Copyright © 2022 Jonathan Logan Carl. All rights reserved.

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I am so thankful to God for His strength and truth in Jesus!

I love and am so grateful for my amazing wife Brittney and her loving, tireless
support. Together we are blessed with some amazing daughters in Sophia, Lydia,
Alia, and Mia! Our church family at South Fork has been incredible in their
encouragement :) Thank you all for putting up with my many hours of studying
& writing for this work!

Ephesians 6:10–12 (ESV) “Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the strength of his
might. [11] Put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against
the schemes of the devil. [12] For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but
against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this
present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places.”

ISBN-13: 9798412771533

Cover and Chapter Images by Paul Gustave Doré. Public Domain.

Accessible online at: [Link]/en/gustave-dore

Scripture quotations are from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard
Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News
Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. May not copy or download
more than 500 consecutive verses of the ESV Bible or more than one half of any
book of the ESV Bible. Accessible online at: [Link]
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

SPIRITUAL WARFARE IN THE EARLY CHURCH: ERROR! BOOKMARK

NOT DEFINED.
THE HISTORY OF DEMONIC ACTIVITY AMONG THE ANTE-
NICENE CHURCH FATHERS AND BEYOND ........................ ERROR!
BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................70
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................5
TOWARDS A HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING OF SPIRITUAL WARFARE .7
CLEMENT OF ROME................................................................................................9
MATHETES ..............................................................................................................11
POLYCARP ..............................................................................................................13
IGNATIUS ................................................................................................................14
BARNABAS .............................................................................................................18
JUSTIN MARTYR ....................................................................................................19
IRENÆUS .................................................................................................................25
TATIAN ....................................................................................................................30
TERTULLIAN ..........................................................................................................31
MINUCIUS FELIX ...................................................................................................33
ORIGEN ....................................................................................................................35
CYPRIAN..................................................................................................................37
NICENE AND POST-NICENE FATHERS .............................................................38
EUSEBIUS ................................................................................................................38
ATHANASIUS AND CYRIL ...................................................................................45
AMBROSE ................................................................................................................46
AUGUSTINE ............................................................................................................48
JOHN CHRYSOSTOM.............................................................................................50
THE SEVEN ECUMENICAL COUNCILS .............................................................52
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION FORWARD ..............................................55
SUMMARY OF THE HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING OF SPIRITUAL
WARFARE .......................................................................................................61
SPIRITUAL WARFARE OCCURRENCES IN THE BIBLE .................................64
BIBLIOGRAPHY .....................................................................................................69

iii
iv
 INTRODUCTION

The fact that you are reading this reveals the “perpetual interest within the
church regarding the things of spiritual warfare.” Especially in recent decades, Christian
spiritual warfare writings have been particularly numerous.1 What is “spiritual warfare”
though? Spiritual warfare, based on Ephesians 6:12, is “the battle of the followers of
Christ against the unseen spiritual forces of evil.”
Modern approaches to spiritual warfare vary among cultural settings. In many
animistic and tribal contexts, power encounter approaches are more prevalent with direct,
confrontational dialogues between spiritual leaders and demons with practices such as
exorcism. Many western worldview Christians fall into categories of either looking
down on spiritual warfare “with disdain” or remaining ignorantly unaware of spiritual
warfare. Yet others question spiritual warfare practices while blindly accepting the

1
James K. Beilby and Paul Rhodes Eddy, “Introducing Spiritual Warfare: A Survey of Key
Issues and Debates,” in Understanding Spiritual Warfare: Four Views, ed. James K. Beilby and Paul
Rhodes Eddy (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 1-2. There has been a “heightened interest in this
subject in evangelical circles in the last decade or so. . . . almost an explosion of interest in this subject in
the last ten years.” “Statement on Spiritual Warfare: A Working Group Report” in Deliver Us from Evil: An
Uneasy Frontier in Christian Mission, ed. [Link] Moreau (Monrovia, CA: World Vision International,
2002), vii; 310.

5 [Link]
spiritual warfare views of their leaders, dismissing “new approaches as unbiblical and

therefore unacceptable.”2 In more rationalistic settings, many will place a greater

emphasis on psychological or psychiatric solutions to observed symptoms and behaviors

rather than considering the spiritual realm.

Although the attention given to spiritual warfare has varied in emphasis and
direction across church history, there must always be an ongoing awareness and
understanding of Satan’s attacks and methods against the church and Christian believers.3
The diversity of understandings and approaches across history and cultures must be
evaluated with a thoroughly biblical, historical, and theological foundation to determine
what should be avoided, corrected, or embraced.4 This book helps present the primary
source evidence of the early church for your consideration to see how the earliest
Christian leaders thought of and engaged in spiritual warfare.

2
The various attitudes towards spiritual warfare are summarized by the “Deliver Us from Evil”
consultation committee: “In response to these issues churches have tended to fall into one of five
categories. First are those that dismiss the idea of the spirit world with disdain. Second are those who are
not just not aware of the world of the spirit to any degree and have not, therefore, developed any related
disciplines. Next are those who are aware of the world of the spirit, pray, believe in the supernatural and
have absorbed and gone along more or less with current changes of practice but have many questions and
some discomfort and frustration about it all. Fourth are those who have accepted the views of their leaders
or examined it for themselves and unquestioningly adopt the newest teachings and practices associated with
spiritual warfare. Finally are those who always have had what they consider to be biblical views and prayer
disciplines related to the spirit world and who dismiss the new approaches as unbiblical and therefore
unacceptable.” Moreau, Deliver Us from Evil, viii.
3
Exorcism practice seems “to diminish in the Middle Ages,” but is still referenced among the
Germanic tribes, Norwegians, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Martin Luther, the Catholic Church’s 1614
Rituale Romanum (exorcism guidelines), and other sources. Tormod Engelsviken, “Historical Overview
3,” in Deliver Us from Evil (Nairobi, Kenya: Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 2000),
accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
4
Moreau, Deliver Us from Evil, 117. Scott Moreau categorizes evangelical approaches to
spiritual warfare into seven types of encounters. Four of these approaches closely parallel the structure of
Christ’s command in Mark 12:30-31 to love the Lord our God with all of our heart (relational-encounter),
soul (truth-encounter), mind (mind-encounter), and strength (power-encounter).

6 [Link]
 TOWARDS A HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING OF
SPIRITUAL WARFARE

Clinton Arnold explains the prevalence of spiritual warfare in early church

history writing, acknowledging the “numerous accounts of demonization and exorcism as
well as descriptions of the deceptive work of demons in pagan religions fill the writings
of the church fathers.”5 Some rationalist and cessationist Christian theologians surmise
that spiritual warfare has diminished since the apostolic era, but the evidence is that there
“is no hint of demonic activity dying out.”6 Documentation of spiritual warfare continues
“through the whole time period of the ancient church” as well as during the Middle Ages,
the Reformation, and the early post-Reformation.7
In evaluating spiritual warfare writings and practice, early church leaders share
a helpful perspective in understanding and evaluating claims of territorial spirits, demonic

5
Clinton E. Arnold, Three Crucial Questions about Spiritual Warfare (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2008), 25.
6
Ibid.
7
Oscar Skarsaune, “Possession and Exorcism in the Literature of the Ancient Church and the
New Testament,” in Deliver Us from Evil Consultation (Nairobi: Lausanne Committee for World
Evangelization 2000), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
[Link].
7 [Link]
possession, exorcism, demonic oppression, and other experiences and practices. Church

history does demonstrate that church leaders “took the realm of the demonic seriously
and believed that Christians could be profoundly influenced by evil spirits.”8 Clinton

Arnold asserts that a “thorough treatment of this topic from the vantage point of church
history would be very helpful and illuminating.”9 History shows a serious concern for
the demonic possession of unbelievers and for the affliction of believers.10
The focus of this book is to conduct a historical survey of the theological
understanding of spiritual warfare. Attention will primarily be given to the early church
era (AD 100-400). The church fathers before the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) are
numerous and diverse. Interestingly, they almost all show some concern in addressing
spiritual warfare issues among Christians and the church. The focus of the research is on
the main characters, councils, and confessions that reflect and represent the general
theological considerations of spiritual warfare. Their statements, observations, and
practices are of great importance to help you in considering which spiritual warfare
understandings and practices are authentically rooted in early church history.11

8
Arnold, Three Crucial Questions,112.
9
Ibid.
10
“Numerous other accounts and excerpts could be given from Christian leaders throughout the
post-Nicene age, the Byzantine Empire, and from luminaries such as Thomas Aquinas, John Calvin, Martin
Luther, and the Puritans. . . . They all took the realm of the demonic seriously and believed that Christians
could be profoundly influenced by evil spirits. Yet they were also thoroughly convinced that believers had
authority in the Lord Jesus Christ to send these spirits packing. As Martin Luther said regarding the devil
in his famous hymn, ‘one little word shall fell him.’ That word is Jesus.” Arnold, Three Crucial Questions,
112.
11
In surveying the historical references to spiritual warfare, this historical research focused on
discovering terms such as “Satan,” “devil,” “demons,” “exorcism,” “enemy,” and “evil.” The presence of
such terms often revealed the location of writings that demonstrate the theology and practice of spiritual
warfare during that period of history.

8 [Link]
 CLEMENT OF ROME

Clement of Rome, or Pope Clement I, is believed to have been a disciple of

Peter and a co-worker with Paul (Phil 4:3; AD 57) and one of the first leaders of the
church. In his letter to the church at Corinth, Clement references the war-like nature of
the call for Christians to “act the part of soldiers” in following the commandments of
Christ.12 Clement seemed aware of spiritual warfare and called for Christians to actively
engage in the battles they found themselves in.
Two letters that claim Clementine authorship, but are likely third or fourth
century writings by another author, place particular emphasis on the role of exorcists
within the church.13 The writer interestingly dedicates a significant portion of a chapter
to the practice of exorcism. This early, yet pseudopigraphal (false-named), reference
gives significant weight to showing that the practice of exorcism did not die out with the
apostles. The author exhorts his Christian brothers to take initiative in visiting those who

12
Clement, First Epistle of the Blessed Clement the Disciple of Peter (ANF 1:5) accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link] Corresponding scriptures are found in
Phil 2:25, 2 Tim 2:3, and Phlm 1:2.
13
M. B. Riddle, “Introductory Notice to Two Epistles Concerning Virginity” (ANF 8:53)
accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]

9 [Link]
are “harassed by evil spirits.”14 He describes such activity as “suitable and right and

comely” and places a primacy on intelligent and authoritative prayer.15 The author
encourages prayers rooted in “true faith,” cautioning against formulaic prayer.16 The

writer reminds believers that empowered prayer is characterized by being continuous,

focused, pleading, holy, humble, pure, and cheerful, and with noble intentions.17 He
emphasizes how an effective deliverer only exercises their powers through the help of
God. Such empowered warriors put their own flesh to death and seek the “power of the
Holy Spirit” through “fastings and prayers and perpetual watching, together with your
other good works.”18 He connects the practice of exorcism with healing. He also
commends exorcism as a gift from the Lord and a practice that will be rewarded. These
writings, although pseudo-Clementine, point to an early understanding of spiritual
warfare that emphasizes God’s power being accessed primarily through prayer.

14
“This also, again, is suitable and right and comely for those who are brethren in Christ, that
they should visit those who are harassed by evil spirits, and pray and pronounce adjurations over them,
intelligently, offering such prayer as is acceptable before God; not with a multitude of fine words, well
prepared and arranged, so that they may appear to men eloquent and of a good memory. Such men are ‘like
a sounding pipe, or a tinkling cymbal;’ and they bring no help to those over whom they make their
adjurations; but they speak with terrible words, and affright people, but do not act with true faith, according
to the teaching of our Lord, who hath said: ‘This kind goeth not out but by fasting and prayer,’ offered
unceasingly and with earnest mind. And let them holily ask and beg of God, with cheerfulness and all
circumspection and purity, without hatred and without malice. . . . By your fastings and prayers and
perpetual watching, together with your other good works, mortify the works of the flesh by the power of
the Holy Spirit. He who acts thus ‘is a temple of the Holy Spirit of God.’ Let this man cast out demons, and
God will help him. For it is good that a man help those that are sick. Our Lord hath said: ‘Cast out demons’
at the same thee commanding many other acts of healing; and, ‘Freely ye have received, freely give.’ For
such persons as these a goodly recompense is laid up by God, because they serve their brethren with the
gifts which have been given them by the Lord.” Clement, First Epistle of the Blessed Clement the Disciple
of Peter (ANF 1:5).
15
Ibid.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.

10 [Link]
 MATHETES

The Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus (c. AD 130) is an early writing. The

author or recipient of the letter is unknown, but Mathetes “was possibly a catechumen of
St. Paul or of one of the apostle's associates” and “is, perhaps, the first of the
apologists.”19 There are parts of the letter, such as chapter eight, “The Miserable State of
Men Before the Coming of the World,” where the reader would expect to find a reference
to Satan or his demons, but does not.20 Mathetes refers to himself as “a disciple of the
Apostles” who is sharing the “things delivered to me” to the Gentiles.21
In the concluding chapter of his epistle “The Importance of Knowledge to True
Spiritual Life,” Mathetes references the serpent multiple times. His references surround
the serpent’s attempts to deceive and place false knowledge into the lives of believers.
He comments that Adam and Eve did not use true knowledge of the way to life “properly,

19
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Ignatius” (ANF 1:45), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
20
Mathetes, The Epistles of Mathetes to Diognetus (ANF 1:25), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
21
Ibid.

