ANSCI 1100

Introduction to Animal Science

Assignment
Study the following:

CLSU Philosophy, Vision and Mission

Grading System
Item Percentage
Term Exams 75 %
Quizzes 15%
Attendance 10%

Lecture 60%
Laboratory 40%
PASSING SCORE 60%
Course Content
• Unit I – Introduction to Animal Science
• Unit II – Anatomy and Physiology
• Unit III – Genetics and Breeding
• Unit IV – Animal Nutrition
• Unit V – Animal Health
• Unit VI – Slaughtering, Processing and Marketing of
Farm Animals
GENERAL OBJECTIVE
• To discuss the interrelationship of plants, animals and man,
and their roles in the ecological system

• This will also help the students appreciate the contributions

of animals to agricultural development and the economy in
general.
Specific Objectives
1. To discuss the relationship of man, animals and the ecosystem
2. To give the economic benefits of animals to mankind
3. To determine the contributions of animals to agricultural
development and its relation to population problem, and
4. To appreciate the development of animal science and how it
affects the animal industry
Terminologies
Symbiosis – is a biological situation in which at least two different
kinds of organisms interact
Animal Science – science that deals in managing aspects related
to production of domesticated animals and animal products
Domestic animals – animals whose breeding is or can be
controlled by humans
Man, Animal and Ecosystem
⮚ Consumption
⮚299 million tons (2001)
⮚465 million tons (2050)
⮚ Livestock Sector
⮚Contributes to 40 %
global agricultural output
⮚Provides livelihood to 1.3
billion people
Role of Livestock
 Economic contribution of animals
• Philippine animal industry contributes billions of pesos
• Main services: food, fiber, clothing, transportation, tillage
• Support services: recreation (horses, fancy breeds), and aide
for differently abled (service dogs)
• Other uses: model for human experiments especially in the
medical field, production of pharmaceutical products
(vaccines), source of tissue or organ for human ailments
(xenotransplantation)
• Harvest of cowpox virus from calves in the late 1800’s
 Pharmaceutical products from transgenic animals
• Transgenic Animals
- animals whose genome sequence has
been change to carry genes from another
species or to use techniques for animal
genome editing for specific traits

- Mouse – first successful transgenic

animals

Source: Shakweer et al., 2023.

[Link]
00502-z
 Products from transgenic animals

Source: Shakweer et al., 2023.

[Link]
 Products from transgenic animals

Source: Shakweer et al., 2023.

[Link]
 Xenotransplantation
•
•
US Food and drugs
[Link]
• Procedure that involves transplantation, implantation, or
cines-blood- infusion into human recipient of either live cell, tissues, or
biologics/xenotransplan organ from non-human source.
tation
 Xenotransplantation
Shannon
McArdel
(2015),
Harvard
University

[Link]
[Link]/
flash/2015/xe
notransplantat
ion-can-pigs-
save-human-
lives/
 Xenotransplantation
Montgomery RA, Stern JM, Lonze BE, et al. 2022. Results of Two Cases of
Pig‐to‐Human Kidney Xenotransplantation. N Engl J Med. DOI:
10.1056/NEJMoa2120238

• Kidneys from GMO pigs

• 2-brain dead human recipients
• Circulatory and respiratory activity – maintained by ventilators
• Urine output and kinetic estimated glomerular filtration rate was monitored
to assess renal function and xenograft rejection

• Findings:
No sign of anti-body mediated rejection
Urine output with Xenograft was higher with the native kidney

• Conclusion
Kidney Xenograft from GMO pigs remained functional in brain-dead
human recipients for 54 hours without a signs of antibody-mediated rejection
 Challenges in animal production
• Animal Welfare issues
• Environmental impact of large-scale animal production such as
greenhouse gases, foul smell, and pollution in bodies of water
• Alternative plant based food for meat and other animal
products
• Laboratory cultured meat
 65% nitrous
9% CO2 37% methane 64 % ammonia
oxide

30 % land
surface Deforestation
intended for
feed

Depletion of water resources

Animal Science Careers

Quality
Farm OwnerAssurance

Lending/Finance
Product sales
 Animal Science vs Animal Husbandry
Animal husbandry - how farm animals are bred and cared for,
typically by farmers

Animal Science - study of animals and may help develop new

techniques in animal husbandry based on research to increase
growth and production, and reduce disease and death rates
Important Factors in Animal Management
1. Motivation of the persons involved
2. Level of knowledge and skills
3. Housing
4. Climate
5. Genetics
6. Health care
7. Product technology
8. General Management
Main constraints to improve animal production
1. Ecological factors – land topography; soil fertility;
temperature; RH; plant growing season
2. Biological factors –genotype, animal diseases and parasites;
3. Socio-economic factors – supply and demand relationship;
input-output ratio; prices; religion culture and tradition;
politics
Unit II – Anatomy and Physiology (Part 1)
Department of Animal Science
CLSU
Course Outcome
⮚Identify external and internal anatomy of domesticated
animals

⮚Discussbasic physiology of domesticated animals

important to production
Introduction
Anatomy – is the study of the structure of a body and the
relation of its parts
- External and Internal

Physiology – deals with the function of living matter and

includes a number of subsidiary disciplines such as
behavior, biochemistry, and biophysics
Body Systems
⚫Skeletal& muscular
⚫Cardiovascular
⚫Respiratory
⚫Nervous
⚫Digestive
⚫Reproductive
⚫Endocrine and body temperature regulations
Directional terms
External Anatomy
Cattle
Integumentary System
Skin derivatives : sweat and oil gland, hair, wool, fur, nails
Functions:
⚫Physical protection: barrier against outside
⚫Prevention of dehydration
⚫Body temperature regulation
⚫Sensory information via cutaneous receptors
⚫Metabolic ions
⚫Excretion of wastes
Sweat gland - specialized structure
▪ Eccrine – produces hypotonic
water secretion that derives
from intertitial fluids (water
with some dissolved salts,
lactic acid, and other wastes)
▪ Apocrine gland – located in
distinct part of the body.
Secretes watery fluid, fatty
acids and some protein. This
gland is affected by sex
steroids
Sebaceous gland
⚫Also known as oil gland
⚫Present in mammals
⚫Sebaceous gland produces
“sebum”
⚫Sebum
◦ Acts as natural skin cream and
hair protector
◦ Prevents excessive evaporation
◦ Keep the skin soft
◦ Has bactericidal
Other Skin Glands
⚫Submental gland in cats ⚫Scent gland in goat
• Found in cat’s chin • Produce distinctive odor in
• Used for scent marking goat
Other Skin Glands
⚫Uropygial gland – oil gland ⚫Hair
Appendages of Skin ⚫Chestnut - horny mass found in the
medial aspect of the forearm about halfway
between the carpus and the elbow, and on
Hoof or claw - It is the horny the media aspect of the hind leg just below
the hock of the horse.
covering of the distal end of the
digit.
Appendages of Skin . Horns - epidermal derivatives
bound together into a solid
Ergot. A horny mass found in all four legs, mass by keratin. It is
embedded in the hair on the posterior aspect supported for a variable
of the fetlock joint.
distance by the horn core or
process cornus, (which is a
bony outgrowth of the frontal
bones of the skull).
Appendages of Skin
⚫Feathers – it helps protect
the body, maintain body
temperature in poultry and
allows bird to fly
Skeletal System
Functions
⚫Protection of vital organs
⚫Rigidity and form to the body
⚫Acts as levers
⚫Storage of minerals and lipids
⚫Site of blood formation
Classification of bone
⚫Long bones
⚫Short bones
⚫Flat bones
⚫Irregular bones
⚫Sesamoid bones
Division of the body skeleton
Appendicular
Axial
Visceral
⚫os rostri (pig snout)
⚫os cordis (cattle heart)
⚫os penis (dog penis)
Muscular System
Functions
⚫Production of movement
⚫Maintaining posture
⚫Stabilizing joints
⚫Generating heat
Properties of muscle
⚫Excitability
◦ Sometimes called irritability
⚫Contractility
⚫Capability of shrinking or contracting
⚫Extensibility
⚫Ability to stretch
⚫Elasticity
⚫Ability of muscle to return to its original length/form
Classification of Muscle

