Semiconductor

Optoelectronic Devices
4th Semester MSc.
 What is LED?

LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit
radiation by electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The quanta of light energy released is approximately
proportional to the band gap of the semiconductor.
Getting to know LED

Advantages of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Longevity:
The light emitting element in a diode is a small
conductor chip rather than a filament which greatly
extends the diode’s life in comparison to an
incandescent bulb (10 000 hours life time compared
to ~1000 hours for incandescence light bulb)
Efficiency:
Diodes emit almost no heat and run at very low
amperes.
Greater Light Intensity:
Since each diode emits its own light
Cost:
Not too bad
Robustness:
Solid state component, not as fragile as
incandescence light bulb
Luminescence is the process behind light
emission

• Luminescence is a term used to describe the

emission of radiation from a solid when the solid is
supplied with some form of energy.
• Types of Luminescence:
1)Photoluminescence
2)Cathodoluminescence
3)Electroluminescence
 1. Photoluminescence

a) For steady state excitations the recombination of EHPs occurs at the same rate
of generation. No of photons absorbed and emitted are equal. This is a fast
process and mean life time of EHP is ≤ 10-8 sec. Such fast luminescent
processes are called FLUORESCENCE.
b) For some materials emission continues for periods up to seconds or minutes
after the excitation is removed. These slow processes are called
PHOSPHORESCENCE and the materials are called PHOSPHORS. E.g. If an
incoming photon with hν> Eg, is absorbed creating an EHP , the excited electron
gives up energy to lattice to come to bottom of C.B then the electron can be
trapped by the impurity or trap level near bottom of C.B and remains trapped
until it is thermally re-excited to C.B. Finally direct recombination happens from
C.B to V.B giving off photon energy equal to Eg. The delay time between
excitation and recombination may be long if probability of thermal excitation is
small. If the electron is trapped several times delay time is longer. In such a
material emission of phosphorescent light persists for a longer time even when
excitation removed. Ex: ZnS

2. Cathodoluminescence
Here the excitation of luminescent materials is possible by high
energetic electrons . Example is CRT.
 Electroluminescence :
excitation results from the application of an electric
field

• Process by which electrical energy is used to generate photon emission in

a solid. Specially in semiconductor junction devices we are concerned
with injection Electroluminescence which is the optical radiation obtained
by injecting minority carriers into the region of a forward biased
semiconductor p-n junction where they can recombine with majority
carriers resulting a recombination radiation.

Examples of electroluminescent materials

Powder ZnS doped with Cu or Ag, III-V semiconductors - such as InP,GaAs,and GaN.

In LED the colour of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by Eg of the semiconductor.
Excitation
E

Electron (excited by the biased

forward voltage) is in the
conduction band

Normally the recombination takes place between

transition of electrons between the bottom of the
conduction band and the top of the valance band
(band exterma).
The emission of light is therefore;
hc/ = Ec-Ev = Eg(only direct band gap allows
Hole is in valance
radiative transition)
band
How does it work?

P-n junction Electrical

Contacts

A typical LED needs a p-n junction

There are a lot of electrons and holes at

the junction due to excitations

Electrons from n need to be injected to p

to promote recombination

Junction is biased to produce even more Recombination

e-h and to inject electrons from n to p for
recombination to happen
produces light!!
Injection Luminescence in LED

Under forward bias – majority carriers from both sides of the junction
can cross the depletion region and entering the material at the other
side.
Upon entering, the majority carriers become minority carriers
For example, electrons in n-type (majority carriers) enter the p-type to
become minority carriers
The minority carriers will be larger  minority carrier injection
Minority carriers will diffuse and recombine with the majority carrier.
For example, the electrons as minority carriers in the p-region will
recombine with the holes. Holes are the majority carrier in the p-
region.
The recombination causes light to be emitted
Such process is nothing but the radiative recombination.
Recombination and Efficiency
(a) (b)
p n+ p n+

ECEg Eg
h =Eg
EF eVo
EV

Electrons in CB

Holes in VB

Ideal LED will have all injection electrons to take part in the recombination process
In real device not all electron will recombine with holes to radiate light
Sometimes recombination occurs but no light is being emitted (non-radiative)
Efficiency of the device therefore can be described
Efficiency is the rate of photon emission over the rate of supply electrons
In general for a luminescent material when the excitation
source is removed, the decay of excess carriers (both by
radiative and nonradiative) returns to equilibrium carrier
concentration n0 or p0, with a life time τ.