11 [Link]
they were, through the fraud of the serpent, stripped naked.”22 Mathetes’ descriptions

paint a picture of Satan’s focus on deception rather than power and possession.23

22
Ibid.
23
“did not use this [knowledge] properly, they were, through the fraud of the Serpent, stripped
naked. . . . or he who thinks he knows anything without true knowledge, and such as is witnessed to by life,
knows nothing, but is deceived by the Serpent, as not loving life. . . . thou shalt always gather in those
things which are desired by God, which the Serpent cannot reach, and to which deception does not
approach.” Ibid.

12 [Link]
 POLYCARP

Polycarp (AD 69-155) was a disciple of John and other apostles, in contact
with many eyewitnesses of Christ, and an early leader of the Christian church.24 In his
letter to the church at Philippi, Polycarp mentions very little concerning spiritual warfare,
but does point to the fact that “whosoever does not confess the testimony of the cross, is
of the devil.”25 He additionally affirms that “whosoever does not confess that Jesus
Christ has come in the flesh, is antichrist” and that “whosoever perverts the oracles of the
Lord to his own lusts, and says that there is neither a resurrection nor a judgment, he is
the first-born of Satan.”26 Such powerful, bold statements do not reinforce any specific
encounter approaches. Polycarp does reveal that there is significance in understanding
that all humanity is allied with either Christ or the devil.

24
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians” (ANF
1:31), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
25
Polycarp, The Epistle of Polycarp to the Ephesians (ANF 7:33), accessed December 30,
2013, [Link]
26
Ibid.

13 [Link]
 IGNATIUS

Ignatius was an early church father (AD 30-107) linked with the Apostle John,
Eusebius, and Polycarp. It is “scarcely possible to exaggerate the importance of the
testimony which the Ignatian letters offer to the dogmatic character of Apostolic
Christianity.”27 His works include seven credible letters but early church history reveals
eight additional writings that are likely later, spurious forgeries.28 Out of these writings,
two credible letters and three spurious letters contain spiritual warfare language.
The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians refers to Satan as the “wicked one” who
envies in an invisible way. Ignatius refers to Satan as literally warring against him.
Ignatius fights back through “meekness, by which the devil, the prince of this world, is
brought to nought.”29 He encourages the Trallians to put “put on your guard” and to

27
John Bonaventure O’Connor, “St. Ignatius of Antioch,” in The Catholic Encyclopedia 7
(New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
cathen/[Link].
28
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Ignatius” (ANF 1:45), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
29
Ignatius, The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians (ANF 1:66), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

14 [Link]
“forsee the snares of the devil.”30 Although Ignatius does not reveal a specific power or

truth encounter approach, he clearly reveals his understanding that there are real attacks
of Satan at both an individual (believer) and corporate (church) level. Ignatius also

writes in his letter to the Philadelphians a warning concerning heretics “from whom ‘a
defiling influence has gone forth into all the earth.’”31 He reinforces light, truth, and
especially unity as they avoid “many wolves in sheep's clothing.”32 As Ignatius
demonstrates, the Church Fathers often emphasized spiritual warfare when considering
heresy.
Another important Ignatian writing is The Martyrdom of Ignatius. Although
several aspects of the martyrdom account are verified historically, parts of it are of
unknown veracity, as the writing was not referenced in the first six centuries of the
church.33 In this work, an eyewitness narrative of Ignatius’ approach towards death is
given. The crime Trajan assigned to Ignatius was of not worshipping idols. The author
describes idol worship as the “worship [of] daemons.”34 This intimate connection of

30
Ibid.
31
Ignatius, The Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians (ANF 1:79), accessed December 30,
2013, [Link]
32
Ibid.
33
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Martyrdom of Ignatius” (ANF 1:127), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
34
“Ignatius replied, ‘No one ought to call Theophorus wicked; for, you call me wicked in
respect to them, I quite agree with you; for inasmuch as I have Christ the King of heaven [within me], I.’
Ignatius replied, ‘No one ought to call Theophorus wicked; for all evil spirits have departed from the
servants of God. But if, because I am an enemy to these [spirits], you call me wicked in respect to them, I
quite agree with you; for inasmuch as I have Christ the King of heaven [within me], I destroy all the
devices of these [evil spirits].’ Ignatius answered, ‘Thou art in error when thou callest the daemons of the
nations gods. For there is but one God, who made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all that are in them;
and one Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, whose kingdom may I enjoy.’ Trajan said, ‘Do you
mean Him who was crucified under Pontius Pilate?’ Ignatius replied, ‘I mean Him who crucified my sin,
with him who was the inventor of it, and who has condemned [and cast down] all the deceit and malice of
the devil under the feet of those who carry Him in their heart.” Ignatius, The Martyrdom of Ignatius (ANF
1:129), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]

15 [Link]
demons and idol worship was a spiritual warfare concept the early church continued to

communicate.
Ignatius replies to the accusations that he is wicked, asserting that “all evil

spirits have departed from the servants of God” and that he is “an enemy to these
[spirits]” in destroying “all the devices of these [evil spirits].”35 The clarity and certainty
with which Ignatius describes demonic spirits shows that he believes the battle is real.
He holds that believers should actively oppose Satan and his demons. Ignatius’ reference
to evil spirits departing from believers also suggests the practice of exorcism at the point
of belief, implying from his own example that evil spirits are present in the lives of
unbelievers.
The spurious writings communicate many more references to spiritual warfare,
particularly to the power encounter approach. In The Epistle of Ignatius to the
Antiochians, the writer references the office of exorcists.36 Another fraudulent writing,
from Mary of Cassobelæ to Ignatius, describes some “who were possessed of a wicked
spirit as being false in their speech, and deceivers of the people” as well as referencing
the “deceit of the demons.”37 Interestingly the activity of both the demons and the
possessed focuses on deception.
Another likely fraudulent writing, The Epistle to the Philippians, contains
perhaps the most references to Satan in many of the ancient church writings with half of
the chapter titles directly referencing Satan.38 In this epistle, the author makes multiple

35
Ibid.
36
“I salute the sub-deacons, the readers, the singers, the doorkeepers, the labourers, the
exorcists, the confessors.” Ignatius, The Epistle of Ignatius to the Antiochians (ANF 1:110), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
37
Ignatius, The Epistle of Maria the Proselyte to Ignatius (ANF 1:121), accessed December 30,
2013, [Link]
38
Ignatius, The Epistle of Ignatius to the Philippians (ANF 1:117), accessed December 30,
2013, [Link]

16 [Link]
references to the temptation encounter of Christ with Satan in the desert as well as

scriptural references to the devil. Along with these references are a seeming inclusion
and incorporation of terms and theology (bishop, presbyter, Lord’s Day, overemphasis on

Mary, the Trinity) of the later church (3rd and 4th century and beyond).39 Despite the
biblical nature of many of the spiritual warfare references in the fraudulent writings, their
inconsistencies lend little weight to an early date. These spurious writings, with
additional emphasis on exorcism, possession, and spiritual warfare, cause concern that
there was an attempt to over-emphasize and influence theology and practice where the
early church did not.

39
Ibid.

17 [Link]
 BARNABAS

The Epistle of Barnabas is a writing whose authorship is circumspect in many

ways. The early church believed it written by Barnabas the Levite of Cyprus, an early
believer of renown in the church.40 Its dating is early, but its veiled authorship leaves
some wondering as to its actual importance and significance. This letter does possess
some early spiritual warfare references however, comparing the pre-salvific state of being
a “habitation of demons” compared with how believers become a spiritual temple of
God.41 Such a reference implies possession, but because authorship questions remain, the
references are not greatly weighted.

40
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Barnabas” (ANF 1:133), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
41
“Before we believed in God, the habitation of our heart was corrupt and weak, as being
indeed like a temple made with hands. For it was full of idolatry, and was a habitation of demons, through
our doing such things as were opposed to [the will of] God.” Barnabas, The Epistle of Barnabas (ANF
1:147), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]

18 [Link]
 JUSTIN MARTYR

Justin Martyr (AD 110-65), a Gentile born in Samaria, was a philosopher who
came to Christ upon witnessing the “extraordinary fearlessness which the Christians
displayed in the presence of death.”42 Justin’s writings constitute some of “the most
important that have come down to us from the second century” and give “us an insight
into the relations existing between heathens and Christians in those days.”43 The
attestation and trustworthiness of his writings give lend greater importance to his
writings. In the arena of spiritual warfare, Justin Martyr provides the most significant
insight into the Christian understanding of spiritual warfare in the early church.

Justin, The First Apology. In Justin’s apologies, he shares great insights into
his understanding of Satan’s work on earth. He counters the accusations of atheists
against Christians by identifying Greek gods as being demonic. He argues,

since of old these evil demons, effecting apparitions of themselves, both defiled
women and corrupted boys, and showed such fearful sights to men, that those who

42
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Writings of Justin Martyr” (ANF 1:159),
accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
43
Ibid.

19 [Link]
 did not use their reason in judging of the actions that were done, were struck with
terror; and being carried away by fear, and not knowing that these were demons,
they called them gods, and gave to each the name which each of the demons chose
for himself.44
Not only does Justin explain the origin of these so-called gods, but denies their

deity and again clarifies that they are “wicked and impious demons.”45 Justin leaves no
room to doubt that he believes that the gods of the Greeks and their associated
manifestations are the product of real spirits: demons.
Justin also emphasized, like other early church fathers, how the demons seek to
deceive. He also explains more clearly that they are accusers who seek to “divert you
from reading and understanding” the writing and teaching of Christian leaders.46 They
work not only by attacking truth, but also through manifestations through “appearances in
dreams” and “by magical impositions” to subdue hold mankind as “slaves and
servants.”47 Justin asserts that the believer is to “stand aloof from them (i.e. demons)”
and “embrace chastity” while dedicating themselves to God and valuing Him above all
other things.48 Putting on righteousness is a key emphasis of Martyr’s approach to
spiritual warfare.
Justin expounds on how “the demons still mislead men” through the example
of the Samaritans Simon and Meander, “who did many mighty works by magic, and
deceived many, and still keep them deceived.”49 This view of spiritual warfare shows an
integration of manifestation with deception through the examples of men. He reminds
the reader that Simon appeared before the Roman people and senate during the reign of

44
Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin (ANF 1:163), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
45
Ibid.
46
Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin (ANF 1:167).
47
Ibid.
48
Ibid.
49
Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin (ANF 1:183).

20 [Link]
Claudius Cæsar, leading to his deification and honor through a statue.50 Justin asks for

the destruction of Simon’s statue as well as a reminder not to “be entangled by that man’s
doctrines” but rather to “learn the truth, and so be able to escape error.”51 Justin clearly

emphasizes a truth encounter approach to spiritual warfare but also upholds the
importance of destroying objects of false, demonic worship.
Lastly, for Justin’s first apology, he explains how some of the false religions,
specifically in the temples of Greek gods, are but demonic imitations of biblical worship.
He evidences this imitation in the practices of washings, libations, burnt offerings,
sprinkling, and shoe removal, directly connecting this with a mockery of Moses’
encounter with God in the burning bush.52

Justin, The Second Apology. The Second Apology of Justin continues to

reveal how deeply Justin understands spiritual warfare. He describes “the evil demons”
as hating Christians and endeavoring to keep unbelievers “subject to themselves.”53 He
specifically credits the demons as influencing human judges with the purpose of putting
Christians to death. He further credits the “influence of the wicked demons” for the
suffering and persecution of some “earnest men, such as Socrates,” while others such as
“Sardanapalus, Epicurus, and the like, seem to be blessed in abundance and glory.”54

Despite the activity of Satan and his demons, Justin upholds each man’s
personal responsibility for his actions, asserting, “each man by free choice acts rightly or

50
See notes under Irenæus for a more detailed description of Simon.
51
Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin (ANF 1:167).
52
Justin Martyr, The First Apology of Justin (ANF 1:183).
53
Justin Martyr, The Second Apology of Justin for the Christians Addressed to the Roman
Senate (ANF 1:188), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
54
Justin Martyr, The Second Apology of Justin (ANF 1:191).

21 [Link]
sins.”55 Demonic influence towards sin occurs through a multitude of avenues, “partly by

magical writings, and partly by fears and the punishments they occasioned, and partly by
teaching them to offer sacrifices, and incense, and libations, of which things they stood in

need after they were enslaved by lustful passions.”56 Justin reminds us that Christ was
incarnate partially “for the destruction of the demons.”57
Interestingly, Justin points to the practice of exorcism. This is one of the
earliest and most well attested references to the practice and office of exorcist. He
describes “numberless demoniacs throughout the whole world, and in your city,” and
how “many of our Christian men [are] exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who
was crucified under Pontius Pilate.”58 He points out how these Christians “have healed
and do heal, rendering helpless and driving the possessing devils out of the men, though
they could not be cured by all the other exorcists, and those who used incantations and
drugs.”59

Justin, The Dialogue with Trypho. A final important reference for

understanding Justin’s understanding of spiritual warfare is found in The Dialogue of
Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew.60 This work is historically
significant as “it is the first elaborate exposition of the reasons for regarding Christ as the

Messiah of the Old Testament, and the first systematic attempt to exhibit the false

55
Justin Martyr, The Second Apology of Justin (ANF 1:191).
56
Justin Martyr, The Second Apology of Justin (ANF 1:190).
57
Ibid.
58
Ibid.
59
Ibid.
60
Justin Martyr, The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew (ANF
1:194), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]

22 [Link]
position of the Jews in regard to Christianity.”61 As Justin explains the faith to Trypho,

he uses the opportunity to explain the devil and his demons as well as the corresponding
aspects of spiritual warfare.

