solar- 2-5 times or none
Lunar- 2 or none
reat advice: SOME
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So= sun
M= moon
E= earth
The moon is in-between the sun and the earth
which is s and E.
Solar:
Lunar:
. Changes to
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materials
Simple chemical reactions
Chemical Changes
Example: iron + sulfur= iron sulfide
Burning
Example: Carbon + oxygen= carbon dioxide
Reactions with water
Some substances do not work with water at all.
Reactions with acid
agnesium + hydrochloric acid= magnesium chloride
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+ hydrogen
Neutralisation
cids and alkalis can cancel each other out. When
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they get mixed together, they react and make a
neutral solution.
❤️ 💙 💚
👇🏻
cid + Alkali = Neutral
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Burnette, is used to neutralise an alkali
perfectly.
is neutral like water and will turn green
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Below 7 is acid and will turn red and acids can burn your skin
Above 7 is alkali which is blue and is safe and will not burn
o member the colors
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Red= danger which is acids Blue= safe which is alkalis
Investigating acids and alkalis
Variables- things that change
Detecting chemical reactions
agnesium + hydrochloric acid = magnesium
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chloride + hydrogen
Magnesium ribbon burning
9. Electricity
Flow of electricity
cell stores chemical energy that can be changed
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to electrical energy in a circuit.
A battery contains two or more cells joined
together.
The cell in the circuit has two connections, called
terminals.
All cells, batteries, power supplies, and many other
components have two terminals.
Electrical circuits
a normal circuit
the plus + and minus - of the
battery
using an ammeter
n ammeter measures the electric current. By
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measuring the current, you could tell if the cell
needs to be replaced. A smaller current means the
cell is low on stored energy.
Measuring the flow of current
urrent is measured in units called amps. Amps have
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the symbol A.
mmeters are always connected in series with other
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components in a circuit. If the components are
connected in series they are all connected end to
end.