The radiative part is important for luminescent devices like

LEDs where as non radiative recombination takes place via
surface defects or traps. The total life time τ is

1/ τ = 1/ τr + 1/ τnr

Total recombination rate

R total = R r + R nr
 The radiative recombination efficiency or internal quatum
efficiency :

For exponential decay of recombination ( ), and

Internal Quantum efficiency:

To achieve high η nonradiative life time should be large. This value of τnr
is controlled by properties of defects which produce levels in bandgap.
External Quantum Efficiency: Percentage Ratio of the optical
power output P to the electrical power input P .
0 e
Typical values of for common LEDs are 1% to 5%.
Construction of Typical LED

Al
Light output
SiO2

n
Electrical
contacts

Substrate
LED Construction

Efficient light emitter is also an efficient absorbers of radiation

therefore, a shallow p-n junction required.
Active materials (n and p) will be grown on a lattice matched
substrate.
The p-n junction will be forward biased with contacts made by
metallisation to the upper and lower surfaces.
Ought to leave the upper part ‘clear’ so photon can escape.
The silica provides passivation/device isolation and carrier
confinement
Efficient LED
 Need a p-n junction (preferably the same semiconductor
material only different dopants)
 Recombination must occur  Radiative transmission to
give out the ‘right coloured LED’
 ‘Right coloured LED’  hc/ = Ec-Ev = Eg
  so choose material with the right Eg
 Direct band gap semiconductors to allow efficient
recombination
 All photons created must be able to leave the
semiconductor
 Little or no reabsorption of photons
Correct band gap Direct band gap

Materials
Requirements

Efficient radiative Material can be

pathways must exist made p and n-type
  UV-ED  ~0.5-400nm
Direct band gap
Eg > 3.25eV
materials
 LED -  ~450-650nm
e.g. GaAs not Si Eg = 3.1eV to 1.6eV
 IR-ED-  ~750nm- 1nm
Eg = 1.65eV

Candidate Materials

Materials with refractive Readily doped n or p-types

index that could allow light
to ‘get out’
Visible LED
Definition:
LED which could emit visible light, the band gap of the materials that we use
must be in the region of visible wavelength = 390- 770nm. This coincides with
the energy value of 3.18eV- 1.61eV which corresponds to colours as stated
below:

The band gap, Eg

Violet ~ 3.17eV that the
Blue ~ 2.73eV semiconductor
Green ~ 2.52eV must posses to
Colour of an emit each light
Yellow ~ 2.15eV
LED should
emits Orange ~ 2.08eV
Red ~ 1.62eV
Group III-V LED materials
Al N AlN, AlP,AlAs
Ga P Binary
GaN, GaP, GaAs
compounds
In As InN, InP, InAs

GaP GaAsP Ternary

GaAs
GaAl GaAsAl compounds

Useful candidate materials for Light

Emitting Diodes
Semiconductor Lasers
• Laser diode is almost similar in principle to an LED.
• What added geometry does a Laser diode require?
An optical cavity that will facilitate feedback in order to
generate stimulated emission.
• Laser diode basics
Lasing and conditions at threshold
Threshold current density
Differential quantum efficiency
Comparing LEDs and Laser diodes
LEDs are based on spontaneous emission, and have
1. A broad output beam that is hard to capture and focus
2. A relatively broad spectral profile
3. Low to moderate overall efficiency
4. Moderate to high speed (≈ 1/τmin)