Justin characterizes Satan principally as a liar, “as therefore the devil lied at the
beginning, so did he also in the end.”62 Satan’s battle is clearly to “to deceive and lead
astray the mind of man into disobeying the commandments of God, and gradually to
darken the hearts of those who would endeavour to serve him, to the forgetting of the true
God, but to the adoration of himself as God.”63
Martyr describes the call for believers to “pray to be kept by Him from strange,
… wicked and deceitful, spirits.”64 He reemphasizes the specific needs for continual
prayers of protection. He states that before conversion, believers served such demons,
but now they have the power of Jesus’ name that “even the demons do fear; and at this
day, when they are exorcised in the name of Jesus Christ, crucified under Pontius Pilate,
governor of Judæa, they are overcome.”65 In describing non-believers, Justin categorizes
them alongside the demonic, as both refuse to obey the will of God and “do the works of
the devil.”66 In such categorization, he affirms that there is no middle ground or neutral
territory in spiritual warfare.
As mentioned in his Apologies, Martyr asserts that false religious practices
originate with the devil and are but imitations of God’s great work. He points biblically

61
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to the Writings of Justin Martyr” (ANF 1:159).
62
Justin Martyr, The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew (ANF
1:206).
63
Ibid.
64
Justin Martyr, The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew (ANF
1:209).
65
Ibid.
66
Justin Martyr, The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew (ANF
1:215).

23 [Link]
to the Magi in Egypt and the false prophets in Elijah’s days but then connects such false

worship to Greek gods such as Bacchus son of Jupiter, Semele, Hercules, Jove of
Alcmene, and Æsculapius. Justin reminds the believer of his authority in Christ when

they “exorcise all demons and evil spirits, have them subjected to us.”67 He holds that
this authority to overcome and subdue the evil spirits is effective over “every demon.”68
Such authority is only definitively extended in the name of Christ, never in the names of
“kings, or righteous men, or prophesy, or patriarchs” and only possibly if exorcised in the
name of “the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.”69 He again
reminds Trypho of how other Jewish and Gentile exorcists attempt exorcism with craft,
but to no avail.
Justin Martyr exposes a comprehensive and thoroughly biblical understanding
of spiritual warfare. He reveals that demonic possession and exorcism did not cease with
the apostolic age but continued into the early church. He emphasizes the power of
Christ’s name and the knowledge of truth while condemning human-crafted techniques in
spiritual warfare. Although some of Justin’s other writings reveal some spiritual warfare
themes, the Apologies and The Dialogue with Trypho presents an accurate understanding
of his views and practices.70

67
Justin Martyr, The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew (ANF
1:237).
68
Justin Martyr, The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew (ANF
1:242).
69
Ibid.
70
“But since the adversary does not cease to resist many, and uses many and divers arts to
ensnare them, that he may seduce the faithful from their faith, and that he may prevent the faithless from
believing, it seems to me necessary that we also, being armed with the invulnerable doctrines of the faith,
do battle against him in behalf of the weak.” Justin Martyr, Fragments of the Lost Work of Justin on the
Resurrection, (ANF 1:294), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
[Link].

24 [Link]
 IRENÆUS

Irenæus (AD 120-202) was a young leader in the church, a student under
Polycarp, who quickly rose against the Gnostic heresies.71 In his principle work, Against
Heresies, Irenæus connects the heresies to the work of the devil to include a similar
reference as Justin Martyr did to Simon Menander.72 He points to how Satan is
“accustomed to lie against God, for the purpose of leading men astray.”73 Satan’s work
from the beginning was to murder and lie, and “the truth is not in him.”74 The length and
subject of Irenæus’ work might lead one to believe he might make more spiritual warfare

71
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to Irenæus Against Heresies” (ANF 1:309), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
72
“Thus, then, the mystic priests belonging to this sect both lead profligate lives and practise
magical arts, each one to the extent of his ability. They use exorcisms and incantations. Love-potions, too,
and charms, as well as those beings who are called ‘Paredri’ (familiars) and ‘Oniropompi’ (dream-senders),
and whatever other curious arts can be had recourse to, are eagerly pressed into their service. They also
have an image of Simon fashioned after the likeness of Jupiter, and another of Helena in the shape of
Minerva; and these they worship. In fine, they have a name derived from Simon, the author of these most
impious.” Irenæus, Irenæus Against Heresies (ANF 1:348), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
73
Irenæus, Irenæus Against Heresies (ANF 1:552).
74
Ibid.

25 [Link]
references. Although Irenæus’ focus is principally on directly addressing the Gnostic

heresies, he indicates an understanding of the underlying problem.

26 [Link]
 HERMAS
The Pastor of Hermas (c. AD 160) was “one of the most popular books, if not
the most popular book, in the Christian church during the second, third, and fourth
centuries. It occupied a position analogous in some respects to that of Bunyan’s
Pilgrim’s Progress in modern times.”75 Its authorship is not certain, but its writing was
early and it influence was immense. Origen considered it “divinely inspired,” while
“Irenæus quotes it as Scripture,” and Eusebius mentions that many considered it an
“admirable introduction to the Christian faith.”76
The second book of The Pastor of Hermas has three “commandments” with
overtly spiritual warfare focused titles. The sixth Commandment is titled, “How to
Recognise the Two Spirits Attendant on Each Man, and How to Distinguish the
Suggestions of the One from Those of the Other.” The seventh Commandments is titled,

75
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to The Pastor of Hermas” (ANF 2:3), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
76
Ibid.

27 [Link]
“On Fearing God, and Not Fearing the Devil.” The twelfth Commandment is titled “On

the Twofold Desire. The Commandments of God Can Be Kept, and Believers Ought Not
to Fear the Devil.”

In the sixth Commandment the writer describes believers as inhabited by two

angels, the angel of righteousness and the angel of iniquity. He implores the reader to
“understand them, and trust the angel of righteousness; but depart from the angel of
iniquity, because his instruction is bad in every deed.”77 Although this commandment
seems to imply that demons can possess believers, this commandment is best understood
to describe the spiritual battle for our minds. The writer seeks to inspire the reader to
awareness of and resistance to Satan’s temptations both in deceit and in behavior.
The writer uses the seventh Commandment to encourage the believer not to
fear the devil, “for, fearing the Lord, you will have dominion over the devil, for there is
no power in him.”78 He instructs the believer to fear the Lord in such a way that one not
only avoids “that which is evil,” but does “that which is good.”79 A proper understanding
of the power of the Lord is essential to a biblical understanding and application of the
fear of the Lord.
The twelfth Commandment of Hermas again encourages the believer not to
fear the devil because he cannot “hold sway over the servants of God, who with all their
heart place their hopes in Him.”80 He argues that the devil can wrestle against believers
but true believers will resist the devil strongly and cannot be overthrown. He states that
Satan has no way of entering into (possessing) believers and instead goes into those

77
Hermas, The Pastor of Hermas (ANF 2:20), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
78
Hermas, The Pastor of Hermas (ANF 2:25).
79
Ibid.
80
Hermas, The Pastor of Hermas (ANF 2:29).

28 [Link]
whom are empty (non-believers).81 Instead of fearing the devil, the “angel of repentance”

reminds believers that he was sent to be with those “who repent with all your heart, and
to make you strong in faith.”82 In the midst of repentance, there is not only

strengthening, but there is healing of “former sins” by Christ.83 No matter the “threats of
the devil,” the believer must “fear them not at all, for he is powerless as the sinews of a
dead man.”84 Apart from Justin Martyr, the writer of The Pastor of Hermas provides the
most depth and understanding to seeing the spiritual warfare beliefs and practices of the
early church.

81
“So also the devil goes to all the servants of God to try them. As many, then, as are full in the
faith, resist him strongly, and he withdraws from them, having no way by which he might enter them. He
goes, then, to the empty, and finding a way of entrance, into them, he produces in them whatever he wishes,
and they become his servants.” Ibid. This quote shows the early church understanding that only non-
believers can be demonically possessed/inhabited.
82
Ibid.
83
Ibid.
84
Ibid.

29 [Link]
 TATIAN

Tatian (AD 110-72) was an Assyrian believer and a student of Justin Martyr
who eventually lived in Antioch.85 In his Address of Tatian to the Greeks, he depicts
demons in a frenzied attack against mankind, attacking through attempts to pervert their
minds. He describes these demons as sometimes making themselves seen, exhibiting
themselves in a way that leads men to fear or honor them. Demons, Tatian holds, “depart
in terror” when “smitten by the word of God” which then leads to the sick being healed.86
In another section, Tatian describes people entering into relationships with visiting
demons. Those struggling with sickness, love, hatred, and revenge seek demonic
assistance under false promises and assurances.87

85
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to Tatian the Assyrian” (ANF 2:61), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
86
Tatian, Address of Tatian to the Greeks (ANF 2:65), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
87
Tatian, Address of Tatian to the Greeks (ANF 2:72).

30 [Link]
 TERTULLIAN

Tertullian ([Link] 145-220) was an early and extensively published author in the
church.88 In his premier work, Apology, he affirms the existence of demons, saying that
they are well known by both believers and philosophers. He mentions Socrates himself
as self-attesting to a relationship with a demonic spirit from childhood.89 He emphasizes
their subtleness while unashamedly seeking the ruin and destruction of mankind through
disease, calamity, and temptations. He states that “we are not cognizant of their actions
save by its effects” due to their invisible and intangible nature.90 He affirms that the only
“authority and power we have over them is from our naming the name of Christ, and
recalling to their memory the woes with which God threatens them at the hands of
Christ.”91 It is with this fear of Christ’s judgment that demons do become “subject to the
servants of God” and “at our touch and breathing . . . they leave at our command the

88
Allan Menzies, “Introductory Note to Tertullian” (ANF 3:3), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
89
Tertullian, The Apology, (ANF 3:17), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
90
Ibid.
91
Tertullian, The Apology, (ANF 3:36).
31 [Link]
bodies they have entered, unwilling, and distressed, and before your very eyes put to an

open shame.”92 Historian, Henry Kelly, explains that “No one was more aware than
Tertullian of the demonic influences that surrounded the people of his day.”93 Tertullian,

in his lengthy description on repentance and baptism, places great emphasis on the
confession of sins.94 Kelly summarizes Tertullian’s understanding of how to fight the
demonic, writing,

Tertullian did not indicate the existence of, or feel the need for, any special rite
designed to set men free from the demonic influence when they became members of
the Christian community—in addition, that is to the act of renunciation, and, of
course, baptism itself.95
Tertullian’s description of exorcism is consistent with an emphasis on the
power of Christ’s name with minimal focus on human power techniques. The power lies
in the truth of God contained in the name of Christ. The vast scope of Tertullian’s
writings necessitates much greater attention than this section allows.

92
Ibid.
93
Henry A. Kelly, The Devil at Baptism: Ritual, Theology, and Drama (Eugene, OR: Wipf and
Stock, 2004), 107.
94
“They who are about to enter baptism ought to pray with repeated prayers, fasts, and
bendings of the knee, and vigils all the night through, and with the confession of all bygone sins, that they
may express the meaning even of the baptism of John: ‘They were baptized,’ saith (the Scripture),
‘confessing their own sins.’ To us it is matter for thankfulness if we do now publicly confess our iniquities
or our turpitudes: for we do at the same time both make satisfaction for our former sins, by mortification of
our flesh and spirit, and lay beforehand the foundation of defences against the temptations which will
closely follow. ‘Watch and pray,’ saith (the Lord), ‘lest ye fall into temptation.’” Tertullian, On Baptism
(ANF 3:669), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
Corresponding scriptures are found in Matthew 3:6 and Mark 1:5.
95
Kelly, The Devil at Baptism, 107.

32 [Link]
 MINUCIUS FELIX

Minucius Felix was a contemporary of Tertullian who penned Octavius ([Link]

210) as a feigned dialogue between a pagan and a Christian.96 In his writing, he describes
the work of demons at several points, describing both their possession and mental
attacks.97 He also describes in detail how the demons are connected with idols, statues,
mediums, oracles, and predictive signs.98 He argues that demons “are both deceived, and
they deceive.”99 These false spirits “weigh men downwards from heaven, and call them
away from the true God to material things.”100 Felix vividly describes demonic
possession, exorcism, and dialogue as well, explaining how they have communicated
themselves as the gods of the Greeks and seek to keep unbelievers away from

96
A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note to Minucius Felix” (ANF 4:169), accessed December
30, 2013, [Link]
97
Minucius Felix, Octavius (ANF 4:173), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
98
Minucius Felix, Octavius (ANF 4:190).
99
Ibid.
100
Ibid.

33 [Link]
Christians.101 Overall, Felix describes a plethora of power-encounter type approaches to

spiritual warfare while reinforcing that their goal is to deceive and distract humanity
away from the truth of God.

101
“They disturb the life, render all men unquiet; creeping also secretly into human bodies,
with subtlety, as being spirits, they feign diseases, alarm the minds, wrench about the limbs; that they may
constrain men to worship them, being gorged with the fumes of altars or the sacrifices of cattle, that, by
remitting what they had bound, they may seem to have cured it. These raging maniacs also, whom you see
rush about in public, are moreover themselves prophets without a temple; thus they rage, thus they rave,
thus they are whirled around. In them also there is a like instigation of the demon, but there is a dissimilar
occasion for their madness. . . . A great many, even some of your own people, know all those things that the
demons themselves confess concerning themselves, as often as they are driven by us from bodies by the
torments of our words and by the fires of our prayers. Saturn himself, and Serapis, and Jupiter, and
whatever demons you worship, overcome by pain, speak out what they are; and assuredly they do not lie to
their own discredit, especially when any of you are standing by. Since they themselves are the witnesses
that they are demons, believe them when they confess the truth of themselves; for when abjured by the only
and true God, unwillingly the wretched beings shudder in their bodies, and either at once leap forth, or
vanish by degrees, as the faith of the sufferer assists or the grace of the healer inspires. Thus they fly from
Christians when near at hand, whom at a distance they harassed by your means in their assemblies. And
thus, introduced into the minds of the ignorant, they secretly sow there a hatred of us by means of fear. . . .
Thus they take possession of the minds and obstruct the hearts, that men may begin to hate us before they
know us; lest, if known, they should either imitate us, or not be able to condemn us.” Ibid.