Voluntary
Skeletal Striated
muscle
striated
Involuntary
muscle Cardiac
striated muscle
smooth
Examples of muscle types
⚫Voluntary and striated
◦ gastrocnemius (chief muscle of the calf of the leg)
◦ gluteus maximus (main extensor muscle of the hip)

⚫Cardiac (heart muscle)

⚫Involuntary smooth
◦ muscularis mucosae (intestine)
Digestive System
Functions
❑ Ingestion
❑ Mastication
❑ Digestion and Absorption
❑ Excretion
Parts of Digestive System
Mouth

❑ Tongue, lips, teeth and salivary

glands

❑ Responsible for food breakdown

❑ Serves as prehensile (grasping)

mechanism, defensive and offensive
Pharynx

o Passage of food and air

Esophagus

o Connects pharynx and

stomach
Stomach
A. Simple stomach
A. Cardia (entrance)
B. Fundus ( body)
C. Pylorus (terminal)
B. Compound Stomach
A. Rumen (paunch)
B. Reticulum (honeycomb)
C. Omasum (many flies)
D. Abomasum (true stomach)
 Reticulum Rumen

Omasum Abomasum
Enzyme
Enzymes
Origin Enzyme Target nutrient
Salivary gland Amylase carbohydrates
Mouth Lipase Lipid
Stomach Pepsin Protein into peptide fragment or amino
acid
HCl* Denaturation of protein
Destroy bacteria and virus
Activate pepsinogen into pensin

Gastric lipase lipid

Liver Bile* Emulsify fats
Origin Enzyme Target nutrient
Pancreas Trypsin Protein and amino acid
Chymotrypsin Protein and their aromatic amino
acid
Carboxypeptidase Terminal amino acid group from
protein
Elastases Protein elastin
Lipase Triglycerides into FA and glycerol
Amylase Starch and glycogen
Small Intestine Maltase Maltose to glucose
Lactase Lactose to glucose and galactose
Sucrase Sucrose to glucose and fructose
Origin Enzyme Target nutrient
Stomach of young ruminants rennin Causes milk to coagulate
Microorganism Cellulose Cell wall
Cellobiose
Soluble cellooligomers
Xylan
Arabinoxylan
Laminarin
Lichenin
Pectin
Polygalacturan
 Small Intestine
Parts
Duodenum – Contains the
pancreas
Jejunum – Middle part
Ileum – Terminal Part
 Large Intestine
Cecum – functional among
pseudo-ruminants as site
of microbial digestion “cul
de sac”- colon

Rectum – terminal part of

intestine, organ of storage
of waste

Anus – end part of alimentary

tract
 Accessory Gland of Digestive System
Pancreas – secretes insulin and Liver – produces bile; largest
digestive enzyme gland
Functions of Liver
1. Storage and formation of glycogen (animal starch)
2. Secretion of bile
3. Detoxification of poisons
4. Breakdown of uric acid
5. Formation of urea
6. Desaturation of fatty acids
 Urinary System
⚫Extraction and removal of waste products from the blood

Kidneys – urine formation

• nephron is the unit of structure
and function of the kidney.
Ureters – conveys urine from
kidney to bladder
Urinary bladder (pantog) –
hollow muscular organ that
contains urine
Urethra –passageway of urine and
semen in male;solely urinary
function for female
Urine Formation
Secretion moves substances out of the blood and into
the collecting tubules where they mix with the water and
other wastes and are converted into urine.

Micturition – the term for the expulsion of urine from the

bladder
 Male Reproductive System
Testis or testicles – primary organ of the male
-sperm cells production
-hormone production (testosterone produce in the Leydig
cells)

Scrotum – cutaneous sac serves as external covering of

testes. Temperature regulation (6-9 0C below body
temperature; cremaster and tunica dartos muscles for
thermoregulatory. Seminiferous tubules are found inside
the testes where spermatozoa are produced.
 Duct System
Epididymis – (head, body and tail) as storage, concentrate,
site of sperm maturation
Vas deferens – found at the tail of epididymis,enlarges to
ampulla. Carries sperm from epididymis to urethra
Urethra – where spermatozoa and accessory fluids mixed,
with loop called sigmoid flexure (bull, boar, ram and
buck)
Penis –organ of copulation, ( glans, body and roots which is
attached to the pelvis)
Accessory Gland
Seminal vesicles – paired, hollow, absent in dogs, secretion
neutralizes urine residues ( ascorbic acid, citric
acid, seminal fructose, ergothionine)
Prostate – unpaired, more or less completely surrounds the
pelvic urethra. Produces alkaline that gives
characteristic odor to semen
Cowper’s gland or bulbo-urethral gland – small paired, on
either side of pelvic urethra. None in dogs, extremely
large in boars, secretes sialoprotein
 Female Reproductive System
Ovaries – primary organ of the female
❑ Produces ovo (egg cell),
❑ Female sex hormones (estrogen and
progesterone)
Oviduct or Fallopian tube
❑ Tube extending from the
ovaries to uterus, with funnel
fimbriated membrane portion
near the ovary called
infundibulum;
❑ Serve as site of fertilization
Uterus
❑ site of implantation for fertilized egg; with body and horns;
❑ Types: bipartite, bicornuate, duplex, didelphic and simplex
Cervix
❑ neck of uterus;
❑ its opening called os uteri
closes when pregnant and not
in-heat
Vagina
❑ organ of copulation

Vulva
❑ external genital organ
 Male Fowl Reproductive System
⮚ two testicles in bird are located inside the
abdominal cavity
⮚ body temperature of fowl (about 104°F)
does not inhibit spermatogenesis as it
does in most mammals
⮚ the quite small epididymis on the side of
each testicle provides limited storage
⮚ thus, the vas deferens which lead from
the testicles to the cloaca are the main
storage site of sperm cells
⮚ no accessory glands in the bird
 Female Fowl Reproductive System
Ovary – left is functional
Oviduct
❑ Infundibulum
❑ Magnum – secretes egg
white
❑ Isthmus – secretes shell
membrane
Uterus – “ shell gland”
Vagina
Cloaca
Unit II – Anatomy and Physiology (Part 2)

Department of Animal Science

CLSU
Respiration
⚫ Process by which gas exchange between living cell and
environment
⚫ The circulatory system could not carry oxygen and carbon

dioxide to and from the cells unless the respiratory

system performed of making oxygen available to the blood
Respiratory System
Function
⚫Gas exchange
⚫Regulation of blood pH
⚫O lfaction (smell)
⚫Filtration of inspired air
⚫Production of sound
⚫Elimination of some water and heat
Parts of Respiratory system
Nasal cavity: external nares, nasal hairs, sinuses,
Pharynx
✔ Connects the nasal cavity and
mouth to larynx and
esophagus, respectively
✔ Also known as throat
✔ Common passageway of air
and food
Larynx
✔ O rgan that connects the
pharynx and trachea
✔ Provide routing mechanism for
air and food
✔ It supports the epiglottis,
which regulate the passage of
air and prevent aspiration of
food and other foreign body
✔ Make sound (voice box)
Trachea and bronchi
✔ Non-collapsible tube formed by a
series of adjacent cartilage ring
✔ It is a passageway to the duct
system of the lungs
✔ Also known as windpipe