Laser Diodes are based on stimulated emission, and have the

opposite characteristics
1. Narrow, highly directed output
2. Sharp, narrow emission spectrum
3. High differential and overall efficiency
4. High to very high speed
• Stimulated emission occurs when a passing photon triggers the
recombination of an electron and hole, with emission of a
second photon with the same frequency (energy), momentum,
and phase.
• To understand what is necessary to obtain net optical gain,
rather than net absorption, we consider optical transitions
between two levels in a solid (E1 and E2), and we look at three
transitions occurring with the absorption or emission of
photons:
1. from E1 to E2 due to absorption
2. from E2 to E1 due to spontaneous emission
3. from E2 to E1 due to stimulated emission
We model the rate of each process using the Einstein A and B
coefficients, and then find when the probability is higher that a
photon passing will stimulate emission than be absorbed.
 At thermal equilibrium:

Finally we find B12=B21 and A21=(8πhν3/c3)B21

Now we are ready to find the condition for optical gain, which we take
when the probability of stimulated emission is greater than that for
absorption. Looking back at our equations, we find Rst > Rab leads to:
Our conclusion is that we will have net optical gain, i.e., more stimulated emission than
absorption, when we have the quasi-Fermi levels separated by more than the band gap.
This in turn requires high doping and current levels. It is the equivalent of population
inversion in a degenerate semiconductor for which doping conc is too high. At this high
enough conc individual impurity atoms will be close enough to interact and form band
rather than levels, which may overlap with C.B and V.B. When CB electron concentration
increases and becomes more than effective density of states in CB i.e., Nc, then Efn will no
longer be in band gap, rather will be extended in CB.

If the junction is highly forward

biased, electrons and holes are
injected into and across the
transition region in considerable
concentration. So depletion of
carriers decreases at junction. The
region contains large concentration
of electrons in C.B and holes in V.B.
If these population densities are
high enough, a condition of
population inversion results and the
region about the junction is called
Band diagram of a p-n junction laser inversion region.
under forward bias. Crossed region
indicates the inversion region.
Laser Diode (Population Inversion)

Refer to Density of States.

More electrons in the C.B at energies near Ec than electrons in V.B near Ev.
This is the result of a Population Inversion in energies near EC and EV.
The region where the population inversion occurs develops a layer along the
junction called an inversion layer or active region.
An incoming photon with energy of EC  EV will not see electrons to
excite from EV to EC due to the absence of electrons at EV .
The photon can cause an electron to fall down from EC to EV .
The incoming photon is stimulating direct recombination.
Quasi Fermi levels in a s.c laser junction
Since the forward bias is distinctly
non equilibrium state, the
concentration of electrons in
inversion region is larger than
equilibrium statistics. Fn in neutral
n region is essentially same as
equilibrium Fermi level Efc . For
injected electron in p material

Since large no. of electrons are injected

across the junction n begins at a high
value near the junction and decays
exponentially to the equilibrium value n p
in the p material. So Fn drops from Efc.
The separation of Fn and Fp is a
measure of departure from equilibrium
which is considerable in inversion region
since
Fn – Fp ≥ Eg
 p+ Junction n+
Ec

Eg p+ n+
eV o Ec EF n
In v ers io n
reg io n Ec
Ev Eg
EF p Ho les in V B EF n eV
Electro ns Electro ns in C B
Ec
EF p

Ev
(a) (b)

The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n with no bias. (b) Band
diagram with a sufficiently large forward bias to cause population inversion and
hence stimulated emission.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Next we relate the absorption coefficient,⍺, to Rab, Rst, and
Rsp. A bit of thought shows us that we can say:

Notes: Spontaneous emission is negligible because it is randomly

directed. It starts the lasing process, but it does not sustain it. The
point at which α = 0 is called the transparency point.

