CITY AND GUILDS 9210

Level 6
Module - Unit 129 FLUID MECHANICS
OUTCOME 4 - TUTORIAL 3
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

This module has 4 Learning Outcomes. This is the third tutorial for outcome 4

Outcome 4 Analyse the principles and applications of turbo-machinery

The learner can:

1. Use one dimensional theory to analyse the performance of:

a turbines
b pumps
c fans.

2 Use flow measurement techniques

a. venturi meters
b. orifice plates
c. nozzles.

3. Assess axial and centrifugal flow machines.

4. Apply dynamic similarity to turbo-machines in terms of:

a flow, head and power coefficients
b specific speed
c characteristic performance curves
d net positive-suction head (NPSH).

5. Analyse turbo-machinery systems in terms of:

a system load line
b pump and turbine operating conditions.

Pre-Requisite Knowledge Requirement

In order to study this module you should already have a good knowledge of fluid mechanics. If
not you should study the tutorials at [Link]/[Link] before
commencing this module.

This tutorial is about differential pressure flow meters.

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1. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE DEVICES

Differential pressure devices produce differential pressure as a result of changes in fluid

velocity. They have many uses but mainly they are used for flow measurement. In this section
you will apply Bernoulli's equation to such devices. You will also briefly examine forces
produced by momentum changes.

1.1 GENERAL RELATIONSHIP

Many devices make use of the transition of flow energy into kinetic energy. Consider a flow of
liquid which is constrained to flow from one sectional area into a smaller sectional area as
shown below.

Figure 1

The velocity in the smaller bore u2 is given by the continuity equation as

u2 = u1A1/A2

Let A1/A2 = r u2 = r u1

In BS1042 the symbol used is m but r is used here to avoid confusion with mass.

If we apply Bernoulli (head form) between (1) and (2) and ignoring energy losses we have
u2 u2
h1  z1  1  h2  z 2  2
2g 2g
For a horizontal system z1=z2 so
u2 u2
h1  1  h2  2
2g 2g
 
2 g h1  h2   u 22  u12  u12 r 2  1  
2 g h1  h2 
u1 
 r 2 1 
2 g h1  h2 
Vol / s  Q  A1u1  A1
 r 2 1
In terms of pressure rather than head we get, by substituting p= gh
2p
Q  A1

 r 2 1 
= Au = Q

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Because we did not allow for energy loss, we introduce a coefficient of discharge Cd to correct
the answer resulting in

2p
Q  C d A1

 r 2 1 

The value of Cd depends upon many factors and is not constant over a wide range of flows.
BS1042 should be used to determine suitable values. It will be shown later that if there is a
contraction of the jet, the formula needs further modification.

For a given device, if we regard Cd as constant then the equation may be reduced to :
0.5
Q = K(p)
K is the meter constant.

1.2 MOMENTUM and PRESSURE FORCES

Changes in velocities mean changes in momentum and Newton's second law tells us that this is
accompanied by a force such that

Force = rate of change of momentum.

Pressure changes in the fluid must also be considered as these also produce a force. Translated into a
form that helps us solve the force produced on devices such as those considered here, we use the
equation F= u.

When dealing with devices that produce a change in direction, such as pipe bends, this has to be
considered more carefully and this is covered in chapter 4. In the case of sudden changes in section, we
may apply the formula

F = (p1A1 + u1) - (p2 A2 + u2)

point 1 is upstream and point 2 is downstream.

We will now examine specific d.p. devices starting with an orifice. All these devices appear in
BS1042

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2. ORIFICE METERS

When a liquid flows through an orifice it experiences frictional energy loss and a contraction in
the diameter of the jet, both of which affect the value of Cd. The diagram below shows this
contraction which is due to the fluid approaching the orifice from radial directions and not
along the centre line. This makes the velocity of the jet greater than it would otherwise be
because of the reduction in area. In addition to this, there is a 2 or 3 % reduction in velocity
due to friction. The value of Cd depends upon the sharpness of the orifice edge. In a sharp
edged orifice Cd is typically 0.62 but is slightly larger if the sharp edge is replaced by a square
edge.

Figure 2

2.1 COEFFICIENT OF CONTRACTION

The coefficient of contraction is defined as

Cc = Area of Jet/Area of Orifice =Aj/Ao = Dj2/Do2

2. 2 COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY

The coefficient of velocity is defined as

Cv = Actual velocity of jet/theoretical velocity

The theoretical velocity = (2p/)½

It follows that the actual velocity is :

u = Cv (2 p/)½

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2.3 COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE

The flow rate through the orifice is the product of area and velocity so

Q = Aju= CcCvAo(2p/)½

The product of CcCv must be the coefficient of discharge so it follows that

Cd =CcCv
and Q = Cd Ao(2p/)½

This formula neglects the approach velocity. The kinetic energy up stream of the orifice is not
usually neglected. Let's do the derivation of the flow formula again.