Lungs
✔ two elastic membranous sac,
whose general scheme is as
follows:
✔trachea, primary bronchi, secondary
bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar sacs,
alveolar ducts, alveoli ( smallest
subdivision)
A lveoli
✔ smallest subdivision of the air
passages
✔ true respiratory structures
where the exchange of gases
between the bloodstream and
the inspired air takes place
[Link]
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⚫Pleurae
◦ Serous membrane which
covers the inner wall of the
thorax and thoracic structure
The diaphr agm
✔ is a musculomembranous
partition that completely
separates the thoracic from the
abdominal cavity. It is muscle
for respiration
 Thoracic cavity
 Surrounds the heart and
its structure, lungs, and
part of trachea and
esophagus, and vessels
entering and leaving the
heart
Mechanism of Respiration
External Respiration Breathing – includes inspiration (air is brough
✔ movement of air into and out of to the lungs) and expiration (air is expelled
the lungs (breathing) from the lungs)
✔ the passage of oxygen from the
lungs to blood
✔ passage of carbon dioxide from
blood to the lungs
✔ The means by which oxygen is
carried to the cell and the means
by which carbon dioxide is
carried from the cell back to the
lungs
Internal Respiration
✔ Cellular respiration
✔ Concerned with the utilization
of oxygen and production of
carbon dioxide by the cells

[Link]
h?v=eBl3U-T5Nvk
 Types of Breathing
❖ cost al (t hor acic) – (ribs)
❖ abdom inal - diaphragmatic
❖ eupnea – normal
❖ dyspnea – difficult breathing
❖ apnea – absence of respiration
❖ hyper pnea –increase in depth of breathing
❖ polypnea – shallow rapid breathing
Cardiovascular System
Two major parts: Heart and blood vessels

Function
a. to transport the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to
the tissues
b. to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon
dioxide from the tissues to the lungs
c. transport hormones from one part of the body to another
d. help maintain the water equilibrium of the body
e. assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body
f. assist in overcoming diseases
The Heart
 The heart is a cone-shaped
 hollow, muscular structure
located in the thorax
 Pumps blood around the
body
 It is contained in a serous sac
called the per icar dium .
 Cushioning the heart from outside forces and
pressure
 Provide lubrication to reduce friction between
heart and surrounding tissue
The Blood Vessels
A r t er ies
 tubular structures that carry oxygenated blood away from the
heart (except pulmonary artery)
 walls of arteries tend to be thick and elastic

Veins
 larger in diameter than the arteries and they carry
unoxygenated blood towards the heart
 (except pulmonary vein)
 Veins, Arteries and capillaries Carry oxygen-rich blood from
the lungs to the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs, where it
exchange CO2 for oxygen
Watch the video [Link]
watch?v=jBt5jZSWhMI
 Deoxygenated blood enters right atrium
through Superior and Inferior Vena Cava
 Blood enters right ventricle through tricuspid
valve
 Blood exits right ventricle through pulmonary
valve and enters pulmonary artery
 Left and right pulmonary arteries send blood
to lungs, where gas exchange occurs
 Oxygenated blood returns to heart via the
pulmonary veins enters left atrium
 Blood enters left ventricle through mitral valve
 Blood exits left ventricle through aortic
semilunar valve to enter aorta
 Aorta distributes blood to body

Source:
[Link]
Blood Cir culat ion
The blood vascular system is further
divided into four circulations:
a. the car diac which involves the
heart;
b. the pulm onar y, which involves the
lungs;
c. the syst em ic, which involves the
general body area; and the
d. the por t al, which involves the
intestines and the liver
Pulse Rate
⚫Pulse rate determines the rate, rhythm, and amplitude of
the heart and can be taken using our ears and fingers or
stethoscope or electrocardiogram (ECG)
Site for taking pulse rate
Horse - Submandibular artery
Cattle – Facial artery and coccygeal artery
Pig, goat/sheep, dogs and cats - femoral artery (thigh)
Terms associated with Pulse rate
a. Br adycar dia – marked slowing of the heart
rate

b. T achycar dia - increased pulse rate

c. A r r hyt hm ia – no heartbeat
 Blood
Components of Blood
Charateristics
 Cellular components
 Sticky and Viscous (5x of water)
 Fluid elements
 Specific gravity is 1.06
 pH of 7.4
 Color
 Bright red – with oxygen
 Dark red – without oxygen
 Has distinct odor and salty
 6-8% of body weight
 Cellular elements of blood
A . Red Blood cells
(er yt hr ocyt es)
 non-nucleated biconcave disc-
shaped cells specialized in the
transportation of oxygen
 Composed of water and
 hem oglobin - an iron
containing pigment which is the
principal oxygen transport
medium
Abnormalities
 Anemia – red blood cells are reduced
in number and/ or hemoglobin
content

 Polycythemia – excessive number of

RBC are found in the circulating
blood
 Slow-growing blood cancer in human
B. W hit e Blood Cells
(leucocyt es)
✔ nucleated cells that is capable of
independent movement
Classification of WBC
A . Gr anulocyt es – contains
granular material within their
cytoplasm
B. A gr anulocyt es – has very
little granular material in their
cytoplasm
Granulocytes
A. N eut r ophils - these are highly
phagocytic and increase in
number during acute bacterial
infections
B. Eosinophils – become
numerous during parasitism
C. basophils – similar to mast cell
and are enhanced during
allergic reactions
 Agranulocytes
A. m onocyt es – largest
leucocytes, involved in
phagocytosis and increased in
number during chronic
infection
B. lym phocyt es – involved in
immune responses
Abnormalities
Leucopenia - decrease in the number of white blood cells

Leucocytosis - increase in the number of white blood cells

 Normal immune response
 Means that the body of the animals is fighting infection or
inflammation
C. Plat elet s
(t hr om bocyt es)
❖ cells responsible for blood
clotting

Abnormalities:

T hr om bus – a clot that

remained fixed in the lumen
of the blood vessel

Em bolus – a clot that

floats freely in the
bloodstream
 Fluid Elements of Blood
❑Plasma
❑ Liquid part
❑ 92 % is water
❑8% other components: ions, proteins,
dissolve gasses and nutrient molecules
❑ Provides the medium of exchange
between the blood vessels and the cells of
the body
❑Serum
❑Component of blood plasma
❑fluid that remains after the blood has
clotted
Nervous system
Function
✔ responsible for collecting information about what is
happening inside (internal environment), as well as outside
(external environment), the body
✔ It communicates with all parts of the body via electrical
signals
 Central Nervous system (CNS)

⮚Brain and Spinal Cord

Division of Brain
✔ Forebrain
✔ Midbrain
✔ Hindbrain
 Central Nervous system (CNS)

⮚Brain and Spinal Cord

Division of Brain
✔ Forebrain
✔ Midbrain
✔ Hindbrain
Organization of Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
 Consist of
Cranial and

Division of Nervous System spinal nerves –

carry message to
and from central
nervous system

Cranial nerves –
merge through
Consist of brain and cranial foramina
spinal cord and supply the ff:
eyes, face, ear,
muscle of neck
and shoulder

Spinal nerves –
merge through
intervertebral
foramina and
supply the body
and limb
Basic Units of Nervous System
N eur on
❖ highly specialized cells that
respond to stimuli and
produce an impulse and
transmit that information to
distance site
Suppor t ive cells
❖ Cells responsible (myelin
sheath) to provides nutrients
and phagocytic role
Neuron (Nerve Cell)
Function
❑ Receive, process and respond
to stimuli
❑ Consists of the cell body,
dendrite and axon
❑ Dendr it e – conducts
impulses toward the body cell
❑ A xon (nerve fiber) conducts
impulses away from the body
cell
Synapse