The negative of the absorption coefficient is defined as the gain coefficient:

The light intensity in terms of g(E) :

Stimulated recombination is proportional to the
carrier populations, and in a semiconductor one
carrier is usually in the minority and its population
is the one that changes significantly with
increasing current injection. If we assume p-type
material, we have:

g > 0 → n > n tr
To first order, the gain will be proportional to this population, to the
extent that it exceeds the transparency level:

g ≈ G(n - n )
tr
Laser Diode (Stimulated Emission & Optical Gain)
The region where there is more stimulated emission than absorption results
in Optical gain.
Optical gain depends upon the photon energy and thus wavelength (see
density of states).
 Optical gain depends on E FN  E FP (eV ) which depends on applied voltage. In
turn this depends on diode current.
Summary:
*Photons with energy > Eg but < E FN  E FP (eV ) cause stimulated emission.
*Photons with energy > E FN  E FP (eV )are absorbed.
Laser Diode (pumping)

An adequate forward bias is required to develop injection carriers across a junction

to initiate a population inversion between energies at EC and energies at EV .
What is the pumping mechanism used to achieve this?
Forward diode current.
The process is called injection pumping.
 Optical P ower Laser
Optical Power

Optical P ower LED

Stimulated
emission 
Optical P ower Laser
Spontaneous
 emission

I
0
Ith


Typical output optical power vs. diode current (I) characteristics and the corresponding
output spectrum of a laser diode.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Threshold current for Lasing to occur

Lasing will be sustained when the optical gain exceeds theoretical

losses for a round-trip in the optical cavity. The threshold current is the
current level above which this occurs.
And

Slope W/A or W/mA

efficiency dependant on device structure
and semiconductor package.
Typically less than 1W/A
At low current levels a spontaneous emission spectrum is obtained in
the range of energies Eg < hν < Fn – Fp .

As the current is increased to the point that significant P.I. exists,

stimulated emission occurs at frequencies corresponding to the cavity
modes. These modes correspond to successive number of integral
values of half wavelength fitted within the resonant cavity. Within a
resonant cavity light of a particular frequency can be reflected back and
forth in a coherent manner if an integral no. of half wavelength is fitted
within the end mirrors i.e., the cavity length.
m = (2Ln)/λ0
So at higher current level a most preferred mode or set of modes will
dominate the spectral output. This very intense mode represents the
main laser output of the device; the output light will be composed of
almost monochromatic radiation superimposed on a relatively weak
radiation background which is due to spontaneous emission.
The external differential quantum efficiency
 Laser Diode (optical cavity)

In addition to population inversion laser oscillation must be

sustained.
 An optical cavity is implemented to elevate the intensity of
stimulated emission. (optical resonator)
 Provides an output of continuous coherent radiation.
 A homojunction laser diode is one where the pn junction
uses the same direct bandgap semiconductor material
throughout the component (ex. GaAs)
 Current

Cleaved surface mirror

L Electrode
p+ GaAs
L

n+ GaAs
Electrode

Active region
(stimulated emission region)

A schematic illustration of a GaAs homojunction laser

diode. The cleaved surfaces act as reflecting mirrors.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Laser Diodes (heterostructure)

Methods for improvement:

1. Carrier confinement. Confine the injected electrons and holes to a narrow
region about the junction. This requires less current to establish the required
concentration of electrons for population inversion.
2. Construct a dielectric waveguide around the optical gain region to increase the
photon concentration and elevate the probability of stimulated emission. This
reduces the number of electrons lost traveling off the cavity axis.
Summary: carrier confinement and photon confinement required
 (a) A double
n p p heterostructure diode has
two junctions which are
(a) AlGaAs GaAs AlGaAs between two different
bandgap semiconductors
(~0.1 m) (GaAs and AlGaAs).
Electrons in CB Ec
Ec (b) Simplified energy
Ec
2 eV
band diagram under a
2 eV
1.4 eV large forward bias.
Lasing recombination
(b) Ev takes place in the p-
Ev GaAs layer, the
active layer
Holes in VB

Refractive (c) Higher bandgap

index materials have a
(c) Active n ~ 5% lower refractive
region index
Photon
density
(d) AlGaAs layers
provide lateral optical
(d) confinement.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Laser Diodes (double heterostructure)

Refer to the slide of the DH structure.

