OSCILLATIONS
PERIODIC AND OSCILLATORY MOTIONS
Examples:
an insect climbs up a ramp and
falls down, it comes back to the
initial point and repeats the
process identically. If a graph of
height above the ground versus
time, it would look something
like Fig. (a).
If a child climbs up a step, rests,
and comes down, and repeats the
process identically, its height
above the ground would look like
that in Fig. (b)
In a game of bouncing a ball off
the ground, between our palm
and the ground, its height versus
time graph would look like the
one in Fig. (c).
T is the Time period.
Thus, a motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called
periodic motion.
❖ A body undergoing periodic motion has an equilibrium position
somewhere in its path. When the body is at this position no net
external force acts on it.
❖ If the body is given a small displacement from the position, a force
comes into play which tries to bring the body back to the
equilibrium point, giving rise to oscillations or vibrations.
❖ Example: a ball placed in a bowl will be in equilibrium at the bottom.
If displaced a little from the point, it will oscillate in the bowl.
❖ Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every periodic motion
need not be oscillatory.
❖ Example: Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is not
oscillatory.
❖ There is no significant difference between oscillations and
vibrations. When the frequency is small, it is oscillation, while
when the frequency is high, it is vibration.
❖ Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form of oscillatory
motion.
❖ This motion arises when the force on the oscillating body is directly
proportional to its displacement from the mean position, which is
also the equilibrium position.
❖ Also, at any point in its oscillation, this force is directed towards the
mean position.
❖ Damped oscillation - oscillating bodies eventually come to rest
at their mean positions because of the damping due to friction and
other dissipative causes.
❖ Forced oscillation - the bodies can be forced to remain
oscillating by means of some external periodic agency.
PERIOD and FREQUENCY
The smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is
called its time period (T). Its SI unit is second.
The number of repetitions that occur per unit time is called the
frequency of the periodic motion. It is represented by the symbol
ν. The relation between ν and T is
ν = 1/T
The unit of ν is thus s–1.
1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1 s–1
DISPLACEMENT
➢A block attached to a spring, the other end of which is
fixed to a rigid wall. The block moves on a frictionless
surface. The motion of the block can be described in
terms of its distance or displacement x from the
equilibrium position.
➢An oscillating simple pendulum; its motion can be
described in terms of angular displacement θ from the
vertical.
➢The voltage across a capacitor, changing with time in an
AC circuit, is also a displacement variable.
➢The changing electric and magnetic fields in a light
wave are examples of displacement in different contexts.
➢The displacement variable may take both positive and
negative values.
➢The displacement can be represented by a mathematical
function of time.
➢One of the simplest periodic functions is given by
➢ f (t) = A cos ωt or f (t ) = A sin ωt.
➢If the argument of this function, ωt, is increased by an
integral multiple of 2π radians, the value of the function
remains the same.
➢Thus T is given by T = 2π/ ω
➢Thus, the function f (t) is periodic with period T,
f (t) = f (t+T)
➢Also a linear combination of sine and cosine functions
like,
f (t) = A sin ωt + B cos ωt
is also a periodic function with the same period T.
➢Taking,
A = D cos φ and B = D sin φ
The above eqn. can be written as,
f (t) = D sin (ωt + φ ) ,
Here D and φ are constant given by
Fourier theorem: Any periodic function can be expressed as
a superposition(also called Fourier series) of sine and
cosine functions of different time periods with suitable
coefficients.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
1. A special type of periodic motion in which a particle
moves to and fro repeatedly about a mean position
under the influence of a restoring force is known as
SHM.
2. The restoring force is always directed towards the
mean position and its magnitude at any instant is
proportional to the displacement of the particle from
the mean position at that instant.
3. Displacement of SHM is a sinusoidal function of time.
A particle vibrating back and forth about the origin of x-
axis, between the limits +A and –A.
This oscillatory motion is simple harmonic if the
displacement x of the particle from the origin varies with
time as :
x (t) = A cos (ω t + φ)
where A, ω and φ are constants.