The continuity from one neuron

to the next is provided by the
synapse. It is the point of
contact between the neurons.
Synapse
Components
[Link]
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The mammary System
 Lactation is the production of milk by the mammary
gland in mammals like cattle, sheep, swine, horse, goats,
buffaloes and rabbits
 Milk is produced in the udder from nutrients in the
blood which flows through the vessels
 Young mammals at first feed solely on milk from their
mothers
 milk produced for human consumption usually comes
from cow and goat, including buffalo/carabao
A nat om y of t he Mam m ar y Gland

a. Ext er ior of t he udder

-U dder , skin gland not connected with abdominal cavity
-Udder contains large amount of secretory tissues and small
amount of connective tissue.
A nat om y of t he Mam m ar y Gland

b. Suppor t ing syst em

-median and lateral suspensory ligaments -fibrous elastic
connective tissue
Number of mammary glands of some animals
 Sheep, goat, horse, donkey
 2 mammary glands
 Cattle and carabao
 4 mammary glands
 Swine
 10-18 mammary glands
 Physiological Mechanism of Lact at ion

⚫mammary glands are the distinguishing characteristics of

all mammals

⚫classified as exocrine glands, modified skin glands secrete

milk for the nourishment of the young

⚫these glands grow during pregnancy and start to secrete

milk after parturition
c. Duct and secr et or y
syst em
- teat
- teat cistern
- sphincter muscles
- gland cistern
- secretory tissue
⚫alveolus - tiny structure
resembling a balloon,
lined with simple layer of
epithelial cells (active in
milk secretion)
⚫the number of alveoli is
highly correlated with the
production capacity.
Physiological Mechanism of Lact at ion

 Teat meatus (streak canal)

 only orifice of the gland between
internal milk secretory system and
the external environment
 Prevent the escape of milk between
two milking
 However, it provides access to
bacteria inside of the mammary gland
 At dry period, the epidermal tissue
lining the teat meatus forms a keratin
plug (containing antibacterial) to seal
the orifice
 Teat cistern
 A cavity of the teat where milk can
collect between two milkings

Physiological Mechanism of Lact at ion

 Gland cistern
 A cavity located above the base
of the teat
 Function as milk storage (100-400
ml)
 Ducts
 allow the milk moves from the
alveoli to the teat during milking
 Lobe
 A group of lobules are
surrounded by a connective
tissue sheath
 Lobule
 Group of alveoli formed together
 Contains around 150-220
microscopic alveoli
Physiological Mechanism of Lact at ion

 Alveoli
 discrete milk producing unit of
the mammary system
 diameter of each alveolus is
about 50-250 mm
 Most part of the milk is stored
here (60-80%) others is in the
cistern (20-40%)
T H E EN DOCRIN E SYST EM
⚫Endocr ine gland – ductless, produces hormones travel
in the blood stream to affect distant target organs

⚫H or m ones – chemical substances secreted by the

endocrine glands
A nt er ior Pit uit ar y Secr et es num ber of hor m ones:

⚫Growth or Somatotrophic Hormone (STH) - growth and cell

reproduction
⚫Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - growth of ovum in the ovary
⚫Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - ovulation in female and production of
testosterone in male
⚫Prolactin - synthesis of milk
⚫Thyrotropic Hormone (TTH) - production of thyroxine
⚫Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH) - regulate levels of
cortisol
⚫Cortisol - primary stress hormone and increases sugar in the
blood
 Post er ior pit uit ar y gland hor m ones:
● Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - conserve fluid volume in the body by
acting on the kidneys
● Oxytocin - lactation and giving birth
Int er m ediat e lobe
⚫melanophore hormones - color adaptation of animals

A dr enal Glands hor m ones:

● Glucocorticoids - gluconeogenesis (synthesis of glucose)
● Mineralocorticoids - aldosterone, salt and water balance (absorption
of salt in the kidneys)
● Adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine) - fight
and flight hormone, neurotransmitter for visceral organ, maximize
blood glucose levels
T hyr oid gland hor m ones
⚫Thyroxine - regulate protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism
(chemical reactions in a living organism)
⚫ Calcitonin - decrease blood calcium level

Par at hyr oid gland hor m one

⚫parathormone - increase blood calcium concentration

Pancr eas (Lapay) hor m ones

⚫Insulin - store glucose in your liver, fat, and muscles as glycogen
⚫Glucagon - converts glycogen to glucose
H or m ones fr om t he T est is
⚫ Testosterone - sexual development in male and sperm
production

H or m ones fr om t he Ovar ies

⚫ Estrogen (Ovarian follicles) - sexual development in male,
heat or estrus for sexual receptivity in female animals
⚫ Progesterone (corpus luteum) - pregnancy hormone
⚫ Relaxin - preparation for parturition (widening of cervix)
SEN SORY SYST EM
⚫ Special senses:
⚫ visual system - eyes (sight)
⚫ olfactory system - nose (smell)
⚫ auditory system - ears (hearing and balance)
⚫ gustatory system- tongue (taste)
Animal Genetics and Breeding

Department of Animal Science

Central Luzon State University
Introduction

⮚ Genetics – science that deals with the study of

heredity and variations

⮚ Animal Breeding – Application of principles of genetics

to select the best animals based on human needs
Genetics
 Animal Breeding

Photo by Tanya Lewis

 History of Genetics

Gregor Mendel
 History of Genetics
He postulated that traits are carried by
1 genetic material, which now known as
“gene”

He discovered that genes exist in

2 different form, “allele”

Alleles of different genes are inherited

Gregor Mendel
3 differently
 Discovered double strand of DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick

- Discovered that DNA exist as double
helix
Terminologies
⮚Gene - A gene is the basic physical and
functional unit of heredity. Made up of
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

⮚DNA - is the hereditary material in almost

all other living organisms.
Gene
Structural Gene Regulatory Gene
⮚ responsible for the synthesis ⮚ control and regulate the
of certain biochemical functions of other genes
products (hormones & (on/off)
enzymes) during cell
metabolism
Nucleotides – DNA code of gene

Nucleotides
Adenine A
Thymine T
Guanine G
Cytosine C
⮚Ribonucleic acid (RNA)- functional molecules that
translate DNA code
⮚Protein
✔Provide body’s main building materials
✔Form cell architecture and structural components
✔Limitation: multiplication
DNA Replication
Replication
- DNA multiplication

DNA Polymerase
- reads new template DNA strand and stitches
together the complementary new strand

Mutation
- Occasional deletion or duplications during
replication
- Others are caused by the environment:
sunlight and chemicals
• Mutation – error in gene sequence
– Incorrect protein
– No protein
– Not all are harmful (ex. Brown eyes)
Mutations
Natural mutation in myostatin gene in beef
cattle led to the development of Belgian
Blue breed that has double-muscling trait
 Chromosomes
Classification
[Link] -
chromosome pairs that
are similar in length,
gene position, and
centromere location.
[Link] -
chromosomes are the
chromosomes that differ
in type, function, or size
Chromosome Number
2N 2N

Man 46 Sheep 54
Horse 64 Goat 60
Donkey 62 pig 40
Mule 63 Dog 78
Cattle 60 Cat 38
Domestic Buffalo 48 Rabbit 44
Murrah Buffalo 50 Mouse 40
Cross (N x B) 49 Rat 42
Reindeer 70 Chicken 78
Llama 74 Duck 80
Turkey 82
 Cell Division
Type of Cells
A. Autosome – body cells
– Diploid – from “di” means 2 and “ploid” means sets of
chromosomes
– Cell division : mitosis
B. Sex cells – gametes: egg and sperm cell
– Haploid
– Cell division : mitosis and meiosis
 Chromosome
⮚Locus – location of a gene
in a chromosome
⮚Allele – those genes that
occupy corresponding loci in
homologous chromosomes
but that affect the same
characteristics in a different
way
ex. height
Gene in a loci
⮚Homozygous gene – gene
correspond to each other
⮚Heterozygous gene – gene
contrast in response

Example – Coat color

Black – WW
Homozygous gene
Red – ww
Black - Ww Heterozygous gene
 Expression: Tall
Allele
Dominant allele
⮚ Gene that
overpower/dominates the
expression of the other
⮚ Symbolizes by capital letter T dwarf t
Recessive allele
⮚ Allele whose expression is
suppressed
Phenotype Genotype
⮚ Characteristics that can be ⮚ Actual genetic make-up
perceived by the naked eye

Phenotype Genotype

Height Tall, dwarf TT, tt, Tt

Color Black, Red, BB, bb, Bb

Roan
 Fundamental Types of mating
Dam Sire
Coat Color : Black Coat Color : Red
Genotype : BB Genotype : bb

Sire

Dam
b b Phenotypic Ratio: All Black
Genotypic Ratio: All Bb
B
Bb Bb
B
Bb Bb
 Fundamental Types of mating
Dam Sire
Coat Color : Black Coat Color : Black
Genotype : Bb Genotype : Bb

Sire
Phenotypic Ratio:
Dam
B b 3 Black: 1 red
Genotypic Ratio:
B
BB Bb 1 BB: 2Bb : 1bb

b
Bb bb
 Multiple Traits
Dam Sire
Coat Color : Black and Polled Coat Color : Black and horned
Genotype : BBPP Genotype : Bbpp
Gametes: BP Gametes: Bp bp

Sire

Dam
Bp bp Phenotypic Ratio:
All Black and Polled
BP BBPp BbPp Genotypic Ratio:
1BBPp: 1BbPp
 Phenotypic Expression

Phenotype = G + E (G X E)

Where:
G = Genotype
E = Environment
G x E = Interaction between genotype and environment
Gene Interactions
1. Linear Interaction – gene interaction on the same
chromosome
2. Allelic Interaction – gene interacts with the
corresponding gene in a homologous chromosome
3. Epistatic Interaction – gene in heterologous
chromosome
4. Internal Interaction – interaction with hormone
5. External Interaction – interaction with external
environment (light, nutrition, etc.)
 Allelic Interaction
⮚ Dominance interaction
⮚ Lack of Dominance
⮚LL – long ears, ll – short ears Ll- earless
⮚Overdominance
✔Heterosis – implies that heterozygotes possess greater
vigor or are more desirable in other ways
✔Hybrid vigor – higher productivity
Overdominance
Example: Sickle cell anemia
SS= normal,
ss = anemic (both die of malaria)
S = normal RBC, s = sickle shape RBC
Ss = resistant to malaria due to heterosis
Epistatic Interaction
• A gene or a pair of gene in one pair of chromosomes
may alter or mask the expressions of gene in other
chromosome
• Example
horse color – Black (EE) and chestnut (ee)
Epistatic gene – White (WW or ww)
EEWW or EEWw – White EEww – Black
EeWW or EeWw-White Eeww- Black
eeWW or eeWe - White eeww – Chestnut
 Probability in genetics
• Using punnett squares - Reginald Punnett
• Using fork line method
• Applying multiplication and addition rules
• Here are some links to help with laboratory exercises
– [Link]
– [Link]
Type of Crosses
1. Monohybrid cross
2. Dihybrid cross
3. Backcross
4. Test Cross
Animal Breeding
Important Parameters
1. Heritability estimates (h2)- portion of the total
phenotypic variation that is due to heredity
Production traits – moderately to highly heritable
Reproductive traits – lowly heritable
2. Repeatability estimates (R)- refer to expression
of the same trait at different stages of life of the
same individual
 MECHANICS OF INHERITANCE
Flow of Genetic Materials is through :
REPRODUCTION –Includes both physical and
physiological processes from fertilization to
development of young

Two Processes involved:

A. GAMETOGENESIS = spermatogenesis; oogenesis
B. FERTILIZATION = restores the diploid
chromosomes
BREEDING
- application of animal genetic principles to improve
animal performance;
❑ QUANTITY
❑ EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION
❑ QUALITY OF ANIMALS / PRODUCTS

SELECTION
-certain animals are preferred for the production of
the next generation
NATURAL SELECTION
⮚survival of the fittest

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
⮚ with human intervention to improve existing breeds and
strains
 SELECTION METHODS USED:
[Link]- genetic progress is aimed over a group of 2
or 3 traits one at a time

2. INDEPENDENT CULLING – each trait should meet a

certain standard set for the purpose, if 1 trait among 3
traits does not meet the std. then animal is
rejected

3. SELECTION INDEX – most applicable when selecting

for more than 1 quantitative trait simultaneously with
their corresponding importance or weights
 SELECTION FOR SUPERIOR STOCKS

1. INDIVIDUALITY- selection is based on phenotype for a particular

trait

2. PEDIGREE –record of individual’s ancestors “pedigree clean” –

without history of bad genes

3. PROGENY TEST – animals are rejected or accepted depending

on the performance of their progenies when subjected to a standard
test
4. COLLATERAL RELATIVES – based on performance of
distant relatives (aunts, uncles, half-brothers, half sisters

5. SPECIFIC COMBINING ABILITIES – if some traits that

an animal possess can combine well (nicking ability) with
other traits (genes affect expression of other genes) and
the effect of environment
 MATING SCHEMES
INBREEDING
-PROGENIES ARE PRODUCED BY PARENTS MORE CLOSELY RELATED BY DESCENT
THAN THE AVERAGE OF THE POPULATION FROM WHICH THEY ORIGINATED

INBREEDING DEPRESSION – OPPOSITE OF

HYBRID VIGOR
- INCREASE HOMOZYGOSITY
-BRINGS RECESSIVE GENES TOGETHER BUT NOT INCREASING THE RECESSIVE
GENES
-FIXES CHARACTERS IN THE POPULATION OF INBRED LINES
-WITH SELECTION MAY INCREASE PHENOTYPIC UNIFORMITY
 Inbreeding – mating of closely related
animals
Parents A x B

F1 AB
1 If AB female is mated back to A, it is sire to daughter mating
2. If AB becomes a boar and mated to B it is son to dam mating
3. If AB is mated to AB it is brother-sister mating
LINE BREEDING
-MILD FORM OF INBREEDING TO CONCENTRATE THE
INHERITANCE OF ONE ANCESTOR (USUALLY MALE) OR ONE
LINE OF ANCESTORS IN THE LINE BRED

INDIVIDUALS

EXAMPLE: HALF-SIB MATING

-SHOULD BE USED IN A PUREBRED

POPULATION
CROSSBREEDING

-MATING OF 2 OR MORE UNRELATED

DIFFERENT BREEDS (INCREASE HETEROZYGOSITY OF
GENES)

HETEROSIS OR HYBRID VIGOR IS ACHIEVED

- IMPROVED PERFORMANCE OF
CROSSBREDS OVER THE PARENTS
Crossbreeding

1. Two-way cross – mating of two different breeds of

pigs
Largewhite X Landrace

crossbred
2. Three- way cross – mating of three different breeds of
pigs

A(100) x B(100)

AB (50A,50B) x C(100)

ABC (25A:25B:50C)
3. Four-way cross or hybridization – mating of four
different breeds of pigs

A(100) x B(100) CxD

AB(50A,50B) x CD(50C,50D)

ABCD (25A: 25B: 25C: 25D)

OUTCROSSING (PUREBREEDING)
-MATING OF UNRELATED ANIMALS WITHIN THE SAME BREED

Landrace boar X Landrace Sow

Landrace offspring
OTHER TYPE OF OUTCROSSING
UPGRADING OR GRADING–UP
-IMPROVE BLOODLINE OF NATIVE BREED

Parents A x B = AB 50% A
F1 A x AB = AAB 75% A
F2 A x AAB = AAAB 87.5% A
F3 A x AAAB = AAAAB 93.75% A
• Artificial Insemination- still considered the most useful
and applicable strategy of increasing the genetically
superior genes from proven sires and dam
- where collected semen is (quality, fresh or frozen)
deposited to female reproductive system through
catheter (AI gun)
• Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology –
techniques to construct new combinations of DNA
molecules that do not exist naturally
a. Splitting of DNA –split chemically by enzymes
b. Splicing – isolation of gene fragment from one
organism
c. Recombinant DNA – new hybrid molecule called
recombinant DNA inserted into an organism ( change
in the organism’s physical traits)
d. Gene cloning – specific genes to produce specific
products
e. Gene library – collection of plasmids representing
entire genomic DNA
f. Gene therapy – introduction or transferring of gene
(normal copy of defective gene) causing certain defect
to an individual
g. DNA fingerprinting – Exam of individual genetic
blueprint- its own DNA
h. Gene splicing – plucking of gene for a specific trait
from one organism, transplant to another
 Current works on gene editing
• Deletion or insertion of genetic component
• CRISPR/Cas9 - clustered regularly interspaced short
palindromic repeat/ CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein 9
system
• TALEN - transcription activator-like effector nuclease
• ZFN - Zinc finger nuclease
UNIT IV - Animal Nutrition
Animal Nutrition
⮚study of various physiological, physical
and chemical processes of transforming
food elements to body elements and the
influences of various feed additives to
these processes

⮚GOAL : development of foods that

match individual genotypes for better
health
 Nutrient
• can be defined as any substance or
constituent of food/feed that is
transformed and transported to the
body tissues which supports diverse
physiological processes of the body
 Animal’s Body

67.2 % Water

13.8 % Protein

15.67 % Fats

2.95 % Minerals

Maintenance Reproduction 0.43% Carbohydrates

Growth Lactation
Metabolism – chemical processes that transform
substances for utilization and the excretion of
wastes products at the cellular level.

Anabolism – building of complex substances from

simpler compounds.
Ex: tissue growth

Catabolism – destructive metabolism, breakdown of

complex substances into simple substances.
Ex: breakdown of reserve fat for energy
utilization
Terminologies
Maintenance: Portion of food which
supports bodily processes which go on
whether or not any new tissues or
products are being formed
Growth : Increase in body size or size
composition
Hypertrophy : Increase in cell size
Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number
 Nutrients
Structural materials of the body

Essential

Source of energy for metabolism

regulating body processes or

Non- in the formation of body
Essentials produced regulators
 Nutrients
Composition (%)
Nutrient ANIMAL* PLANT*
Water 70 70
Protein 22 5
Fats 3 1
Carbohydrates <1 22
Ash 4 2
 Nutrient Elements
Arsenic (As) Iodine (I) Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe) Selenium (Se)
Carbon (C) Magnesium (Mg) Silicon (Si)
Chlorine (Cl) Manganese (Mn) Sulfur (S)
Chromium (Cr) Molybdenum (Mo) Tin (Ti)
Cobalt (Co) Nickel (Ni) Vanadium (Va)
Copper (Cu) Nitrogen (N) Zinc (Zn)
Flourine (F) Oxygen (O)
Hydrogen (H) Phosphorus (P)
 Proximate Analysis of
Feed
CP
H20

Organic Mater
Feed CFat CF
DM
NFE

Inorganic
Mater

Ash
 Kjeldahl's method, which evaluates the total nitrogen
Nitrogen-free extract (%) = 100 -
content of the sample after it has been digested in
sulphuric acid with a mercury or selenium catalyst
(MC+CP+Cfat+Cfiber+Cash)
 Classes of Nutrients
Water (H2O)
⮚ 65-80% of an animal body at birth
⮚ 45-60% at maturity
⮚ 90-95% of blood
⮚ 70-90% tissues
FUNCTIONS:
⮚ Transport of nutrients
⮚ Solvent for chemical reaction
⮚ Temperature control
⮚ Lubrication
 Water
Water Restriction
⮚ Reduce feed intake
⮚ Weight loss-dehydration
⮚ Increase nitrogen and electrolyte excretion
Water composition
⮚ Electrolyte balance
⮚ Microbial activity
Consumption
✔ 1:2 feed to water ratio
 Drinking Water Standards
TDS
Ca
SO2 MO
Mg
pH

Total Dissolved solids – 3,000 ppm

Ca – 1,000 ppm
Sulfate – 1,000 ppm
Mg – 400 ppm
Coliforms – 10,000/L
pH – 6.5-8.5
 Water
1. Intracellular water - water found in
muscles and skin
2. Extracellular water - water found in
between cells like blood plasma, lymph,
synovial and cerebrospinal fluids
3. Water present in body parts such as
gastrointestinal and urinary tract.
*Lack of water may result to death faster than deficiency of any
other nutrients
*Limitation of water will reduce production
 Carbohydrates (CHO)
⮚Largest part of an animal’s feed supply
⮚Main source of energy and heat
⮚Stored in the body as fats
⮚Commonly known as sugar
⮚Includes sugar, starch, cellulose and
gums
⮚Simplest form is glucose (C6H12O6)
 Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides – 1 molecule of sugar unit
Classification of Carbohydrates

Important Hexose
 Classification of Carbohydrates
Disaccharides – 2 molecules of sugar unit
Lactose
 Classification of Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides – more than 10 molecules of sugar unit
*Starch is the most common polysaccharide
- Examples: amylose, amylopectin and glycogen
-glucose units joined by alpha linkage
-practically the most important polysaccharide in
animal nutrition as it is abundant in seeds
-major component of corn grains which make up
the bulk of rations for livestock and poultry
- good source of high energy for feeds
 *Pentosans
- Polymers of β-1,4-linked 5-carbon sugars
-Arabinans and Xylans are basically composed
of hemicelluloses which are insoluble in the
digestive system especially in monogastric
animals
-Ruminants, however, can digest these due
to some microbial action

Structure of xylan (Butt

et al, 2008)
*Cellulose
-the major component of the fiber portion
of many plants
-important to ruminants (as roughages)

Beta-1,4 glycosidic bond of a cellulose unit

(Sampath et al., 2016)
*Hemicellulose –part of plant cell wall which are
more digestible than cellulose

*Lignin -a structural component of plant cells

-the fibrous portion of the roots, stems
and cobs
-As a plant gets older, the proportion
of lignin increases

Chemical structure of lignin

(Mahmood et al, 2018)
 Non-starch
Ingredients Reference
polysaccharide
Arabinoxylans, Choct, 1997; Irish and
Corn Cellulose, Mannose, Balnave, 1993;
Galactose Jaworski et al., 2015
Arabinoxylan,
Rice bran Choct, 1997
Cellulose, Beta-glucan
Beta-mannans (Beta
galactomannans),
Pectin, Cellulose, Choct, 1997; Choct et
Arabinose, Xylose, al., 2010; Ferket,
Soybean meal
Galactose, 1993; Irish and
Oligosaccharides Balnave, 1993
(Stachyose and
Raffinose)
Mannans,
Copra meal Sundu et al., 2009
Galactomannans
Distillers dried grain Cellulose,
Kim et al., 2008
with solubles Arabinoxylan
Chesson, 2001; Choct,
Arabinoxylan, Beta- 1997; Ferket, 1993;
Wheat
glucan, Cellulose Irish and Balnave,
1993
Beta-glucans,
Choct, 1997; Chesson,
Barley, Oats, Rye Xyloglucans, and
1993; Partridge, 2001
Arabinoxylans
Arabinoxylan, Beta- Irish and Balnave,
Sorghum, Triticale
glucan, Cellulose 1993
Fats
-or lipids are group of substances that are practically insoluble in
water but soluble in some organic solvents (ether, chloroform,
benzene, and acetone)
-It is made up of 77% Carbon, 12% Hydrogen and 11% Oxygen
in terms of molecular weight
-Lipids have components similar to that of a carbohydrate but are
different from carbohydrates
- structurally, carbohydrates are made of monosaccharides like
glucose, fructose, and galactose (they can be simple or complex
(starches and fibers) sugar
- fats are made of fatty acids and glycerol, forming structure
like triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols.
 Classification of Fats based
on Structure
Saturated fats
✔ No double band on fatty acids
✔ Solid at room temperature (butter or animal fat)
✔ Associated to health diseases
Unsaturated fats
✔ double bonds are present in fatty acid
✔ Liquid at room temp. (oil)
✔ Monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fat
• Fats may be classified as Simple,
Compound or Derived

Simple lipids
• True fat (fats and oils)
Compound lipids

• Phospholipids (also called

phosphatides)- Glycolipids -
fats in combination with Compound lipids (Xia and Peng, 2013)

carbohydrate and nitrogen

• Lipoproteins - fat molecules

bound to proteins

Lipoprotein structure (Chiang 2014)

• Derived Lipids
• As the term implies, derived lipids are those
formed from the hydrolysis of simple or
compound lipids
• Fatty acid - building blocks of fats
– Saturated solid at room temp. (ani. Fats like
tallow)
– Unsaturated - lower melting point, liquid at room
temp.
(Vegetable oils (coconut, corn oil, soybean oil)
*Oils are more digestible than fats
• Fats can be formed easily can be synthesized
from carbohydrates and proteins

In the animal body it can be found

• subcutaneously,
• surrounding internal organs or in and milk
• as a component of feeds at not more than
10% and in oil seeds at about 20%
*The difference between fats and oils is the
state they are in at room temperature;
*fats are solid at room temperature
whereas oils are liquid at the said
temperature
In general:
*Oils are more digestible than fats

LARD (Pork fat)

vs
PALM OIL
Fats function as
1. Dietary source of energy (2.25 time higher
than carbohydrates);
2. Source of heat, insulation and protection for
animal body;
3. Source of essential fatty acids namely
linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid
4. Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins for absorption
(vitamin A,D,E,K)
Deficiency of fats in the body or its abnormal
metabolism may result to:
– hair loss
– reduced growth rate
– skin lesions
• Fatty liver - abnormal liver function due to
accumulation of lipids in the liver
P roteins
-composed of polypeptides, or a series of amino acids joined
by peptide bonds
-contain elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
- may also have Sulfur and Phosphorus
-building blocks of proteins are amino acids

Amino acids
- polymerized units which provide the necessary structure
for a protein molecule.
- categorized as essential or limiting and non-essential or
non-limiting
• Essential amino acids
– must be supplied in the diet because it
cannot be synthesized by the body in
sufficient amounts commensurate to
the needs of the animal
– essentiality depends on the factors
such as species, age, health,
metabolism
Ten Essential Amino Acids: PVT MAT HILL
• Phenylalanine
• Valine
• Tryptophan
• Methionine – most limiting amino acid in poultry
• Arginine
• Threonine
• Histidine
• Isoleucine
• Leucine
• Lysine- most limiting amino acid in swine
• Non- Essential amino acids - vital but need not be
supplied in the diet for the rate at which it is synthesized
by the body is commensurate to body needs

12 Non- Essential amino acids:

1. Alanine 7. Glutamic acid
2. Asparagines 8. Glutamine
3. Aspartic acid 9. Glycine
4. Cysteine [Link]
5. Cystine [Link]
6. Serine [Link]
• A protein made up of amino acids is
called true protein

• however, proteins that are not true

protein in nature but contain high
amounts of nitrogen which can be
converted into protein via the action of
bacteria, called Non-Protein Nitrogen
(NPN)
• In analysis, protein is usually expressed
as crude protein which is
representative of the true protein and
any nitrogenous product

• On the average, food products have been

analyzed to have 16% N
• The formula for computing crude protein:
the amount of nitrogen multiplied by
6.25

100 = 6.25
16
• proteins are organic compounds that are
very vital in all living organisms

• requirement of protein is higher in young

animals as this nutrient forms mainly
the structural components of the
body
Insufficient amount of protein or amino
acids may lead to:

• reduced growth rate

• reduced feed efficiency
• anorexia
• increased nitrogen in the feces
(environmental pollution)
Classification based on
structure:
• Fibrous proteins
-These are the proteins that
are insoluble in water and
resistant to digestive enzymes
-It may contain low amounts
of cystine
-It constitutes about 30% of
total protein in an animal body
-Examples are collagen,
elastin and keratin
• Globular or simple proteins
-These are the proteins that are soluble in
water or in dilute acids and bases or in alcohol
-It includes the albumins ad globulins (blood
proteins), enzymes and hormones

Globulin
• Alpha globulins
• Beta globulins
• Gamma globulins
-gammaglobulins “antibodies”
• Conjugated proteins
-Examples are
❑ glycoproteins (carbohydrates
and proteins),
❑ lipoproteins (fats and
proteins),
❑ phosphoproteins (phosphorus
and proteins),
❑ metalloproteins (inorganic),
Structure of 1 a nd the binding s ites of the
meta lloproteins (Mehta et a l, 2017))

❑ cytochrome, enzymes, and

very low density lipoprotein
M inerals

-Minerals are inorganic, solid crystalline chemical

elements that are required by the body in rather
smaller amounts as compared to other nutrients
-these are present in an animal body at about 5%
only on a dry weight basis
-these are expressed as ash in proximate analysis
Minerals function in:
• regulation of acid-base balance
• maintenance of osmotic balance in the body
• formation and maintenance of the skeletal
system
• intermediate in protein synthesis
• transport of oxygen
• activation and component of enzyme systems
• absorption of vitamins
It is present in the animal as:
1. ingested or part of feed -
mineral supplements
2. metabolic essential - Fe and
Co for energy production
3. structural material - bones,
teeth
Minerals can be classified as:
Major or Macrominerals – Ca, P, K, Mg, Na, Cl, S
Trace or Microminerals–Fe, Cu, Co, Mn, I, Mo, Zn, Fl,
Se
• Macro minerals. These are minerals needed in large
amount; requirement is expressed as percentage of the
diet
1. Sodium (Na),and 2. Chlorine (Cl) – required in the
formation of digestive juices, control of body fluid
concentration, for nerve and muscle activity and
maintenance of acid-base balance (pH)
Deficiency: Unthrifty appearance and impaired
performance heavily perspiring animals
 Sign of Na and Cl deficiency

Signs of Na deficiency
• Ataxia (incoordination; mental Signs of Cl deficiency
confusion; edema of eyelids,
nose or lips; abnormal gait) • Hyperexcitability
• Tremore (involuntary
movement of the body • Paralysis
• Excessive salivation • Weakness
• Seizure (sudden surge of
electrical activity in the brain
that causes involuntary • Death
movements or a loss of
consciousness)
• Poor growth
 3. Calcium (Ca) – required for bone
and teeth formation; needed for
muscle and nerve function; acid –
base balance; milk and egg
production, blood coagulation

Deficiency:
• rickets in young animals with enlarged
joints; soft and deformed bones
• osteomalacia or osteoporosis in older
animals with porous and weak bones
Rickets
 4. Phosphorus (P) – required for
bone and teeth formation ( 80% of
body P is in the bones and teeth)
- component of protein in the soft
tissues, milk and egg production
- for various metabolic processes
(energy production such as ATP
synthesis)

• Deficiency:
• rickets, osteomalacia or osteoporosis
• poor appetite, poor growth, low
milk production
 5. Magnesium (Mg)
– carbohydrate metabolism
- activation of certain enzyme systems
- proper functioning of the nervous system

• Deficiency
• loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and
weakness
• hypomagnesemic tetany (grass tetany) –
hyperirritability of the neuromuscular system
producing hyperexcitability, incoordination
• -hypomagnesemia (plasma total magnesium
[tMg] < 1.5 mg/dL or < 0.65 mmol/L)
 6. Potassium (K)
– required in various body functions:
- osmotic homeostasis
- acid-base balance
- rumen digestion
- primary intracellular cation in neuromuscular
activity

• Deficiency: non-specific such as decreased

feed consumption, low feed efficiency, slow
growth, and stiffness
 7. Sulfur (S)
– a component of amino acids methionine and
cystine and vitamins biotin (vitamin H or
B7)and thiamine (vitamin B1)
- synthesis of sulfur containing amino acids in
the rumen
- the formation of various body compounds