=>AlGaAs has Eg of 2 eV
GaAs has Eg of 1.4 eV
P-GaAs is a thin layer (0.1 – 0.2 um) and is the Active Layer where lasing recombination occurs.
Both p regions are heavily doped and are degenereate with in the VB.
With an adequate forward bias Ec of n-AlGaAs moves above Ec of p-GaAs which develops a large
injection of electrons from the CB of n-AlGaAs to the CB of p-GaAs. EF
These electrons are confined to the CB of the p-GaAs due to the difference in barrier potential of
the two materials.
Laser Diode (double heterostructure)
Note:[Link] to the thin p-GaAs layer a minimal amount of current
only is required to increase the concentration of injected
carriers at a fast rate. This is how threshold current is reduced
for the purpose of population inversion and optical gain.
2. A semiconductor with a wider bandgap (AlGaAs) will also have
a lower refractive index than GaAs. This difference in refractive
index is what establishes an optical dielectric waveguide that
ultimately confines photons to the active region.

Like AlGaAs/GaAs junctions InGaAsP/InP system is also well

suited for type of lasers used in fiber optic communication
system.
 Photodetectors
Photodetection in semiconductors works on the general principle of the creation of
electron-hole pairs under the action of light. When a semiconductor material is illuminated
by photons of an energy greater than or equal to its bandgap, the absorbed photons
promote electrons from the valence band into excited states in the conduction band,
where they behave like free electrons, which are able to travel across the crystal
structure under the influence of an electric field. In addition, the positively-charged holes
left in the valence band contribute to electrical conduction by moving from one atomic site
to another under the effects of the electric field. In this way the separation of electron-
hole pairs generated by the absorption of light gives rise to a photocurrent, which refers
by definition to the fraction of the photogenerated free charge-carriers collected at the
edges of the material by the electrodes of the photodetecting structure, and whose
intensity at a given wavelength is an increasing function of the incident light intensity.

On this level we can distinguish between two categories of photodetectors based on the
nature of the electric field, which causes the charge separation of photogenerated
electron -hole pairs:
photoconductors, which consist of a simple layer of semiconductor simply with two ohmic
contacts, where the electric field leading to the collection of the charge-carriers is
provided by applying a bias voltage between the contacts at either end.

photovoltaic photodetectors, which use the internal electric field of a p-n or Schottky
(metal semiconductor) junction to achieve the charge separation.
 Photoconductors
The photoconductors represent the simplest conceivable type of photodetector: they consist
of a finite-length semiconductor layer with an ohmic contact at each end. A fixed voltage of
magnitude VB is applied between the two end contacts, in such a way that a bias current
flows through the semiconductor layer, simply following Ohm’s law. The active optical surface
is formed from the region between the two collection electrodes. When it is illuminated, the
photogenerated charges produced under the effect of the applied electric field leading to a
photocurrent IPH which is added to the bias current, effectively increasing the conductivity of
the device.

The main point of interest in a

photoconducting device is
 its increased gain, the response of
photoconductors being typically several
orders of magnitude greater than that of
photovoltaic detectors for a given material.
 On the other hand, its other operational
parameters (bandwidth, UV/visible contrast,
infrared sensitivity) are generally below that
of other types of photodetectors, which often
greatly limits the scope of its potential
applications.
Photoconductivity
• h>Eg will promote an electron to the C.B.
• The increased number of electrons & holes available for conduction provide an increase in the
conductivity .
• A voltage in series with a load resistor is applied across semiconductor to pull electrons and holes to
respective terminals.
• Response times depend purely on the drift of the photon-generated carriers to their respective
electrodes - relatively long ~ 50 ms
• Conductivity s = ene + eph
r = 1/s
• Material CdS
• Eg = 2.42eV (green light)
• EHPs enhance current flow
• IR detection possible with narrow band InSb or Cu/Hg doped Ge
• Operation at 77K for >2m
 The performance of the photodetectors mainly depends on its quantum
efficiency, response time and detection sensitivity.
The quantum efficiency η is expressed as the no. of free carriers generated
from an absorbed photon.
η = no. of electrons generated/no. of incident photons = re/rp ……..(1)
where rp = incident photons/sec and re = electron generation/sec.