2.4 FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE

Referring to fig.21, applying Bernoulli between point (1) upstream and the vena-contracta (2)
we have
p1 + ½ u12 = p2 + ½ u22
p1 - p2 = ½ (u22- u12)

u1A1= u2A2 u1= u2A2/A1 = u2d22/d12

A2/A0= Cc = d22/d02 d22=Ccd02

u1= u2Ccd02/d12 = u2Cc 2

=d0/d1
p1  p 2  p 
1 2
2

u 2 1  Cc2  4 
2p
u2 

 1  C c2  4 
This is the velocity at the vena contracta. If friction is taken into account a coefficient of
velocity must be used to correct it.
2p
u 2  CV

 1  Cc2  4 
2p
Q  C v C c Ao

 1  C c2  4 
Q = A2u2 A2=CcA0
2p
Q  C d Ao

 1  C c2  4 
This formula may be rearranged to give the pressure drop if the flow is known.
2
 Q  
p   
 1  C c2  4 
 C d Ao  2

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The pressure tapping points are normally placed at one pipe diameter upstream and one half
pipe diameter downstream in order to get the maximum d.p. However if the maximum value is
not important, the d.p. is more easily obtained by the use of corner or flange tappings. The
results are still valid but less d.p. is obtained.

Figure 3 showing tapping positions

Figure 3 shows how the flow after the orifice must expand to the full bore of the pipe. The
velocity in the full bore is less than the jet so the jet must be slowed down. It can only do this
by colliding with the slower moving fluid downstream and consequently there is a lot of
friction and energy loss in the turbulent mixing taking place. The result is that only a small
amount of kinetic energy is reconverted into pressure downstream and the overall pressure loss
for the system is high. The loss from the vena contracta (2) to (3) was derived earlier and is
given by:

Pressure loss due to expansion = ½ (u2 -u3)2

Further pressure losses are produced by skin friction and could be estimated. The problem is
that the mean velocity is uncertain in the areas near the orifice so it is difficult to apply Darcy's
formula.

Figure 4 shows the way that pressure changes on approach to and departure from the orifice.

Figure 4

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

The figure shows a sharp edged orifice plate of diameter 20 mm in a horizontal pipe of
diameter 25 mm. There are three pressure tappings as follows.

(1) at about 3 pipe diameters upstream of the orifice plate. (2) at half a pipe diameter
downstream of the orifice plate and (3) at about 5 pipe diameters downstream of the orifice
plate. The tappings read pressures p1, p2 and p3 respectively.

If there is a flow rate of 0.8 x 10-3 m3/s of water at 25oC, evaluate the pressure differences
p1- p2 and p1- p3. Calculate the % of pressure recovered downstream of the orifice. It may
be assumed that the discharge coefficient is 0.64 and the contraction coefficient is 0.74. The
density and viscosity for water are usually given on the front of the exam paper. The density
is 998 kg/m3.

Figure 5

SOLUTION

First the pressure drop from 1 to 2. There is friction in the jet so the formula to be used is
p = (Q/CdA0)2(1 - Cc2 4)/2
A0= p x 0.022/4 = 0.0003142 m2 b = 20/25=0.8
p = {0.0008/(0.64x 0.0003142)2}(1 - 0.742x0.84)998/2
p =p1-p2 = 6.126 kPa
This includes the pressure loss due to friction in the jet as well as due to the change in
velocity.

u1 = u3 = 0.0008/(px0.0252/4 ) =1.63 m/s

A2=Cc x p x 0.022/4 =0.000232 m2
u2 = 0.0008/0.000232 = 3.44 m/s
Loss due to sudden expansion = (u2 -u3)2/2 = 998(3.44 - 1.63)2/2 = 1.63 kPa
Now we must find the pressure loss due to friction in the jet.
Ideal jet velocity = u2/Cv Cv= Cd/Cc = 0.64/0.74 = 0.865
Ideal jet velocity = 3.44/0.865 = 3.98 m/s
Loss of kinetic energy as pressure = (/2)(3.982 -3.442) = 1.99 kPa
p1 + u12/2 = p3 + u32/2
p1 - p3 = (/2)(u32-u12) + losses
u3 = u3
p1 - p3 = losses = 1.63 kPa + 1.99 kPa = 3.62 kPa
The pressure regained downstream = 6.126 - 3.62 = 2.5 kPa
The diffuser efficiency = 2.5/6.126 = 41%

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3. VENTURI METERS

The Venturi Meter is designed to taper down to the throat gradually and then taper out again.
No contraction occurs in the flow so Cc = 1. The outlet (diffuser) is designed to expand the
flow gradually so that the kinetic energy at the throat is reconverted into pressure with little
friction. Consequently the coefficient of discharge is much better than for an orifice meter. The
overall pressure loss is much better than for an orifice meter.

Figure 6 showing the pressure distribution

If there is no vena-contracta then the flow rate is given by the formula

2p
Q  C d A1

 r 2 1 
and Cd = Cv and is about 0.97 for a good meter.