• Deficiency: express itself as a protein

deficiency - a general unthrifty condition and
poor performance
• Micro minerals. These are minerals needed in
small amounts; requirement is expressed in
parts per million or parts per billion
1. Cobalt (Co) – component of the molecule of
vitamin B12, important in the synthesis of vitamin
B12 in the rumen
• Deficiency: malnutrition symptoms; poor
appetite, unthriftiness, weakness, anemia,
decreased fertility, slow growth, and decreased
milk and wool production
 2. Iron (Fe) – component of the
hemoglobin molecule which is involved in
oxygen transport in the blood
• Deficiency: deficiency seldom occurs in older animals
because most livestock ration are adequate in iron
• Deficiency in young pigs are: low blood hemoglobin,
labored breathing, listlessness, pale eyelids, ears and
nose, flabby and wrinkled skin, edema of head and
shoulder
 3. Copper (Cu) – required for absorption of
iron, in hemoglobin formation, synthesis of
keratin for hair and wool and for enzyme
systems

• Deficiency: non-specific symptoms that may

include: low blood and liver copper, bleaching
of hair in cattle, abnormal wool growth,
muscular incoordination, weakness at birth and
anemia
 4. Iodine (I) – production of
thyroxine by the thyroid
gland which controls
metabolic rate

• Deficiency: goiter at birth or

soon thereafter, dead or weak
at birth, hairlessness at birth
and infected navels especially
in foals
 5. Manganese (Mn) – in enzyme systems
influencing estrus, ovulation, fetal
development, udder development, milk
production and growth and skeletal
development

• Deficiency: delayed estrus, reduced ovulation,

reduced fertility, abortions, resorptions,
deformed young, poor growth, lowered serum
alkaline phosphatase, lowered tissue
manganese, “knuckling over” in calves
6. Molybdenum (Mo) – a component of the
enzyme xanthine oxidase important in the
uric acid formation in poultry, stimulates
action of rumen organism

7. Selenium (Se) – involved in proper

absorption and retention of vitamin E
 Deficiency symptoms of selenium in many respects are
similar to vitamin E deficiency such as:
• -nutritional muscular dystrophy (white muscle
disease) in lambs and calves
• retained placenta in cows
• heart failure
• paralysis
• poor growth
• low fertility
• liver necrosis
• pancreatic fibrosis in chicks
 8. Zinc (Zn) – component of carbonic
anhydrase which is involved in the
transport of carbon dioxide from the cell to
the lungs, prevents parakeratosis;
promotes wound healing; for the growth of
hair and wool

• Deficiency: Seldom occurs in animals given normal

ration, frequently among growing and fattening
swine. Symptoms include:
-parakeratosis -general unthriftiness
-poor growth -unhealthy hair
-slow wound healing
 9. Fluorine (Fl) – reduces incidence of
dental caries in human and possibly in
other animals

• Deficiency: Excessive dental caries in

children

Sam Aguilar (Haikudeck)

• For some minerals, the borderline between
safety and toxicity is very small

• Toxicity does not necessarily mean death but

can also mean greatly reduced performance

• Cu, Se, and F are toxic at relatively low dietary

levels
Vitam ins
-organic nutrient required small quantities needed for
regulating metabolic processes
-does not become actual component of body structures
-principal function is as regulators of metabolism
-divided as:
Fat-soluble vitamins -Vitamins A, D, E and K
Water soluble vitamins - Vitamins B complex
(thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic
acid, biotin, choline, folic acid) and C (Ascorbic Acid)
• When insufficient or improperly absorbed or
utilized, various deficiency symptoms or
disease may arise
• General symptoms of vitamin deficiency

–poor growth response

–lack of appetite
–alopecia (hair loss)
–reproductive failure
The fat soluble vitamins
1. Vitamin A – Retinol
– Can occur as retinol, retinal or retinoic acid
– Common in plants as precursors –
carotenoids
– Carotene, a precursor is present in yellow
colored cereals in abundant amounts
• Required for :
– normal night vision as it is responsible
for the development of visual purple or
rhodopsin in the eye
– development and protection of normal
epithelial cells
– normal bone growth and development
– improves resistance to infections
2. Vitamin D – sterols
– Present as ergosterol in plants and
7-dehydrocholesterol in animals
– Plenty in dry forages because of
activated ergosterol
– Found in colostrums in very rich
amounts, 6-8 times more than any
other source
– 7-dehydrocholesterol is
converted into vitamins D2 or D3 or
cholecalciferol by means of sunlight
– Vitamins D2 and D3 can be efficiently
utilized by mammals; birds can utilize
Vitamin D3 more efficiently than they
do Vitamin D2
• Functions of Vit. D in body regulation:
– incorporation of the macrominerals
calcium and phosphorus into the
bone matrix to allow normal bone
mineralization and prevent tetany
– absorption of calcium from the
intestinal lumen
3. Vitamin E – Tocopherol
–Anti-sterility vitamin
–Biological antioxidant
–Detoxifying agent
–Component of the
respiratory chain
–Involved in nucleic acid,
protein and mitochondrial
metabolism
–Present in abundant
amounts in green fodders
and green leafy vegetables
4. Vitamin K - Menadione
• antihemorrhagic vitamin
• required for normal blood clotting and
maturation of bone structure
• present as phylloquinone or K1 in plants;
menaquinone or K2 in bacteria (the most
active form) and menadione or K3 in
animals
• normally synthesized by bacteria in the
intestines and destroyed by heat and intense
sunlight
The water soluble vitamins
1. Vitamin B1 – Thiamine
»present as thiamine
pyrophosphate
»involved in the processes of
carbohydrate metabolism
2. B2 – Riboflavin
»important in energy metabolism
»acts as a constituent of the
flavin enzymes in hydrogen
transfer in the respiratory chain
»synthesized by green plants,
forages, bacteria, rumen
3. B6 – Pyridoxine
– Present as pyridoxal phosphate
– Coenzyme of many enzyme systems involved in
amino acid metabolism
4. Pantothenic Acid
– Plays an important role in the metabolism of
coenzyme A which occupies a central position in
the intermediary metabolism by activating weakly
active acids
– Is not supplied to ruminants as the
microorganisms in the rumen has the ability to
synthesize it
5. Biotin - vitamin H / B4
» Contains sulfur
» Involved in carboxylation reactions
in gluconeogenesis and fatty acid
synthesis
6. B12 – Cyanocobalamin
» Essential in metabolism of fats and
proteins particularly in the
reduction of one carbon
compounds
» Known as the animal protein factor
7. Folic Acid - B9
» Indispensable in the formation of amino and
nucleic acids as it acts in one carbon
metabolism
8. Nicotinic Acid –Niacin (B3)
• Involved as a coenzyme of NAD
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and
NADP NAD (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate)
• Acts as co-dehydrogenases in different
processes in citric acid cycle
9. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
» Directly involved with numerous enzymes
responsible for catalyzing oxidation and reduction
reactions
» Indispensable in the formation and maintenance
of skeletal tissues
» Involved in body defense mechanism
• THE NUTRITIVE MATERIALS
-Feed is a term given to a particular product that
provides nutrient
- materials consisting of grains; fodder or by-products
of animal or plant origin which when properly used
have nutritional value to the animals
- edible materials which are consumed by animals and
contribute energy and/or nutrients to the animal’s diet
-Food is an article used for food or drink for man or
other animals. It is a substance that provides taste,
flavor or nutritive value
-Feedstuff is commonly used when a group or
list of feeds is being referred to
*It is a term similar to feed or food but is
broader covering all materials in the diet
*It may consist of products that are of natural
or artificial in origin

-Meal is processed nutritive materials that are

intended for feeding
-Diet is composed of a number of
individual feeds selected to make a
balance ration for feeding to stocks;
sometimes known as mixed feed or
formula feed

-Ration is the quantity of feed being

offered (daily) to an animal