The response time is related to the carrier transit time along the length
= τ i = L / vd …………..(2)

The quantum efficiency for a photodetector is determined mainly by

absorption coefficient α. As α is a strong function of wavelength,
appreciable photocurrent is observed only in a limited range of λ.
Radiation which are able to produce EHP must be such that hν > Eg i.e.

λc ≤ (hc)/Eg

So the long wavelength cutoff which is the longest wavelength to give

photodetection is given by λc = (hc)/Eg. ………………..(3)
If at time t =0, the no. of carriers generated /vol = no, at time t, the carriers decay
by recombination as ne(t)= no exp (-t/τ), where τ is the carrier life time. Assuming a
steady state photon flux on the surface, the no. of photons arriving on surface per
unit time = rp = P0 / hν where P0 is incident optical power and hν is photon energy.

We know the steady state generation rate =

G = ne / τ = ( re /WLD) = (η P0 / hν)/ WLD …………..(4)
Where W= breadth, L = length, D= thickness of the device.
Photons are incident over the surface area of WL and D is much larger than the
penetration depth 1/ α.
Photocurrent = Ip = σEWD= (e μen) E WD = n e vd WD …………..(5)
where Ip is the photocurrent and vd is drift velocity.

From (4) and (5), Ip= e (η P0 / hν) (μe τ E/L) ……………….(6)

If the primary photocurrent is Iph = e (ηP0 / hν) ………….(7)

Then photocurrent gain is Gain = (Ip / Iph ) = μe τ E/L = τ / (L/vd ) = τ / τ i ………….. (8)

The gain depends upon carrier life time and also transit time. For longer
life time with short electrode spacing gain becomes greater than unity. The
response time is determined by the transit time τ I .
 P-N Photodiodes
In p-n diodes, the metallurgical linkage of a region of a p-type and a n-type semiconductor
forms a p-n junction, where the joining of the Fermi levels in equilibrium mostly occurs
through a flow of charge between the n and p regions. In equilibrium we find a region
similar to a charged capacitor, where there are, on the n side, positively ionized donors
and, on the p side, negatively ionized acceptors (this zone is known as the space charge
region (SCR). The presence of charged donors and acceptors produces an electric field in
that region which curves the energy bands and, in equilibrium, forms an energy barrier
between the two regions: the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence
band on the n side are below the corresponding levels on the p side. An electron-hole pair
produced in this SCR (situation 2) is therefore separated by the effect of the internal
electric field of the junction, and so does not recombine. These are the charge carriers
which contribute to the photocurrent.
The band structure of the junction implies that the photocurrent will consist of minority carriers. So the
photocurrent flows in the opposite direction to the bias on the diode, where the forward direction is
defined as the direction of flow of the majority charge carriers (from the n to the p region in the case of
electrons, and vice versa for holes).
Moreover, the application of an opposing external electric field (Vp–Vn < 0) allows us to increase the
height of the energy barrier in the vicinity of the junction, and also increase the spatial extent of the
SCR, which significantly improves the efficiency of the separation of electron-hole pairs by increasing the
electric field within the junction.
During the operation the photodiode is usually reversed biased with a large voltage that is kept below
the avalanche breakdown voltage.

It should be noted that when the doping level is moderate, the width of the SCR is important.
This effect is beneficial in the case of p - n junction photodetectors, where in order to increase
the photo response it is desirable to ensure that the mechanism of electron-hole pair generation
through incident light takes place predominately inside the SCR.
For short wavelength α is large, and most of the absorption occurs in the upper layer
region, that limits photo current. Three factors limit the response speed of a photo
diode.

a) The diffusion of carriers

b) The carrier transit time through the depletion region.
c) The depletion region capacitance.