Thus, simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a periodic motion
in which displacement is a sinusoidal function of time.
Displacement as a continuous function of time for simple
harmonic motion.
❖ The amplitutde A of SHM is the magnitude of
maximum displacement of the particle.
❖ The state of motion (position and velocity) of the
particle at any time t is determined by the argument
(ωt+φ) in the cosine function. This time-dependent
quantity, (ωt + φ) is called the phase of the motion.
❖ The value of phase at t = 0 is φ and is called the
phase constant (or phase angle).
The location of the particle in SHM at the discrete values t
= 0, T/4, T/2, 3T/4, T, 5T/4. The time after which motion
repeats itself is T. T will remain fixed, no matter what is the
initial (t =0) location. The speed is maximum for zero
displacement (at x = 0) and zero at the extremes of motion.
A plot of displacement as a function of time as obtained with φ = 0.
The curves 1 and 2 are for two different amplitudes A and B.
The curves 3 and 4 are for φ = 0 and -π/4 respectively. The amplitude
A is same for both the plots.
➢ Since the motion has a period T, so, x (t) = x (t + T).
➢ Thus, A cos ωt = A cos ω (t + T )
➢ Cosine function is periodic with period 2π
➢ Therefore, ω(t + T ) = ωt + 2π
➢ that is ω = 2π/ T
➢ ω is called the angular frequency of SHM.
➢ Its S.I. unit is radians per second.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND UNIFORM
CIRCULAR MOTION
✓ Let a particle P is moving uniformly on a circle of radius A
with angular speed ω.
✓ The sense of rotation is anticlockwise.
✓ The initial position vector of the particle, i.e., the vector OP
at t = 0 makes an angle of φ with the positive direction of x-
axis.
✓ In time t, it will cover a further angle ωt and its position
vector make an angle of ωt + φ with the +ve x-axis.
✓ the projection of the position vector OP on the x-axis is
OP′.
✓ OP′ is given by
✓ x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ )
✓ which is the defining equation of SHM.
✓ Thus if P moves uniformly on a circle, its projection P′ on
a diameter of the circle executes SHM.
✓ The particle P and the circle on which it moves are
referred to as the reference particle and the reference
circle.
✓ The projection of the motion of P on the y-axis is given by
✓ y = A sin (ωt + φ )
which is also an SHM of the same amplitude as that of the
projection on x-axis, but differing by a phase of π/2.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN SIMPLE
HARMONIC MOTION
The displacement in SHM is given by:
x (t) = A cos (ω t + φ)
differentiating x(t) with respect to t:
𝒅
v(t) = 𝒅𝒕 𝒙(𝒕)
v(t) = - ωA sin (ω t + φ)
The above eqn. gives the instantaneous velocity of a particle
executing SHM.
Vmax = + ωA
Vmin = - ωA
differentiating v(t) with respect to t:
𝒅
a(t) = 𝒅𝒕 𝒗(𝒕)
a(t) = - ω2A cos (ω t + φ)
a(t) = - ω2 x(t)
The above gives the acceleration of a particle in SHM.
For x(t) > 0, a(t) <0 and for x(t) < 0, a(t) > 0.
Whatever be the value of x between –A and A, the acceleration
a(t) is always directed towards the centre.
amin = –ω2A
amax = + ω2A.
With respect to displacement, velocity has a phase difference of
π/2 and acceleration has a phase difference of π.
FORCE LAW FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Using Newton’s second law of motion, and the expression for
acceleration of a particle undergoing SHM, the force acting on a
particle of mass m in SHM is
F (t) = ma = –mω2x (t)
i.e., F (t) = –k x (t)
where k = mω2
Like acceleration, force is always directed towards the mean
position—hence it is sometimes called the restoring force in SHM.
a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ)
Given
x (t) = A cos (ω t + φ)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒕
= −ω𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (ωt+ φ)
a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ)
–ω2x (t)
Time period of SHM: