NERVOUS TISSUE
BY
YUSUF UTHMAN ADEMOLA
([Link],[Link],PhD)
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY, KIU
GONGO LA MBOTO, DAR ES SALAAM
TANZANIA
INTRODUCTION
• NS is the most complex system in the human
body, is formed by a network of more than 100
million nerve cells (neurons), assisted by many
more glial cells.
• Each neuron has, on average, at least 1000
interconnections with other neurons, forming a
very complex system for communication.
• Nerve tissue is distributed throughout the body
as an integrated communications network.
• Anatomically, the nervous system is divided
into
the central nervous system consisting of
the brain and the spinal cord, and
the peripheral nervous system composed of
nerve fibers and small aggregates of nerve
cells called nerve ganglia
Nervous tissue consists
of two major types of
cells
• Neurons - responsible for conduction,
propagation, and reception of nervous impulses.
Processes called axons or dendrites extend
from these cells.
• Glial cells - (neuroglia) cells associated with
neurons. No axons or dendrites. These cells are
involved in nutrition, support, insulation,
protection of neurons.
NEURONS
NEURONS
• Most neurons consist of three parts:
The dendrites, which are multiple elongated
processes specialized in receiving stimuli from
the environment, sensory epithelial cells, or
other neurons.
The cell body, or perikaryon which is the trophic
center for the whole nerve cell and is also
receptive to stimuli; and
The axon which is a single process specialized
in generating or conducting nerve impulses to
other cells (nerve, muscle, and gland cells).
Axons may also receive information from other
neurons; this information mainly modifies the
transmission of action potentials to other
neurons.
The distal portion of the axon is usually
branched and constitutes the terminal
arborization. Each branch of this arborization
terminates on the next cell in dilatations called
end bulbs (boutons), which interact with other
neurons or nonnerve cells, forming structures
called synapses. Synapses transmit
information to the next cell in the circuit.
Myelin Sheath
• Many nerve fibers, particularly those that are
long or large in diameter, are covered with a
whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented myelin
sheath.
• Myelin protects and electrically insulates fibers,
and it increases the speed of transmission of
nerve impulses.
• Myelinated fibers (axons bearing a myelin
sheath) conduct nerve impulses rapidly,
whereas unmyelinated fibers conduct
impulses quite slowly. Note that myelin sheaths
are associated only with axons. Dendrites are
always unmyelinated.
• Myelin sheaths in the PNS are formed by
Schwann cells, which indent to receive an axon
and then wrap themselves around it in a jelly
roll fashion.
• Initially the wrapping is loose, but the Schwann
cell cytoplasm is gradually squeezed from
between the membrane layers.
• Regions of the brain and spinal cord containing
dense collections of myelinated fibers are
referred to as white matter and are primarily
fiber tracts. Gray matter contains mostly nerve
cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.
TYPES OF NEURONS
• Based on number of
processes found on cell
body
1. multipolar = several
dendrites & one axon
• most common cell
type
2. bipolar neurons = one
main dendrite & one
axon
• found in retina, inner
ear & olfactory
3. unipolar neurons = one
process only(develops
from a bipolar)
• are always sensory
neurons
• Based on number of
processes found on cell
body
1. multipolar = several
dendrites & one axon
• most common cell
type
2. bipolar neurons = one
main dendrite & one
axon
• found in retina, inner
ear & olfactory
3. unipolar neurons = one
process only(develops
from a bipolar)
• are always sensory
neurons
• Based on number of
processes found on cell
body
1. multipolar = several
dendrites & one axon
• most common cell
type
2. bipolar neurons = one
main dendrite & one
axon
• found in retina, inner
ear & olfactory
3. unipolar neurons = one
process only(develops
from a bipolar)
• are always sensory
neurons
Neurons can also be classified according to their
functional roles.
Motor (efferent) neurons control effector organs
such as muscle fibers and exocrine and
endocrine glands.
Sensory (afferent) neurons are involved in the
reception of sensory stimuli from the
environment and from within the body.