34 [Link]
 ORIGEN

Origen (AD 185–254) was an early leader of the church at Alexandria, helping
to develop many of the foundational doctrines of the early church. Although some of his
hypotheses would later be exposed as incorrect and heretical, his writings and teachings
are of immense value to understanding the theology of the early church.102 In his Origen
de Principiis, he describes the devil and his demons and how “the Church has laid down
that these beings exist” but “had not explained with sufficient clearness” what they are or
how they exist.103 Origen describes a renunciation of the devil in baptism,

We come to that moment when we made these promises, this declaration to the
devil. Each of the faithful recalls when he came to the waters of baptism, when he
received the first seal of the faith and approach the fount of salvation, the words that
he pronounced then; he recalls his renunciation of the devil. He promised to resort
to none of his pomps and his works and not to submit to any of his servitudes and
his pleasures.104

102
A. Cleveland Coxe,“Introductory Note to the Works of Origen” (ANF 4:223), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
103
Origen, Origen de Principiis” (ANF 4:239), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
104
Origen, Homilies on Numbers 12.4 in Everett Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church:
History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries (Grand Rapids; Eerdmans, 2009), 445.

35 [Link]
 In Contra Celsus, Origen references the exorcisms that Christ performed and

refers to how Christians of the day powerfully performed exorcisms through the “grace
which is in the word of Christ,” rather than through the wisdom and learning of men.105

He continues on, emphasizing the power of prayer in exorcism of both humans and
animals.106 Origen also directly connects false religions and their worship in idols, altars,
and temples to direct demonic worship.107

105
“Because for the most part it is unlettered persons who perform this work; thus making
manifest the grace which is in the word of Christ, and the despicable weakness of demons, which, in order
to be overcome and driven out of the bodies and souls of men, do not require the power and wisdom of
those who are mighty in argument, and most learned in matters of faith.” Origen, Contra Celsus (ANF
4:395, 613), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
106
“For ourselves, so far are we from wishing to serve demons, that by the use of prayers and
other means which we learn from Scripture, we drive them out of the souls of men, out of places where
they have established themselves, and even sometimes from the bodies of animals; for even these creatures
often suffer from injuries inflicted upon them by demons.” Origen, Contra Celsus (ANF 4:639). This is the
only reference that suggests demonic establishment over a place.
107
“Hence we are determined to avoid the worship of demons even as we would avoid death;
and we hold that the worship, which is supposed among the Greeks to be rendered to gods at the altars, and
images, and temples, is in reality offered to demons.” Origen, Contra Celsus (ANF 4:640).

36 [Link]
 CYPRIAN

Cyprian (AD 200-258) was the “spiritual son and pupil of Tertullian” but also
known as the “Ignatius of the West.”108 In his Treatises, he begins by emphasizing the
unity of the church. He argues that as Satan’s schemes are thwarted, such as when
Christians leave false religions, he attacks in new ways through infiltration and division.
Cyprian specifically describes these enemy attacks as occurring through “flattering and
deceiving” and by Satan equipping his own ministers to invade the Christian church.109
Cyprian’s awareness of the reality of spiritual warfare continues to reveal itself
throughout his work in reference to the enemy and his ongoing, strategic attacks.

108
A. Cleveland Coxe,“Introductory Notice to Cyprian” (ANF 5:263), accessed December 30,
2013, [Link]
109
Cyprian, The Treatises of Cyprian (ANF 5:421), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

37 [Link]
 NICENE AND POST-NICENE FATHERS

Although the focus of this section of the dissertation is on the early church era,
it is informative to see how the spiritual warfare understanding of Nicene and Post-
Nicene Fathers. This perspective is helpful in determining the continuation or cessation
of particular aspects of spiritual warfare.
EUSEBIUS

Eusebius of Cæsarea ([Link] 260-340) was especially known for his historical
accounts of the early church.110 His writings offer early and extensive accounts of the
office of exorcist when referencing the existence of “52 exorcists” during the time of a
Roman bishop named Cornelius ([Link] 250).111

Novatian’s exorcism and baptism. Eusebius references how a convert named

Novatian, who would eventually become a presbyter, was delivered of Satan’s possession

110
Arthur C. McGiffert “The Life and writings of Eusebius of Cæsarea” (NPNF2 1:3), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
111
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:287), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

38 [Link]
by the exorcists.112 Eusebius describes Novatian’s possession spatially, saying Satan

“entered and dwelt in him for a long time” but does not relate how that possession
manifested itself. He also describes how following his exorcism he became sick to the

point of death. Novatian’s illness continued, but was relieved immediately following his
baptism which is described as “irregular” due to it being conducted by affusion as a
“clinical baptism.”113

The office of exorcist. Eusebius also references exorcists being persecuted

along with other leaders of the churches in “Asia Minor and Syria during the time of the
emperor Diocletian ([Link] 284-305).”114 An explanatory note accompanying this writing
explains that “although we find exorcism very frequently referred to by the Fathers of the
second century, there seems to have been no such office until the third century, the
present being the earliest distinct reference to it.”115 This nineteenth century historian
continues his explanation by stating, “In the fourth century we find the office in all parts

112
“but Satan, who entered and dwelt in him for a long time, became the occasion of his
believing. Being delivered by the exorcists, he fell into a severe sickness; and as he seemed about to die, he
received baptism by affusion, on the bed where he lay; if indeed we can say that such a one did receive it.”
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:288).
113
“There is no reason to doubt that Novatian received clinical baptism, as here stated by
Cornelius. This does not imply, as is commonly supposed, that he was of heathen parentage, for many
Christians postponed baptism as long as possible, in order not to sacrifice baptismal grace by sins
committed after baptism. We do not know whether his parents were heathen or Christians. Upon the
objection to Novatian’s ordination, based upon his irregular baptism.” Eusebius, The Church History of
Eusebius (NPNF2 1:737).
114
Arnold, Three Crucial Questions, 112. “What was to be seen after this exceeds all
description. A vast multitude were imprisoned in every place; and the prisons everywhere, which had long
before been prepared for murderers and robbers of graves, were filled with bishops, presbyters and
deacons, readers and exorcists.” Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:328).
115
“Explanatory Note number 2125: ‘The Exorcists likewise constituted one of the inferior
orders of the clergy; but although we find exorcism very frequently referred to by the Fathers of the second
century, there seems to have been no such office until the third century, the present being the earliest
distinct reference to it. In the fourth century we find the office in all parts of the Church East and West.
Their duty was to take charge of those supposed to be possessed of an evil spirit; to pray with them, care
for them, and exorcise the demon when possible.’ See Bingham, ibid. chap. 4.” Arthur C. McGiffert “The
Life and writings of Eusebius of Cæsarea” (NPNF2 1:3), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

39 [Link]
of the Church East and West. Their duty was to take charge of those supposed to be

possessed of an evil spirit; to pray with them, care for them, and exorcise the demon
when possible.”116

Matrydom of exorcists. Eusebius graphically describes this time of

persecution, explaining,

What was to be seen after this exceeds all description. A vast multitude were
imprisoned in every place; and the prisons everywhere, which had long before been
prepared for murderers and robbers of graves, were filled with bishops, presbyters
and deacons, readers and exorcists, so that room was no longer left in them for those
condemned for crimes.117
Eusebius’ description of these martyrs is specific, naming and describing who
they were. One of the first martyrs was Procopius who was “a lector, interpreter, and
exorcist in the church.”118 Alphæus was another martyr who was “a reader and exorcist in
the church of Cæsarea.”119
One of the more graphic accounts is of Romanus, another exorcist who also
served as a deacon in the parish of Cæsarea. Romanus’s execution in Antioch is
described with great detail for his level of boldness and courage in facing death,

Being arrested for his boldness, he proved a most noble witness of the truth, if there
ever was one. For when the judge informed him that he was to die by fire, he
received the sentence with cheerful countenance and most ready mind, and was led
away. When he was bound to the stake, and the wood piled up around him, as they
were awaiting the arrival of the emperor before lighting the fire, he cried, “Where is
the fire for me?”. . . Having said this, he was summoned again before the emperor,
and subjected to the unusual torture of having his tongue cut out. But he endured
this with fortitude and showed to all by his deeds that the Divine Power is present

116
Ibid.
117
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:849).
118
“The first of the martyrs of Palestine was Procopius . . . We learn from the longer account
that he was a lector, interpreter, and exorcist in the church, and that he was exceedingly ascetic in his
manner of life.” Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:886).
119
Explanatory Note: “We learn from the Syriac version that Zacchæus was a deacon of the
church of Gadara, and that Alphæus belonged to a noble family of the city of Eleutheropolis, and was a
reader and exorcist in the church of Cæsarea.” Arthur C. McGiffert “Explanatory Note” in Eusebius, The
Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:888).
40 [Link]
 with those who endure any hardship whatever for the sake of religion, lightening
their sufferings and strengthening their zeal. When he learned of this strange mode
of punishment, the noble man was not terrified, but put out his tongue readily, and
offered it with the greatest alacrity to those who cut it off.120
The specific examples and detail descriptions offered by Eusebius gives a brief

glimpse at the courage and examples of those who served Christ as exorcists in the early
church.

Demonic sacrifices. Eusebius also helpfully provides examples of the

ongoing demon worship during the time of the early church. He describes a human
sacrifice at Cæsarea Philippi when a Christian named Astyrius boldly intervened for God
to rebuke the demon in order to “bring the men’s delusion to an end.” Immediately
following his request to God, his prayer was publicly answered as “the sacrifice floated
on the surface of the fountain. And thus the miracle departed; and no wonder was ever
afterward performed at the place.”121
Eusebius describes two young virgin girls who were seized by demon
worshippers to be raped, but escaped and committed suicide rather than “surrender their
souls to the slavery of demons.”122 He continues to describe “two other virgins in the

120
“What occurred to Romanus on the same day at Antioch, is also worthy of record. For he
was a native of Palestine, a deacon and exorcist in the parish of Cæsarea.” Eusebius, The Church History of
Eusebius (NPNF2 1:889).
121
“Among these is also the following wonder. At Cæsarea Philippi, which the Phoenicians call
Paneas, springs are shown at the foot of the Mountain Panius, out of which the Jordan flows. They say that
on a certain feast day, a victim was thrown in, and that through the power of the demon it marvelously
disappeared and that which happened was a famous wonder to those who were present. Astyrius was once
there when these things were done, and seeing the multitude astonished at the affair, he pitied their
delusion; and looking up to heaven he supplicated the God over all through Christ, that he would rebuke the
demon who deceived the people, and bring the men’s delusion to an end. And they say that when he had
prayed thus, immediately the sacrifice floated on the surface of the fountain. And thus the miracle departed;
and no wonder was ever afterward performed at the place.” Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius
(NPNF2 1:783).
122
“For, she said, that to surrender their souls to the slavery of demons was worse than all
deaths and destruction; and she set before them the only deliverance from all these things,—escape to
Christ. . . . cast themselves into a river which was flowing by. Thus they destroyed themselves.” Eusebius,
The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:861-62). The explanatory note to this passage sheds light that
this is a unique scenario in the early church where suicide is described in a positive light. In other places it
is universally condemned.
41 [Link]
same city of Antioch who served God in all things” but were captured and “the

worshipers of demons commanded to cast them into the sea. And this was done to
them.”123

Eusebius describes a Roman Emperor, Maxentius, who “resorted to magic.

And in his divinations he cut open pregnant women, and again inspected the bowels of
newborn infants. He slaughtered lions, and performed various execrable acts to invoke
demons and avert war.”124 Another Roman leader from the East, Caesar Maximinus, is
described as honoring his chief of sorcerers and magicians “with the highest rank.
Becoming exceedingly timid and superstitious, he valued greatly the error of idols and
demons. Indeed, without soothsayers and oracles he did not venture to move even a
finger, so to speak.”125

Apphianus: Gospel proclamation in face of demonic worship. Under the

same ruler, the population of Cæsarea was ordered to offer sacrifices, with each person’s
name being called individually to ensure compliance in the year AD 306.126 Eusebius
points out how a fearless youth,

while no one was aware of his intentions, eluded both us who lived in the house
with him and the whole band of soldiers that surrounded the governor, and rushed
up to Urbanus as he was offering libations, and fearlessly seizing him by the right

123
“Thus they destroyed themselves. But there were two other virgins in the same city of
Antioch who served God in all things, and were true sisters, illustrious in family and distinguished in life,
young and blooming, serious in mind, pious in deportment, and admirable for zeal. As if the earth could not
bear such excellence, the worshipers of demons commanded to cast them into the sea. And this was done to
them.” Ibid.
124
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:871).
125
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:872).
126
“For in the second attack upon us under Maximinus, in the third year of the persecution,
edicts of the tyrant were issued for the first time, commanding that the rulers of the cities should diligently
and speedily see to it that all the people offered sacrifices. Throughout the city of Cæsarea, by command of
the governor, the heralds were summoning men, women, and children to the temples of the idols, and
besides this, the chiliarchs were calling out each one by name from a roll, and an immense crowd of the
wicked were rushing together from all quarters.” Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2
1:895).
42 [Link]
 hand, straightway put a stop to his sacrificing, and skillfully and persuasively, with a
certain divine inspiration, exhorted him to abandon his delusion, because it was not
well to forsake the one and only true God, and sacrifice to idols and demons.127
This young man’s name is revealed to be Apphianus.128 His story continues

that after proclaiming the gospel to Governor Urbanus, he was seized, tortuously beaten,
and thrown into prison along with his friends.129 Apphianus was again tortured and
beaten for a night and day in an effort to get him to recant his faith.130 Steadfast in his
faith, he was then was burned alive but still refused to recant his profession of faith.131
Finally, his tormentors cast him into the ocean and the crowd witnessed a “marvelous
sight” when,

But what happened immediately after this will scarcely be believed by those who
did not see it. Although we realize this, yet we must record the event, of which to
speak plainly,all the inhabitants of Cæsarea were witnesses. For truly there was no
age but beheld this marvelous sight. For as soon as they had cast this truly sacred
and thrice-blessed youth into the fathomless depths of the sea, an uncommon
commotion and disturbance agitated the sea and all the shore about it, so that the
land and the entire city were shaken by it. And at the same time with this wonderful
and sudden perturbation, the sea threw out before the gates of the city the body of
the divine martyr, as if unable to endure it.132

127
Ibid.
128
“Such was the death of the wonderful Apphianus. It occurred on the second day of the
month Xanthicus, which is the fourth day before the Nones of April, on the day of preparation.” Ibid.
129
“Thereupon, he of whom we are speaking, and that instantly, as might have been expected
after so bold a deed, was torn by the governor and those who were with him as if by wild beasts. And
having endured manfully innumerable blows over his entire body, he was straightway cast into prison.”
Ibid.
130
“There he was stretched by the tormentor with both his feet in the stocks for a night and a
day; and the next day he was brought before the judge. As they endeavored to force him to surrender, he
exhibited all constancy under suffering and terrible tortures. His sides were torn, not once, or twice, but
many times, to the bones and the very bowels; and he received so many blows on his face and neck that
those who for a long time had been well acquainted with him could not recognize his swollen face.” Ibid.
131
“But as he would not yield under this treatment, the torturers, as commanded, covered his
feet with linen cloths soaked in oil and set them on fire. No word can describe the agonies which the
blessed one endured from this. For the fire consumed his flesh and penetrated to his bones, so that the
humors of his body were melted and oozed out and dropped down like wax. But as he was not subdued by
this, his adversaries being defeated and unable to comprehend his superhuman constancy, cast him again
into prison. A third time he was brought before the judge; and having witnessed the same profession, being
half dead, he was finally thrown into the depths of the sea.” Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius
(NPNF2 1:896).
132
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:896).
43 [Link]
 This martyrdom of a youth, in defiance of “idol and demon” worship in

Cæsarea, attested to by one of the most well-known church historians, is important to

recognize and remember. These martyrdoms attest to the reality of the demonic and the

determination of believers to remain faithful to God, no matter the cost to themselves.

Demonic immorality and Constantine’s fidelity. Eusebius also specifically

mentions Emperor Constantine’s destruction of a particular idol temple at Aphaca, whose

demon was known by its name Venus, and whose focus was on “destroying men’s bodies
with effeminacy.” Eusebius explains,

It was a school of wickedness for all the votaries of impurity, and such as destroyed
their bodies with effeminacy. Here men undeserving of the name forgot the dignity
of their sex, and propitiated the demon by their effeminate conduct; here too
unlawful commerce of women and adulterous intercourse, with other horrible and
infamous practices, were perpetrated in this temple as in a place beyond the scope
and restraint of law.133
Constantine is also described as ordering the destruction of a temple dedicated
towards the healing demon Æsculapius at Ægae in Cilicia along with many other temples
dedicated towards demons.134 Eusebius helpfully highlights and praises Constantine’s
obedience to and love towards God in describing his actions in contrast to his
predecessors who worshiped and celebrated the demonic.135

133
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:1344).
134
Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius (NPNF2 1:1345).
135
“At a time when four emperors shared the administration of the Roman Empire, Constantius
alone, following a course of conduct different from that pursued by his colleagues, entered into the
friendship of the Supreme God. For while they besieged and wasted the churches of God, leveling them to
the ground, and obliterating the very foundations of the houses of prayer, he kept his hands pure from their
abominable impiety, and never in any respect resembled them. They polluted their provinces by the
indiscriminate slaughter of godly men and women; but he kept his soul free from the stain of this crime.
They, involved in the mazes of impious idolatry, enthralled first themselves, and then all under their
authority, in bondage to the errors of evil demons, while he at the same time originated the profoundest
peace throughout his dominions, and secured to his subjects the privilege of celebrating without hindrance
the worship of God.” Eusebius Pamphilus, Ecclesiastical History 4:43, CCEL 1165; “And he alone of all
who have wielded the imperial power of Rome, being honored by the Supreme Sovereign with a reign of
three decennial periods, now celebrates this festival, not, as his ancestors might have done, in honor of
infernal demons, or the apparitions of seducing spirits, or of the fraud and deceitful arts of impious men;
but as an act of thanksgiving to him by whom he has thus been honored, and in acknowledgment of the
44 [Link]
 ATHANASIUS AND CYRIL

Athanasius of Alexandria (c. AD 298-373) was an early church father

especially known for his role in the Arian controversy at the Council of Nicæa (AD
325).136 He makes particular reference to the symbol of Christ’s cross as a form of power
against demons.137 Cyril of Jerusalem (c. AD 313-386) also makes similar references to
the power of the sign of the cross.138 Cyril mentions “exorcised oil” as “a charm to drive
away every trace of hostile influence” in a way that is similar to “the breathing of the
saints and the invocation of the Name of God.”139

blessings he has received at his hands. He does not, in imitation of ancient usage, defile his imperial
mansions with blood and gore, nor propitiate the infernal deities with fire and smoke, and sacrificial
offerings; but dedicates to the universal Sovereign a pleasant and acceptable sacrifice, even his own
imperial soul, and a mind truly fitted for the service of God.” Eusebius, The Church History of Eusebius
(NPNF2 1:1487-88).
136
Archibald Robertson, “Life of St. Athanasius and Account of Arianism” (NPNF2 4:14),
accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
137
Athanasius, One the Incarnation of the Word (NPNF2 4:36), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
138
Cyril, The Catechetical Lectures of S. Cyril, Archbishop of Jerusalem (NPNF2 7:82),
accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
139
“For as the breathing of the saints, and the invocation of the Name of God, like fiercest
flame, scorch and drive out evil spirits, so also this exorcised oil receives such virtue by the invocation of
God and by prayer, as not only to burn and cleanse away the traces of sins, but also to chase away all the
45 [Link]
 AMBROSE

Ambrose (AD 340-397) was an archbishop of Milan, referred to by Augustine

as “a faithful teacher of the Church, and even at the risk of his life a most strenuous
defender of Catholic truth.”140 In a lengthy and detailed description of the church’s
practice of baptism, Ambrose makes mention of an interesting renunciation component to
the process of baptism. Ambrose describes the new believer, immediately before
baptism, facing west and renouncing “the devil and his works, the world with its luxury
and pleasures.” After this renunciation towards the devil, “as it were to his face,”
Ambrose describes the initiated Christian turning to face to the east and “to Christ, and
beholds Him face to face” as he prepares to enter into baptism.141 This renunciation is

invisible powers of the evil one.” Cyril, The Catechetical Lectures of S. Cyril, Archbishop of Jerusalem
(NPNF2 7:147).
140
Philip Schaff, “Prolegomena to [Link]” (NPNF2 10:12), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
141
“After this the Holy of holies was opened to you, you entered the sanctuary of regeneration;
recall what you were asked, and remember what you answered. You renounced the devil and his works, the
world with its luxury and pleasures. That utterance of yours is preserved not in the tombs of the dead, but in
the book of the living. . . . You entered, then, that you might discern your adversary, whom you were to
renounce as it were to his face, then you turned to the east; for he who renounces the devil turns to Christ,
and beholds Him face to face.” Ambrose, On the Mysteries (NPNF2 10:315), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

46 [Link]
similar in form to exorcism and renunciation rites communicated by Tertullian ([Link]

145-220), Hippolytus (AD 170-236), Origen (AD 185–254), Cyprian (AD 200-58), and
Augustine (AD 354-430).142

142
“And a deacon should carry the oil of exorcism and stand on the left hand of the presbyter,
and another deacon shall take the oil of the thanksgiving and stand on the right hand of the presbyter. And
when the presbyter has taken hold of each one of those who will be baptized, let him command him to
renounce [apostassesthai], saying: ‘I renounce thee, Satanas, and all thy service and all thy works.’ And
when he has renounced all these, let him anoint him with the oil of exorcism, saying, ‘Let all spirits remove
far from thee.’ And then let him give him to the bishop named, or [to] the presbyter who stands at the
water for baptizing.” Hippolytus, Apostolic Traditions in Kelly, The Devil at Baptism, 89; “The idea of
renunciation is, of course, present in all religious conversions and initiations. When a person turns from
one form of life to embrace another, the old ways must necessarily be rejected, especially those practices
most inimical to the new beliefs and style of life.” Kelly, The Devil at Baptism, 94-105.

47 [Link]
 AUGUSTINE

Augustine (AD 354-430) was “the greatest and most influential of all the
Christian Fathers.”143 His impact on church theology was monumental. As the church
matured and expanded, his writings reveal the ongoing consideration and practice of
spiritual warfare. In his message, On the Creed: a Sermon to the Catechumens, he
references the ongoing process of exorcism, stating that “even little children undergo
exsufflation, exorcism; to drive away from them the power of the devil their enemy,
which deceived man that it might possess mankind.”144
In The City of God, Augustine describes demons as “false and deceitful
mediators” who seek to turn Christians “aside and hinder our spiritual progress; they do
not help us towards God, but rather prevent us from reaching Him.”145 Augustine argues
that spiritual warfare not only prevents salvation, but also prevents sanctification. These

143
Philip Schaff, “Preface to The Confessions and Letters of Saint Augustine” (NPNF1 1:5),
accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
144
Augustine, On the Creed: a Sermon to the Catechumens (NPNF1 3:370), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
145
Augustine, The City of God (NPNF1 2:176), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

48 [Link]
brief references represent a much wider collections of Augustine’s theological and

practical consideration of spiritual warfare.

49 [Link]
 JOHN CHRYSOSTOM

John Chrysostom (AD 347-404) is argued to be “the greatest pulpit orator and
commentator of the Greek Church, and still deservedly enjoys the highest honor in the
whole Christian world.”146 In his Treatise on the Christian Priesthood, Chrysostom
highlights the importance of understanding the spiritual warfare that rages around
humanity. He describes a massive and comprehensive military battle in human
terminology, only to relate that if one could see the “devil’s most gloomy battle array”
they would realize it to be a “far greater and more formidable conflict.”147 He argues that
no man must be unaware of “the wounds given by the devil” lest “his danger becomes the
greater for his insensibility.”148
Chrysostom refers to demons as “unclean spirits” that “will not cease
assaulting to the last breath” and as creatures that hold “many forms of craft and

146
Chrysostom, Prolegomena (NPNF1 9:6), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
ccel/schaff/[Link].
147
Chrysostom, Treatises Concerning the Christian Priesthood (NPNF1 9:74), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
148
Ibid.

50 [Link]
deceit.”149 He holds that humans have two options in life, “either to fall and perish

unarmed, or to stand equipped and ever watchful.”150 Chrysostom continues to elaborate

on the devil and his demons, explaining that he gives so much attention to this doctrine

because it “is full of security for you. For he is an enemy and a foe, and it is a great
security to know clearly, the tactics of your enemies.” He describes spiritual warfare as
“not ordinary matters” but a complicated battlefield that pits the “faithful against
unbelievers” but also “the faithful against the faithful.”151 The controversial nature of
spiritual warfare is one which begs the depth of consideration that Chrysostom gives it.
In series of sermons on demons, Chrysostom communicates,

alternately the note of warning and encouragement,—warning against that

weakness, indolence, languor of moral purpose which occasions a fall,—
encouragement to use to the full all the powers with which man is gifted, in reliance
on God’s forbearance and love, and on His willingness to help those who do not
despair of themselves.152
The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers communicate a biblically balanced
reminder and warning of the importance of understanding spiritual warfare. Their
descriptions are mostly in line with those of the early church era.

149
Chrysostom, Treatises Concerning the Christian Priesthood (NPNF1 9:74).
150
Ibid.
151
Chrysostom, Three Homilies Concerning the Power of Demons (NPNF1 9:178), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
152
W. R. W. Stephens, “Introduction to The Three Homilies Concerning the Power of
Demons” (NPNF1 9:177), accessed December 30, 2013.