The draw back of the Venturi is the expense involved in the manufacture. The pressure
tappings have special inserts in the bore to gather the pressure from around the circumference.

4. NOZZLE METER

The nozzle meter is a compromise between the orifice and the venturi. It may be easily fitted in
a pipe between flanges with flange or corner tappings. There is no contraction of the jet but
there is little pressure recovery downstream. The loss due to sudden expansion occurs down
stream. The flow formula is the same as before.

Figure 7 Nozzle Meter

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2

A nozzle is 100 mm diameter at inlet and 20 mm diameter at outlet. The coefficient of

velocity is 0.97 and there is no contraction of the jet. The jet discharges into the atmosphere.
The static pressure at inlet is 300 kPa gauge. The density is 1000 kg/m 3.

Calculate:

a. the velocity at exit.

b. the flow rate.
c. the pressure loss due to friction expressed as a fraction of the dynamic pressure at outlet.
d. the force on the nozzle.

SOLUTION

The velocity at exit when the inlet velocity is not negligible is

Q = A1Cd[(2p/)/(r2 - 1)]0.5
r = A1/A2 = d12/d22 = (100/20)2 = 25
Cd = Cv Cc = 0.97 x 1 = 0.97
A1 = (p x 0.12)/4 = 0.00785 m2
hence Q = 0.97x 0.00785 [(2 x 300 x 103/1000)/(252 - 1)]0.5
Q = 0.00747 m3/s

The velocity at inlet = Q/A1 = 0.00747/0.00785 = 0.951 m/s

The velocity at outlet = Q/A2 = 0.00747 x 4/(p x 0.022)= 23.8 m/s

The dynamic pressure of the jet is u22/2 = 1000 x 23.8 2/2 = 282.7 kPa.
Applying Bernoulli between the inlet (1) and outlet (2) using the pressure form we have
p1 - p2 = u22/2 - u12/2 + pressure loss to friction
3 x 105 = (1000/2)(23.82 - 0.9512) + pressure loss
3 x 105 = 2.827 x 105 + pressure loss
pressure loss = 17.3 kPa
Expressed as a fraction of the dynamic pressure of the jet this is 17.3/ 282.7 or 6.1%.

The force exerted on the water is given by

F = p1A1 + - p2 A2 u1 - u2

We must use gauge pressures to solve this problem because the atmosphere acts on the outer
surface of the nozzle. The mass flow is 7.47 kg/s.

F = 300 x 103 x 0.00785 - 0 + 7.47(0.951 - 23.8) = 2.18 kN

The figure is positive which indicates the force is accelerating the water out of the nozzle.
The force on the nozzle is the reaction to this and is opposite in direction. Think of a
fireman's hose. The force on the nozzle pushes it away from the water like a rocket. The
force to accelerate the water must be supplied by those holding it.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Take the density of water to be 997 kg/m3 throughout unless otherwise stated.

1. A Venturi meter is 50 mm bore diameter at inlet and 10 mm bore diameter at the throat. Oil
of density 900 kg/m3 flows through it and a differential pressure head of 80 mm is
produced. Given Cd = 0.92, determine the flow rate in kg/s.
(ans. 0.0815 kg/s).

2. A Venturi meter is 60 mm bore diameter at inlet and 20 mm bore diameter at the throat.
Water of density 1000 kg/m3 flows through it and a differential pressure head of 150 mm is
produced. Given Cd = 0.95, determine the flow rate in dm3/s.
(ans. 0.515 dm3/s).

3. Calculate the differential pressure expected from a Venturi meter when the flow rate is 2
dm3/s of water. The area ratio is 4 and Cd is 0.94. The inlet c.s.a. is 900 mm2.
(ans. 41.916 kPa).

4. Calculate the mass flow rate of water through a Venturi meter when the differential pressure
is 980 Pa given Cd = 0.93, the area ratio is 5 and the inlet c.s.a. is 1000 mm 2.
(ans. 0.266 kg/s).

5. Calculate the flow rate of water through an orifice meter with an area ratio of 4 given C d is
0.62, the pipe area is 900 mm2 and the d.p. is 586 Pa.
(ans. 0.156 dm3/3).

6. Water flows at a mass flow rate 0f 0.8 kg/s through a pipe of diameter 30 mm fitted with a
15 mm diameter .sharp edged orifice.

There are pressure tappings (a) 60 mm upstream of the orifice, (b) 15 mm downstream of
the orifice and (c) 150 mm downstream of the orifice, recording pressure p a, pb and pc
respectively. Assuming a contraction coefficient 0f 0.68, evaluate

(i) the pressure difference (pa - pb) and hence the discharge coefficient.
(21.6 kPa, 0.67)

(ii)the pressure difference (pb - pc) and hence the diffuser efficiency.
(-6.4 kPa, 29.5%)

(iii) the net force on the orifice plate.

(10.8 N)

State any assumption made in your analysis.

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