Interneurons establish relationships among other
neurons, forming complex functional networks
or circuits (as in the retina).
GLIAL CELLS
There are six major types of glial cells which are
1. Astrocyte
2. Oligodendrocyte
3. Microglia
4. Ependymal cells
5. Schwann cells - peripheral nervous system
[Link] cells
Astrocyte
They are the most abundant and most versatile glial
cells.
(A) Provide physical support for neurons
(B) Store glycogen
(C) Isolate synaptic areas from one and other
(D) In the brain, processes abut against the basement
membrane of capillary endothelium (pedicles)
forming the blood-brain barrier
E. Astrocytes have a role in making exchanges
between capillaries and neurons, in guiding the
migration of young neurons, in synapse formation,
and in helping to determine capillary permeability
Two types of astrocytes
Protoplasmic astrocytes
a. granular cytoplasm, many branches on short
processes
b. found mainly in gray matter
Fibrous astrocytes
a. have longer slender processes
b. found mainly in white matter (but also occur in
gray matter).
B. Oligodendrocytes (plural). oligodendrocyte
(singular)
1. smaller than astrocytes, fewer processes
2. found in both grey and white matter of CNS
3. Oligodendrocytes line up along the thicker neuron
fibers in the CNS and wrap their processes tightly
around the fibers, producing insulating coverings
called myelin sheaths.
C. Microglia
1. small cell body that is usually elongated and
stains densely
2. sometimes an elongate nucleus (Other glia
have spherical nucleus)
3. known to migrate and accumulate at the site of
nerve damage within the central nervous
system.
• Where invading microorganisms or dead
neurons are present, the microglia
transform into a special type of
macrophage that phagocytizes the
microorganisms or neuronal debris. This
protective role of the microglia is
important because cells of the immune
system are denied access to the CNS.
D. Ependymal cells
1. ciliated cells forming single layer of simple
cuboidal to low columnar epithelium that lines
the entire neurocoel
2. ciliary action acts to circulate cerebral spinal
fluid.
Peripheral Nervous System Glial Cells
E. Schwann cells also called neurolemmocytes -
Neural tube- origin
• surround and form myelin sheaths around the
larger nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous
system. Hence, they are functionally similar to
oligodendrocytes. Schwann cells are vital to
regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve
• F. satellite cells
• They surround neuron cell bodies located in the
peripheral neurons system but their function is
still largely unknown. Their name comes from a
fancied resemblance to the moons (satellites)
around a planet.
The Central Nervous System
• The central nervous system consists of the Brain
(cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla
oblongata)and spinal cord. It has almost no
connective tissue and is therefore a relatively
soft, gel-like organ.
• Meninges
• The skull and the vertebral column protect the
central nervous system. It is also encased in
membranes of connective tissue called the
meninges.
• Starting with the outermost layer, the meninges
are the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. The
arachnoid and the pia mater are linked together
and are often considered a single membrane
called the pia-arachnoid.
• Dura Mater
• The dura mater is the external layer and is
composed of dense connective tissue
continuous with the periosteum of the skull.
The dura mater that envelops the spinal cord is
separated from the periosteum of the vertebrae
by the epidural space, which contains thin-
walled veins, loose connective tissue, and
adipose tissue.
• The dura mater is always separated from the
arachnoid by the thin subdural space. The
internal surface of all dura mater, as well as its
external surface in the spinal cord, is covered
by simple squamous epithelium of
mesenchymal origin.
• ARACHNOID
• The arachnoid has two components: a layer in
contact with the dura mater and a system of
trabeculae connecting the layer with the pia
mater.
• The cavities between the trabeculae form the
subarachnoid space, which is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid and is completely separated
from the subdural space.
• This space forms a hydraulic cushion that
protects the central nervous system from trauma.
The subarachnoid space communicates with the
ventricles of the brain.
• The arachnoid is composed of connective tissue
devoid of blood vessels. The same type of
simple squamous epithelium that covers the
dura mater covers its surfaces.
• Because the arachnoid has fewer trabeculae in
the spinal cord, it can be more clearly
distinguished from the pia mater in that area.