51 [Link]
 THE SEVEN ECUMENICAL COUNCILS

In addition to looking at the early church fathers for insight into their
understanding of the theology and practice of spiritual warfare, one can also look to early
church doctrine. This doctrine is often best seen through the first seven ecumenical
councils: First Council of Nicaea (AD 325), First Council of Constantinople (AD 381),
Council of Ephesus (AD 431), Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), Second Council of
Constantinople (AD 553), Third Council of Constantinople (AD 680), and Second
Council of Nicaea (AD 787).
The Canons of the Holy and Altogether August Apostles is a collection of early
church law, most of which are prior to AD 300. In one of these early canons, a
prohibition is given against clergymen with “devils.”153 At the Synod of Laodicea (AD
363), there is a prohibition given against the clergy and priesthood practicing magic,
enchantment, astrology, or math. Clergy are also prohibited from making “what are

153
“If anyone has a devil, let him not be made a clergyman, neither let him pray with the
faithful; but if he be freed, let him be received into communion, and if he is worthy he may be ordained.”
The Canons of the Holy and Altogether August Apostles (NPNF2 14:594), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]

52 [Link]
called amulets, which are chains for their own souls.”154 The Canons of the Two

Hundred Holy and Blessed Fathers Who Met at Ephesus (AD 431) describe and condemn
a Messalian sect that believed “that everyone inherited from his ancestors a demon.”155

The Canons of the Council of Orange (AD 529) addressed the controversy between
Augustine and Pelagius in salvation. In its seventh canon, they assert that a false
understanding of agency in salvation occurs when one “is led astray by a heretical
spirit.”156
At the fifth ecumenical council, The Second Council of Constantinople (AD
553), Origen is anathematized regarding some of his particular views regarding
demons.157 A continuation of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, The Canons of the Council
in Trullo, met in approximately AD 691. One of their canons describes the punishment
of those who feign demonic possessions and manifestations, stating that “they should be
subjected to afflictions and hardships of the same kind as those to which they who are
truly demoniacally possessed.”158 A 12th century commentator on this canon, John

154
“The Anathematisms of Emporer Justinian Against Origen . . . V. If anyone shall say that a
psychic (ψυχικὴν) condition has come from an angelic or archangelic state, and moreover that a demoniac
and a human condition has come from a psychic condition, and that from a human state they may become
again angels and demons, and that each order of heavenly virtues is either all from those below or from
those above, or from those above and below: let him be anathema. . . . VI. If anyone shall say that there is a
twofold race of demons, of which the one includes the souls of men and the other the superior spirits who
fell to this . . . VII. If anyone says or thinks that Christ the Lord in a future time will be crucified for
demons as he was for men, let him be anathema. . . . IX. If anyone says or thinks that the punishment of
demons and of impious men is only temporary, and will one day have an end, and that a restoration
(ἀποκατάστασις) will take place of demons and of impious men, let him be anathema.” The Canons of the
Synod Held in the City of Laodicea, in Phrygia Pacatiana, in which Many Blessed Fathers from Divers
Provinces of Asia Were Gathered Together (NPNF2 14:151), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
155
Note on the Messalians or Massalians (NPNF2 14:241), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
156
Canons of the Council of Orange, Bible Study Tools, accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
157
The Anathematisms of the Emperor Justinian Against Origen (NPNF2 14:320), accessed
December 30, 2013, [Link]
158
The Canons of the Council in Trullo (NPNF2 14:392), accessed December 30, 2013,
[Link]
53 [Link]
Zonaras, says that even in his day people made the same claim to demonic possession.159

An additional canon from Trullo states that those “who tell fortunes and fates, and
genealogy . . . those who are called expellers of clouds, enchanters, amulet-givers, and

soothsayers” should be thrown out of the church.160

The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in
Constantinople (AD 754) represented that the introduction of icon worship through the
pictures of the Saints was “introduced by the devil” and was not to be followed.161 In the
seventh ecumenical council at the Second Council of Nicaea (AD 787), bishop Basil of
Ancyra asks to be restored to fellowship while resisting future “fraud of the devil.”162 He
mentions the “grace” bestowed by the Apostles and Fathers “even down to us today” for
“the healing of diseases and the curing of sicknesses and the casting out of devils.”163

159
John Zonaras, “Ancient Epitome of Canon LX in The Canons of the Council in Trullo”
2
(NPNF 14:392), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
160
The Canons of the Council in Trullo (NPNF2 14:393).
161
The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in Constantinople
(A.D. 754) (NPNF2 14:543), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
[Link].
162
The Seventh Ecumenical Council. The Second Council of Nice. Extracts from the Acts
(NPNF2 14:533), accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
163
Ibid.

54 [Link]
 THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION FORWARD

During the Protestant Reformation, occasional references to spiritual warfare

are seen through some of the church’s leaders, confessions, and catechisms. Martin
Luther (AD 1517) suggests that evil “is the pure work of the devil” and acts through
human devices such as “fire-brands, bullets, torches, spears, and swords,” but only
“where God permits” and emphasizes repentance as a crucial element in the life of
believers.164 In The Ausburg Confession (AD 1530), Philip Melancthon writes that the
“Cause of Sin” is the “will of the wicked, of the devil and ungodly men.”165
In The Geneva Confession (AD 1536), John Calvin labels Catholic churches as
“synagogues of the devil” since “the Gospel is not declared, heard, and received.”166
John Calvin, in his Institutes (AD 1536), makes many references to spiritual warfare, to

164
“Evil Angels” in Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, 643, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
165
Philip Melancthon, The Confession of Faith: Which Was Submitted to His Imperial Majesty
Charles V At the Diet of Augsburg in the Year 1530, 19, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
166
John Calvin, The Geneva Confession, 18, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]

55 [Link]
include descriptions of the great number of demons and Satan’s destructive schemes.167

He elaborates that “Satan cannot possibly do anything against the will and consent of
God” but also describes the powerful, ongoing work of the unclean spirits.168 Calvin also

cautions believers from erring in imagining that “they have no enemy and thereby be
more remiss or less cautious in resisting.”169 The Scots Confession (AD 1560) explains
how Satan has tried from the beginning to associate his followers with Christ’s church.170
In The Heidelberg Catechism (AD 1563), one of the great comforts of the
believer is in knowing that Christ has “delivered me from all the power of the devil.”171
In understanding sin, The Heidelberg Catechism explains that sin occurs through “the
instigation of the devil (John 8:44; 2 Corinthians 11:3; Genesis 3:4) and his own wilful
disobedience.”172 This catechism also teaches that believers are to petition God for help,
for their “mortal enemies, the devil (1 Peter 5:8; Ephesians 6:12) the world, (John 15:19)

167
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 140, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link] /calvin/[Link].
168
John Calvin states that “God thus turning the unclean spirits hither and thither at his
pleasure, employs them in exercising believers by warring against them, assailing them with wiles, urging
them with solicitations, pressing close upon them, disturbing, alarming, and occasionally wounding, but
never conquering or oppressing them; whereas they hold the wicked in thralldom, exercise dominion over
their minds and bodies, and employ them as bond-slaves in all kinds of iniquity. . . . I deny that believers
can ever be oppressed or vanquished by him. They are often, indeed, thrown into alarm, but never so
thoroughly as not to recover themselves. They fall by the violence of the blows, but they get up again; they
are wounded, but not mortally. In fine, they labour on through the whole course of their lives, so as
ultimately to gain the victory, though they meet with occasional defeats. . . . For as believers are recognised
to be the sons of God by bearing his image, so the wicked are properly regarded as the children of Satan,
from having degenerated into his image.” John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, 140. This quote
advocates for a sort of self-recovery of believers.
169
Ibid.
170
“Since Satan has labored from the beginning to adorn his pestilent synagogue with the title
of the Kirk of God.” The Scots Confession, 18, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
171
The Heidelberg Catechism, 1, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
172
Ibid., 9.

56 [Link]
and our own flesh, (Romans 7:23; Galatians 5:17) cease not to assault.”173 Believers are

called to preserve and be strengthened by the Holy Spirit, so that they “may not be
overcome in this spiritual warfare (Matthew 26:41; Mark 13:33), but constantly and

strenuously may resist our foes, till at last we obtain a complete victory (1 Thessalonians
3:13; 1 Thessalonians 5:23).”174 The Heidelberg Catechism is one of the earliest uses of
the terminology of “spiritual warfare.”
The Second Helvetic Confession (AD 1566) describes the devil and demons,
while describing the process of repentance as a “sincere turning to God and all good, and
earnest turning away from the devil and all evil.”175 The writer also describes at baptism
how believers “are enlisted in the holy military service of Christ that all our life long we
should fight against the world, Satan, and our own flesh.”176 The Second Helvetic
Confession argues that exorcism was added to baptism such as one of man’s devices and
not in the example of Christ.177 Finally, the Second Helvetic Confession provides helpful
understanding to the apparition of spirits as “laughingstocks, crafts, and deceptions of the
devil.”178

173
Ibid., 127.
174
The Heidelberg Catechism, 127.
175
“Others fell of their own free will and were cast into destruction, becoming enemies of all
good and of the faithful.” The Second Helvetic Confession, 7-14, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
[Link].
176
Ibid., 20.
177
Ibid.
178
“APPARITION OF SPIRITS. Now what is related of the spirits or souls of the dead
sometimes appearing to those who are alive, and begging certain duties of them whereby they may be set
free, we count those apparitions among the laughingstocks, crafts, and deceptions of the devil, who, as he
can transform himself into an angel of light, so he strives either to overthrow the true faith or to call it into
doubt. In the Old Testament the Lord forbade the seeking of the truth from the dead, and any sort of
commerce with spirits (Deut. 18:11). Indeed, as evangelical truth declares, the glutton, being in torment, is
denied a return to his brethren, as the divine oracle declared in the words: ‘They have Moses and the
prophets; let them hear them. If they hear not Moses and the prophets, neither will they be convinced if
some one should rise from the dead’ (Luke 16:29 ff.).” Ibid., 26.

57 [Link]
 Outside of the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church published the

Rituale Romanum (AD 1614) to give specific instructions and clarity to the exorcism
process.179 The Westminster Longer Catechism (AD 1648) references demons,

consultations and oaths with the devil, and sanctification as essential in understanding
spiritual warfare.180 The London Baptist Confession (AD 1689) identifies one avenue of
temptation being from the “power of Satan.”181 The Episcopal Catechism (AD 1789)
specifically requires the renunciation of Satan at baptism.182
Charles Hodge (AD 1797-1878) makes many references to Satan and his
demons in his doctrine of angelic beings.183 Hodge explains that Christians are to be
aware of demonic attacks and “called upon to resist them, not in their own strength, but in
the strength of the Lord.”184 He gives attention to demonic possession in the Scriptures,
explaining that possessions still may occur but that “we should abstain from asserting the
fact of Satanic or demoniacal influence or possession in any case where the phenomena
can be otherwise accounted for.”185

179
Rituale Romanum, accessed December 30, 2013, [Link]
Roman%20Rite%20of%[Link].
180
The Westminster Longer Catechism, 19, 105, 195, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link] history/creeds-confessions/catechisms/the-westminster-larger-
[Link].
181
The London Baptist Confession, accessed January 4, 2014, [Link]
history/creeds-confessions/confessions/[Link].
182
“Question 94: What is required of us at Baptism? Answer 94: It is required that we renounce
Satan, repent of our sins, and accept Jesus as our Lord and Savior.” The Episcopal Catechism, 5, accessed
January 4, 2014, [Link]
[Link].
183
“As to the power and agency of these evil spirits, they are represented as being exceedingly
numerous, as everywhere efficient, as having access to our world, and as operating in nature and in the
minds of men. The same limitations, of course, belong to their agency as belong to that of the holy angels.
(1.) They are dependent on God, and can act only under his control and by his permission. (2.) Their
operations must be according to the laws of nature, and, (3.) They cannot interfere with the freedom and
responsibility of men.” Hodge, Systematic Theology, 643.
184
Ibid.
185
“These demoniacal possessions were of two kinds. First, those in which the soul alone was
58 [Link]
 The Baltimore Complete Catechism (AD 1885) also describes Satan’s

temptation and how in order “to overcome his temptations we need the help of God.”186
Charles Spurgeon explains in A Puritan Confession (AD 1855) that Christ has purchased

freedom “from the guilt of sin, the condemning wrath of God, the curse of the moral law .
. . from this present evil world, bondage to Satan, and dominion of sin.”187 In many of
his sermons, Spurgeon shows an ongoing awareness of spiritual warfare. One of his
sermons, “Satan Considering the Saints,” he describes how Satan seeks to do Christians
great injury, cause worry, prevent their usefulness, and incite error.188 In another sermon,
“The Devil’s Last Throw,” Spurgeon shares his uncertainty about Satanic possession
while admitting that “some men exhibit symptoms which are very like it.”189 He affirms
Satanic attacks through blasphemous thoughts in his own mind and recounts the torment
of individuals as they seek to come to Christ.190 Spurgeon asserts that when someone

the subject of the diabolic influence, as in the case of the ‘damsel possessed with a spirit of divination,’
mentioned in Acts xvi. 16. Secondly, those in which the bodies alone, or as was more frequently the case,
both the body and mind were the subjects of this spiritual influence. By possession is meant the
inhabitation of an evil spirit in such relation to the body and soul as to exert a controlling influence,
producing violent agitations and great suffering, both mental and corporeal. . . . There is no special
improbability in the doctrine of demoniacal possessions. Evil spirits do exist. They have access to the
minds and bodies of men. Why should we refuse to believe, on the authority of Christ, that they were
allowed to have special power over some men? . . . We are not to deny what are plainly recorded in the
Scriptures as facts on this subject; we have no right to assert that Satan and his angels do not now in any
cases produce similar effects; but we should abstain from asserting the fact of Satanic or demoniacal
influence or possession in any case where the phenomena can be otherwise accounted for.” Ibid.
186
The Baltimore Complete Catechism, 230-32, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
[Link]?p=5.
187
Charles Spurgeon, A Puritan Confession, 20, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
188
Charles Spurgeon, “Satan Considering the Saints,” A Sermon (No. 623) delivered April 9,
1865 at the Metropolitan Tabernacle, Newington, England, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
189
“The present existence of demons within the bodies of men I shall neither assert nor deny;
but certainly, in our Savior's day it was very common for devils to take possession of men and torment
them greatly.” Charles Spurgeon, “The Devil’s Last Throw,” A Sermon (No. 1746) delivered June 10, 1883
at the Metropolitan Tabernacle, Newington, England, accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]
190
“I will tell you what happened to me. I was engaged in prayer alone in a quiet place one day
59 [Link]
becomes a believer possession is no longer an issue, for if “Christ turns the devil out of

him he shall enter into that man no more forever.”191

when I had just found the Savior, and while I was in prayer a most horrible stream of blasphemies came
into my mind, till I clapped my hand to my mouth for fear that I should utter any one of them. I was so
brought up that I do not remember ever hearing a man swear while I was a child; yet at that moment I
seemed to know all the swearing and blasphemy that ever was in hell itself; and I wondered at myself. I
could not understand whence this foul stream proceeded. I wrote to my venerable grandfather who was fur
[sic] sixty years a minister of the gospel, and he said to me,—‘Do not trouble about it. These are no
thoughts of yours; they are injected into your mind by Satan. The thoughts of man follow one another like
the links of a chain, one link draws on another; but when a man is in prayer the next natural thought to
prayer is not blasphemy; it is not, therefore, a natural secession of our own thoughts. An evil spirit casts
those thoughts into the mind.’” Ibid.
191
Spurgeon, “The Devil’s Last Throw.”

60 [Link]
 SUMMARY OF THE HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING
OF SPIRITUAL WARFARE

As the writings and experiences of the early church fathers show, spiritual
warfare has consistently revealed itself in history in both evangelism and discipleship. In
surveying the history of the church, it is clear that certain aspects of spiritual warfare
seem to not be emphasized. There are no apparent references to territorial spirits or
strategic level spiritual warfare. Rituals or formulaic prayers are seldom described or
encouraged and amulets are clearly discouraged. Ancestral spirits are only referenced in
relation to a condemned heretical cult. Dialoguing, naming, and human techniques are
rarely discussed.
The armor of God analogy as a spiritual warfare metaphor and concept is
consistently reinforced through the teachings and writings of the church fathers. Power
in spiritual warfare is found through humility, prayer, the name of Christ, a truthful
understanding of God, and the Word of God. Satan’s attacks are seen on an individual
level through deception, temptation, heresies, idol worship, false religions, sickness, and
mental attacks. The devil also attacks the church corporately through heresy, division,
and complacency.
61 [Link]
 Exorcism is mentioned and described in church history, leaving no room for

doubt that “numerous accounts of demonization and exorcism as well as descriptions of

the deceptive work of demons in pagan religions fill the writings of the church

fathers.”192 Despite the attention given to exorcism, believers are consistently referenced
as not being possessed. When described, exorcism appears to happen at the point of
conversion, when there is found “clear accounts of initiatory rituals directed against evil
spirits.”193 Demonic manifestations and apparitions are referenced, but caution is given
in regard to since deceptions can occur in spiritual warfare. Repentance, renunciation
and “confession of all their previous sins” were also seen as an important connection with
baptism either as an exorcistic or apotropaic practice.194
Early Christian references to the demonic can be found in the writings of Justin
Martyr, Theophilus of Antioch, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Origen, Athanasius and many
other early church fathers. Not only is spiritual warfare documented constantly “through
the whole time period of the ancient church,” but spiritual warfare is also seen during the
Middle Ages, the Reformation, and the early post-Reformation.195 Exorcism practices

192
Arnold, Three Crucial Questions, 25.
193
“They are described or alluded to in the writings of Tertullian in Carthage and in the
Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus in Rome.” Kelly, The Devil at Baptism, 81.
194
“The devil was associated with the rule of the world both by Theodotus and by Christian and
Jewish tradition, so that, if orthodox Christians began to renounce both the world and the world ruler Satan
in imitation of the gnostic precedent, they could do so with no suggestion of heterodoxy. Even before the
time of Theodotus, in fact, Justin Martyr said that Christians had renounced (apotassesthai) the things that
were in the world (kosmos); and as I noted earlier, he also spoke of their renunciation of idols, which he
regarded, so to speak, as machinae ex diablo. The so called Second Letter of Clement to the Corinthians
also mentions a renunciation of the world, using the word, aiōn, meaning ‘age.’ Tertullian, Augustine, and
Rufinus (the later as translator of Origen) use the corresponding Latin word saeculum (rather than mundus,
the equivalent of kosmos) when speaking of renunciation of the world, which they linked to baptism”
(Kelly, The Devil at Baptism, 96). Kelly goes on, “Tertullian, however, regarded it not as exorcistic but
rather as apotropaic, that is, as directed against lapses into sin in the future. He advises candidates to
devote themselves before baptism to much prayer, fasting, kneeling, and watching, and to confess all their
previous sins, so that the past might be atoned for and defenses acquired for resisting future temptations.”
(ibid., 106). Apotropaic practice is to prevent future attacks or to diminish their power.
195
Oscar Skarsaune, “Possession and Exorcism in the Literature of the Ancient Church and the
New Testament,” in Deliver Us from Evil Consultation (Nairobi: Lausanne Committee for World

62 [Link]
seem “to diminish in the Middle Ages,” but are still referenced among the Germanic

tribes, Norwegians, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Martin Luther, the Catholic Church’s
1614 Rituale Romanum (exorcism guidelines), and other sources.196 The existence and

activity of the devil and demons are widely evidenced and commonly believed across the
history of the church until the post-Enlightenment era.
This survey of the historical writings, characters, and confessions of the
Christian Church reinforces the importance of having an historical understanding of
spiritual warfare. Power encounters through exorcism are mentioned throughout this
church history. The greatest emphasis of early church writings is not on the power and
responsibility of the priest or church leader, but on the power of Christ and the
responsibility of the believer. Regardless of the frequency and consistency of spiritual
warfare accounts in history, these experiences, teachings, and theologies must always be
examined in light of Scripture.

Evangelization 2000), accessed January 4, 2014, [Link]

[Link].
196
Tormod Engelsviken, “Historical Overview 3,” in Deliver Us from Evil Consulation
(Nairobi: Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 2000), accessed January 4, 2014,
[Link]

63 [Link]
 SPIRITUAL WARFARE OCCURRENCES IN THE BIBLE

• Genesis 3:1, 4 – Satan the Serpent

• Genesis 50:20 – Relationship between Evil and Good
• Leviticus 16:6-10 – God’s Atoning Sacrifices
• Leviticus 17:7 – Demonic Sacrifices
• Leviticus 19:26 – Omens and Fortunes
• Leviticus 19:31; 20:6,27 – Mediums and Necromancers
• Deuteronomy 7:25-26 – Idols
• Deuteronomy 18:10-12 – Human Sacrifices, Divination, Fortunes, Omens,
Sorcerer, Charmer, Medium, Necromancer, Inquires of the Dead
• Deuteronomy 32:16-18 – Sacrifices to Demons
• 1 Samuel 16:14-16, 23 – Harmful spirit from the Lord
• 1 Samuel 28 & 1 Chronicles 10:13-14 – Saul and the Medium of En-Dor
• 2 Samuel 24:1; 2 Samuel 24:10, 15; 1 Chronicles 21:1 – Numbering of Israel
• 1 Kings 22:19-23; 2 Chronicles 18:19-27 ; Jeremiah 14:14 – Micaiah’s Vision and
the Lying Spirit, Lying Vision, Worthless Divination, and the Deceit of their Own
Minds
• 2 Kings 6:11-23 – Elisha and his servant – horses and chariots of fire
• 2 Chronicles 7:14 – Repentance
• 2 Chronicles 33:1-13 – Manasseh’s evil but eventual repentance
• Job 1 and 2 – Satan’s Access to God and Attack of Job
• Job 4:12-21 – Eliphaz’s Nighttime encounter
• Job 33:29-30; Job 35:9; Job 37:14; Job 42:1-3,6; Job 42:12 – Job’s Progression
• Psalm 106:36-38 – Idol and Demonic worship connected together and with
human sacrifice
• Psalm 115:4-8 – Idols and their futility

64 [Link]
• Isaiah 8:19-22 – Futility of Mediums and Necromancers
• Isaiah 9:6 – Names of God
• Isaiah 14:3-23 – Fallen from Heaven
• Isaiah 26:13-15 – Dead described as “shades”
• Isaiah 29:4 - “Like the voice of a ghost”
• Ezekiel 13:17-23 – Magic Bands, Veils, Hunting for Souls
• Ezekiel 28:11-19 – King of Tyre
• Daniel 2:10-11, 17-19, 27-30, 45 – Inability of Demons and Humans to Read
Minds and Dreams
• Daniel 4:34 – Nebuchadnezzar and reason
• Zechariah 3:1-7 – The Lord’s Rebuke of Satan
• Matthew 4:1-11—Satan’s Temptation of Jesus
• Matthew 10:1 – Disciples’ Authority to Drive Out Demons, Heal
• Matthew 12:28-30 – Driving Out Demons & “Strong Man”
• Matthew 12:43-45 (also Luke 11:24-26) – Must be filled with God
• Matthew 16:23 – Jesus’ Rebuke of Peter
• Matthew 17:14-20 – Jesus’ Healing of a Boy with a Demon
• Matthew 24:35 – Eternal Nature of God’s Words
• Matthew 26:53 – Jesus’ Access to Angels
• Mark 1:23-28 – Casting Out of a Demon in a Galilean Synagogue
• Mark 1:32-34 – Many Demons Cast Out
• Mark 5:19-20 – God’s Mercy Seen in Casting Out Demons
• Mark 9:28-29 – Demon driven out by Jesus through prayer
• Luke 8:1-2 – Mary Magdalene had seven demons, women with Jesus healed of
evil spirits and physically as well
• Luke 10:17-20 – 72 return
• Luke 11:24-26 (also Matthew 12:43-45) – Empty House
• Luke 22:31-32 – Jesus’ Prayer for Peter
• John 13:2 – Devil and Judas
• Acts 5:3-5 – Satan and Ananias
• Acts 5:12-16 – Healed of unclean spirits
• Acts 8:4-8 – Unclean spirits coming out
• Acts 8:9-13 – Simon the magician
• Acts 10:38 - Jesus “healing all who were under the power of the devil” (part of
comprehensive gospel presentation by Peter in Acts 10:34-43)
• Acts 13:8-11 - Elymas the magician
• Acts 16:16-18 – Girl harassing Paul and others
• Acts 19:11-12 – God’s power through Paul and handkerchiefs and aprons
• Acts 19:14-16 – Seven sons of Sceva
• Acts 19:18-20 – Repentance, Confession, Burning of Magic Books
• Romans 3:23 “for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.”
• Romans 6:23 “For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life
in Christ Jesus our Lord.”

65 [Link]
• Romans 8:1-2 “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in
Christ Jesus. For the law of the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus from
the law of sin and death.”
• Romans 8:15 “For you did not receive a spirit that makes you a slave again to
fear, but you received the Spirit of sonship. And by him we cry, ‘Abba, Father.’”
• Romans 8:26-27 “In the same way, the Spirit helps us in our weakness. We do not
know what we ought to pray for, but the Spirit himself intercedes for us with
groans that words cannot express. And he who searches our hearts knows the
mind of the Spirit, because the Spirit intercedes for the saints in accordance with
God's will.”
• Romans 8:31-39 – Security of the Believer
• Romans 10:9-10 “because, if you confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and
believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For
with the heart one believes and is justified, and with the mouth one confesses and
is saved.”
• Romans 12:1-2 – Bodies offered as living sacrifices
• Romans 12:9, 11-12 “Love must be sincere. Hate what is evil; cling to what is
good . . . Never be lacking in zeal, but keep your spiritual fervor, serving the
Lord. Be joyful in hope, patient in affliction, faithful in prayer.”
• Romans 12:19-21 – Do not be overcome by evil
• Romans 13:1-2 – submission to government
• Romans 13:11-14 – put on the armor of light
• 1 Corinthians 5:4-5 – “deliver this man to Satan”
• 1 Corinthians 7:5 – sexual intimacy in marriage and Satan’s temptation
• 1 Corinthians 10:20-22 – pagan sacrifices to demons
• 1 Corinthians 12:7-11 – manifestation of the Holy Spirit
• 1 Corinthians 12:27-31 – roles and gifts within the church
• 1 Corinthians 14:20 – infants in evil, mature in thinking
• 1 Corinthians 15:24-26 “Then comes the end, when he delivers the kingdom to
God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority and power. For he
must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. The last enemy to be
destroyed is death.”
• 2 Corinthians 2:10-11 – forgiveness and Satan’s designs
• 2 Corinthians 4:3-6 – god of this world
• 2 Corinthians 11:14-15 “And no wonder, for Satan himself masquerades as an
angel of light. It is not surprising, then, if his servants masquerade as servants of
righteousness. Their end will be what their actions deserve.”
• 2 Corinthians 12:7-10 “So to keep me from becoming conceited because of the
surpassing greatness of the revelations, a thorn was given me in the flesh, a
messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited. Three
times I pleaded with the Lord about this, that it should leave me. But he said to
me, ‘My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness.’
Therefore I will boast all the more gladly of my weaknesses, so that the power of
Christ may rest upon me. For the sake of Christ, then, I am content with
weaknesses, insults, hardships, persecutions, and calamities. For when I am weak,
66 [Link]
 then I am strong.” NOTE: Paul’s use of “messenger” is the Greek word angelos,
which in his 33 other uses of it in the Scriptures it is translated “angel.”
• Galatians 4:3 “enslaved to the elementary principles of the world.”
• Galatians 5:1 “For freedom Christ has set us free; stand firm therefore, and do not
submit again to a yoke of slavery.”
• Galatians 6:1-2 – restore and keep watch
• Galatians 6:7-8 – sowing and reaping
• Ephesians 2:1-7 - former followers of Satan
• Ephesians 2:12-13 – once without God
• Ephesians 4:26-27 – anger and Satan’s foothold
• Ephesians 6:10-20 - the armor of God
• Colossians 2:6-8 – captive to philosophy, deceit, tradition, elemental spirits
• Colossians 2:15 – disarmed and shamed
• 1 Thessalonians 2:17-18 – Satan’s hindering
• 1 Thessalonians 3:5 - tempter
• 2 Thessalonians 2:9-11 – the lawless one and Satan’s activity
• 1 Timothy 1:18-20 – wage the good warfare, handed over to Satan
• 1 Timothy 3:6-7 – conceit and the condemnation of the devil
• 1 Timothy 4:1-2 – deceitful spirits and teaching of demons
• 1 Timothy 5:11-15 – young widows and Satan’s tactic
• 2 Timothy 2:24-26 – escaping the snare of the devil
• 2 Timothy 3:16-17 – Scripture’s profitability
• Hebrews 2:14-15 –destroying the devil and delivering the slaves
• Hebrews 13:5-6 – God’s protective presence
• James 1:12-15 – source of temptation
• James 1:22-25 – hearing and doing the Word of God
• James 2:10 – guilt under the law
• James 2:18-19 – demonic belief in God
• James 3:15-16 – earthly, unspiritual, demonic wisdom
• James 4:1 – passions at war
• James 4:3-9 – resist the devil
• James 5:13-16 – confession, prayer, and healing
• James 5:19-20 – turning a sinner
• 1 Peter 5:8-9 – devil is prowling like a lion
• 2 Peter 2:10-13 – blaspheming the glorious ones
• 1 John 1:9 – confession and forgiveness
• 1 John 3:8-10 – children of the devil
• 1 John 4:1-6 – test the spirits
• 1 John 4:10-15 – love and acknowledgment of Jesus as the Son of God
• 1 John 4:18-19 – no fear in love
• 1 John 5:14-15 – ask according to His will
• 1 John 5:18 – born of God, evil one does not touch
• 2 John 9 and 10 – abide in the teaching of Christ