• In some areas, the arachnoid perforates the
dura mater, forming protrusions that terminate
in venous sinuses in the dura mater. These
protrusions, which are covered by endothelial
cells of the veins, are called arachnoid villi.
Their function is to reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid
into the blood of the venous sinuses.
• Pia Mater
• The pia mater is a loose connective tissue
containing many blood vessels.
• Although it is located quite close to the nerve
tissue, it is not in contact with nerve cells or fibers.
• Between the pia mater and the neural elements is a
thin layer of neuroglial processes, adhering firmly
to the pia mater and forming a physical barrier at
the periphery of the central nervous system.
• This barrier separates the central nervous system
from the cerebrospinal fluid.
• The pia mater follows all the irregularities of the
surface of the central nervous system and
penetrates it to some extent along with the blood
vessels.
• Squamous cells of mesenchymal origin cover
pia mater.
• Blood vessels penetrate the central nervous
system through tunnels covered by pia
mater—the perivascular spaces. The pia mater
disappears before the blood vessels are
transformed into capillaries. In the central
nervous system, the blood capillaries are
completely covered by expansions of the
neuroglial cell processes
Choroid Plexus & Cerebrospinal
•
Fluid
The choroid plexus consists of invaginated
folds of pia mater, rich in dilated fenestrated
capillaries, that penetrate the interior of the
brain ventricles.
• It is found in the roofs of the third and fourth
ventricles and in part in the walls of the lateral
ventricles.
• The choroid plexus is composed of loose
connective tissue of the pia mater, covered by a
simple cuboidal or low columnar epithelium
made of ion-transporting cells
• The main function of the choroid plexus is to
elaborate cerebrospinal fluid, which contains
only a small amount of solids and completely
fills the ventricles, central canal of the spinal
cord, subarachnoid space, and perivascular
space.
• Cerebrospinal fluid is important for the
metabolism of the central nervous system and
acts as a protective device against mechanical
shocks.
• Cerebrospinal fluid is clear, has a low density
(1.004–1.008 g/ mL), and is very low in protein
content. A few desquamated cells and two to five
lymphocytes per milliliter are also present.
• Cerebrospinal fluid is continuously produced
and circulates through the ventricles, from
which it passes into the subarachnoid space.
There, arachnoid villi provide the main pathway
for absorption of cerebrospinal fluid into the
venous circulation.
• PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The main components of the peripheral
nervous system are the nerves, ganglia, and
nerve endings. Nerves are bundles of nerve
fibers surrounded by connective tissue sheaths.
STRUCTURE OF THE NERVE
The nerves have an external fibrous coat of
dense connective tissue called epineurium,
which also fills the space between the bundles
of nerve fibers.
Each bundle is surrounded by the perineurium,
a sleeve formed by layers of flattened
epithelium like cells.
Within the perineurial sheath run the Schwann
cell-sheathed axons and their enveloping
connective tissue, the endoneurium . The
endoneurium consists of a thin layer of
reticular fibers, produced by Schwann cells.
GANGLIA
• Ganglia are ovoid structures containing
neuronal cell bodies and glial cells supported
by connective tissue.
• Because they serve as relay stations to
transmit nerve impulses, one nerve enters and
another exits from each ganglion.
• The direction of the nerve impulse determines
whether the ganglion will be a sensory or an
autonomic ganglion.
• Sensory Ganglia
• Sensory ganglia receive afferent impulses that
go to the central nervous system.
• Two types of sensory ganglia exist. Some are
associated with cranial nerves (cranial ganglia);
others are associated with the dorsal root of
the spinal nerves and are called spinal ganglia.
• Autonomic Ganglia
• Autonomic ganglia appear as bulbous
dilatations in autonomic nerves. Some are
located within certain organs, especially in the
walls of the digestive tract, where they
constitute the intramural ganglia.
• These ganglia are devoid of connective tissue
capsules, and their cells are supported by the
stroma of the organ in which they are found.
• Autonomic ganglia usually have multipolar
neurons.
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