67 [Link]
• Jude 1:8-10 – Michael, the devil, blaspheming the glorious ones, and rebuking
language
• Revelation 2:9-10 – Smyrna, synagogue of Satan
• Revelation 2:13 – Pergamum, Satan’s throne
• Revelation 2:24 – Thyatira, deep things of Satan
• Revelation 3:9 – Philadelphia, synagogue of Satan
• Revelation 9:20-21 – worship of demons and idols
• Revelation 12:7-12 – war in Heaven
• Revelation 16:13-14 – demonic spirits
• Revelation 18:2 – fallen is Babylon
• Revelation 20:1-10 “And I saw an angel coming down out of heaven, having the
key to the Abyss and holding in his hand a great chain. He seized the dragon, that
ancient serpent, who is the devil, or Satan, and bound him for a thousand years.
He threw him into the Abyss, and locked and sealed it over him, to keep him from
deceiving the nations anymore until the thousand years were ended. After that, he
must be set free for a short time. I saw thrones on which were seated those who
had been given authority to judge. And I saw the souls of those who had been
beheaded because of their testimony for Jesus and because of the word of God.
They had not worshiped the beast or his image and had not received his mark on
their foreheads or their hands. They came to life and reigned with Christ a
thousand years. (The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years
were ended.) This is the first resurrection. Blessed and holy are those who have
part in the first resurrection. The second death has no power over them, but they
will be priests of God and of Christ and will reign with him for a thousand
years. When the thousand years are over, Satan will be released from his prison
and will go out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the earth—Gog and
Magog—to gather them for battle. In number they are like the sand on the
seashore. They marched across the breadth of the earth and surrounded the camp
of God's people, the city he loves. But fire came down from heaven and devoured
them. And the devil, who deceived them, was thrown into the lake of burning
sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be
tormented day and night for ever and ever.”

68 [Link]
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Jonathan Carl

Jonathan Carl grew up in the great state

of Texas as the oldest of six kids. He
graduated from the United States
Military Academy at West Point and
served in the U.S. Army as a tanker with
a combat tour in Iraq in the early 2000s.
He had the joy of journeying to
Kentucky where he met and married his
wonderful wife Brittney. Several years
later he became the lead
pastor at South Fork
Baptist Church where
he has served for over a decade. He enjoyed the
opportunities to study and earn his Master of Divinity
and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in Evangelism &
Missions from the Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary. Jonathan & Brittney have four daughters
(Sophia, Lydia, Alia & Mia) with whom they enjoy
spending every spare minute they can.

69
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANF The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson.
1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company,
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NPNF1 The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-
1889. 14 vols. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
NPNF2 The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-
1889. 14 vols. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]

Books

Arnold, Clinton E. Three Crucial Questions about Spiritual Warfare. Grand Rapids:
Baker Books, 1997.
Engelsviken, Tormod, and A. Scott Moreau, eds. Spiritual Conflict in Today's Mission: A
Report from the Consultation on “Deliver Us from Evil.” Nairobi: Marc, 2001.
Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1940.

Kelly, Henry A. The Devil at Baptism: Ritual, Theology, and Drama. Eugene, OR: Wipf
and Stock, 2004.
Moreau, A. Scott, ed. Deliver Us from Evil: An Uneasy Frontier in Christian Mission.
Monrovia, CA: World Vision International, 2002.
Spurgeon, Charles H. The Soul Winner. New York: Cosimo, 2007.
________. Spiritual Warfare in a Believer’s Life. Edited by Robert Hall. Lynnwood,
WA: Emerald, 1993.

Articles
“About the Lausanne Movement.” The Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
“About Us.” Freedom in Christ Ministries. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]

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Engelsviken, Tormod. “Historical Overview 3.” In Deliver Us from Evil Consulation.
Nairobi, Kenya: Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 2000. Accessed
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Engelsviken, Tormod, and Oskar Skarsaune. “Possession and Exorcism in the History of
the Church.” In Deliver Us from Evil Consultation, 65-90. Nairobi: The Lausanne
Committee for World Evangelization, 2000.
Skarsaune, Oscar. “Possession and Exorcism in the Literature of the Ancient Church and
the New Testament.” In Deliver Us from Evil Consultation. Nairobi, Kenya:
Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, 2000. Accessed December 30,
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Spurgeon, Charles. “A Puritan Confession.” Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
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________. “Satan Considering the Saints.” A Sermon (No. 623) delivered April 9, 1865
at the Metropolitan Tabernacle, Newington, England. Accessed January 4, 2014.
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________. “The Devil’s Last Throw.” A Sermon (No. 1746) delivered June 10, 1883 at
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Ante-Nicene Writings
Barnabas. The Epistle of Barnabas. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Clement. First Epistle of the Blessed Clement the Disciple of Peter. In vol. 1 of The Ante-
Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10
vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
Cyprian. The Treatises of Cyprian. In vol. 5 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Hermas. The Pastor of Hermas. In vol. 2 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Ignatius. The Epistle of Ignatius to the Antiochians. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
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________. The Epistle of Ignatius to the Philadelphians. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. The Epistle of Ignatius to the Philippians. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
________. The Epistle of Maria the Proselyte to Ignatius. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. The Martyrdom of Ignatius. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Irenæus. Against Heresies. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander
Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Justin Martyr. The Dialogue of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew. In
vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James
Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
[Link].

________. Fragments of the Lost Work of Justin on the Resurrection. In vol. 1 of The
Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-
1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
________. The First Apology of Justin. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
________. The Second Apology of Justin for the Christians Addressed to the Roman
Senate. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and
James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
ccel/schaff/[Link].

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Mathetes. The Epistles of Mathetes to Diognetus. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Minucius Felix. Octavius. In vol. 4 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander
Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Origen. De Principiis. In vol. 4 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander
Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
________. Contra Celsus. In vol. 4 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander
Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link] schaff/[Link].
________. Homilies on Numbers 12.4. In Ferguson, Everett. Baptism in the Early
Church: History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2009.
Polycarp. The Epistle of Polycarp to the Ephesians. In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link] ccel/schaff/[Link].
Tatian. Address of Tatian to the Greeks. In vol. 2 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by
Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Tertullian. On Baptism. In vol. 3 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Allan Menzies
and Philip Schaff. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
[Link].
________. The Apology. In vol. 3 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Allan Menzies
and Philip Schaff. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
[Link].

Nicene and Post-Nicene Writings

Ambrose. On the Mysteries. In vol. 10 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2.
Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
ccel/schaff/[Link].

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The Anathematisms of the Emperor Justinian Against Origen. In vol. 14 of The Nicene
and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
Athanasius. On the Incarnation of the Word. In vol. 4 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Augustine. On the Creed: a Sermon to the Catechumens. In vol. 3 of The Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
________. The City of God. In vol. 2 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1.
Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
The Canons of the Council in Trullo. In vol. 14 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers.
Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
The Canons of the Holy and Altogether August Apostles In vol. 14 of The Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
The Canons of the Synod Held in the City of Laodicea, in Phrygia Pacatiana, in which
Many Blessed Fathers from Divers Provinces of Asia Were Gathered Together. In
vol. 14 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff.
1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
[Link].

Chrysostom. Prolegomena. In vol. 9 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1.

Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
ccel/schaff/[Link].
________. Three Homilies Concerning the Power of Demons. In vol. 9 of The Nicene
and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. Treatises Concerning the Christian Priesthood. In vol. 9 of The Nicene and
Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]

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Cyril. The Catechetical Lectures Of S. Cyril, Archbishop of Jerusalem. In vol. 7 of The
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14
vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
Eusebius. The Church History of Eusebius. In vol. 1 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in Constantinople
(A.D. 754). In vol. 14 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by
Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
schaff/[Link].
Note on the Messalians or Massalians. In vol. 14 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
The Seventh Ecumenical Council. The Second Council of Nice. Extracts from the Acts. In
vol. 14 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff.
1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]

Confessions, Creeds, and Catechisms

Calvin, John. The Geneva Confession. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link].

Canons of the Council of Orange. Bible Study Tools. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
[Link].

Luther, Martin. Luther’s Little Instruction Book: The Small Catechism of Martin Luther.
Accessed January 4, 2014. [Link]
Melancthon, Philip. The Confession of Faith: Which Was Submitted to His Imperial
Majesty Charles V At the Diet of Augsburg in the Year 1530. Accessed January 4,
2014. [Link]
[Link].
Rituale Romanum. Accessed January 4, 2014. [Link]
Texts/Roman%20Rite%20of%[Link].
The Baltimore Complete Catechism, 230-232. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link]?p=5.

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The Heidelberg Catechism. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link].
The Episcopal Catechism. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link]?p=5.
The London Baptist Confession. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link].
The Scots Confession. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link]?p=5.
The Second Helvetic Confession. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link].
The Westminster Longer Catechism. Accessed January 4, 2014.
[Link]
[Link].

Explanatory Notes on
Early Church Writings
Coxe, A. Cleveland. “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Barnabas.” In vol. 1 of The
Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-
1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]

________. “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Ignatius.” In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene

Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to the Epistles of Mathetes to Diognetus.” In vol. 1 of The
Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-
1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians.” In vol. 1 of
The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson.
1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to Irenæus Against Heresies.” In vol. 1 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]

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________. “Introductory Note to Minucius Felix.” In vol. 4 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
________. “Introductory Note to Tatian the Assyrian.” In vol. 2 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to The Martyrdom of Ignatius.” In vol. 1 of The Ante-
Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10
vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to The Pastor of Hermas.” In vol. 2 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to the Works of Origen.” In vol. 4 of The Ante-Nicene
Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols.
Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December
30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Note to the Writings of Justin Martyr.” In vol. 1 of The Ante-
Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10
vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Introductory Notice to Cyprian.” In vol. 5 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
McGiffert, Arthur C. “The Life and Writings of Eusebius of Cæsarea.” In vol. 1 of The
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14
vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
Menzies, Allan.“Introductory Note to Tertullian.” In vol. 3 of The Ante-Nicene Fathers.
Edited by Allan Menzies and Philip Schaff. 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]

O’Connor, John Bonaventure. “St. Ignatius of Antioch.” In The Catholic Encyclopedia.

New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]

Riddle, M. B. “Introductory Notice to Two Epistles Concerning Virginity.” In vol. 8 of

The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson.

77
 1885-1887. 10 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
Robertson, Archibald. “Life of St. Athanasius and Account of Arianism.” In vol. 4 of The
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 4. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14
vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
Schaff, Philip. “Preface to The Confessions and Letters of Saint Augustine.” In vol. 1 of
The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889.
14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed
December 30, 2013. [Link]
________. “Prolegomena to St. Ambrose” In vol. 10 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Stephens, W. R. W. “Introduction to The Three Homilies Concerning the Power of
Demons.” In vol. 9 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 1. Edited by
Philip Schaff. 1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 2001. Accessed December 30, 2013.
[Link]
Zonaras, John. “Ancient Epitome of Canon LX in The Canons of the Council in Trullo.”
In vol. 14 of The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Series 2. Edited by Philip Schaff.
1886-1889. 14 vols. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001.
Accessed December 30, 2013. [Link]
[Link].

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