To reduce diffusion time of carriers from neutral region to depletion region the incident
radiation must be absorbed close to junction. This can be achieved by choosing proper dopant
concentration such that depletion region width is ~ 1/ α.
THE JUNCTION PHOTODIODE
• Basic photodiode is a pn-diode with junction exposed to light
• Under equilibrium conditions a potential barrier, Vo, exists across the
depleted areas on either side of the pn-junction
• No net current flows through the diode.
• Two distinct modes of operation are possible
• photovoltaic mode - diode is operated with no applied voltage
• photoconductive mode - with an applied reverse voltage
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODE
• Diode is operated open circuit
• When illuminated the equilibrium is upset
• EHPs are generated in depletion region
• E across junction pulls electrons to the n-side and the holes to the p-side
• holes in p-type are increased as are electrons in n-type
• A photon induced current, iph, flows through the diode from the n side to the p side
• The energy barrier is reduced. More holes can cross from the p to n side and more electrons
cross from n to p creating a forward current through the diode
• Diode is open circuit, the photon current must exactly balance the forward current
• No net current can flow
• The drop in energy barrier is seen as a forward voltage across the ends of the diode
• The photon induced voltage is measured  photovoltaic
PHOTOVOLTAIC RESPONSE
Diode equation
forward current produced in pn junction for given applied potential
The forward current is balanced by the reverse photocurrent
if = iph

io[exp(eVph/kT)-1] = iph

Assuming the exponential term to be much greater than unity

io[exp(eVph/kT)]  iph

Thus external photovoltage, Vph, across the ends of the diode is

Vph = (kT/e)ln(iph/io)
Characteristics of photovoltaic mode
The photon generated current is a linear function of light power

iph = P0e/hc

Voltage developed across the diode is logarithmic function of power

Vph  ln (iph/io)  ln P0

output voltage is a non-linear function of incident light power

EHPs are pulled to respective contacts under internal field
speed of response depends on diode thickness  generally slow
absence of a leakage current provides low noise
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MODE
pn junction is operated under reverse potential bias

 positive terminal is connected to n-side and negative to p side

 Electrons in the n-side are pulled out of the depletion region and holes
are pulled from the p side
 the depletion region widens
 The energy barrier increases by the applied potential
 The flow of majority carriers of any kind is halted and the only current
that can flow is the reverse current, io due to thermally generated
minority carriers

Under illumination, the photogenerated EHPs are again swept

apart by the internal electric field across the junction

This Constitutes a reverse photon current, iph, in the same

direction as the thermally generated leakage current.
The benefits of the
photoconductive mode
• The photon generated current constitutes the measured output signal
and not the voltage drop across the diode.

• The output signal is a linear function of the incident light power

• Photoconductive operation results in a higher response speed than

photovoltaic mode because of the wide depletion layer and higher
electric field and the transit time for charge carriers to reach their
respective electrodes is reduced.

• Main disadvantage of PC mode is increased noise due to ever present

leakage current.
 Vr

(a) SiO 2 R Vout

Photoconductive p+-n junction
Detectors – details
Electrode p+ Iph

h> Eg h+ e–
n
Na >> Nd
E
Antireflection Electrode
coating
W Depletion region
The depletion region extends in the n side
(b)
rnet

eNd
Reverse biasing:Junction voltage = Vo + Vr
x

An EHP is created in the depletion region

–eNa The charges move towards the neutral regions

E (x)
(c)
x The Current lasts until the charges diffuse to
the neutral region
E max

(a) A schematic diagram of a reverse biased pn junction

photodiode. (b) Net space charge across the diode in the
depletion region. N d and N a are the donor and acceptor
concentrations in the p and n sides. (c). The field in the
depletion region.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Pn-junction photodetector

Basic photodetectors are based on a reverse-biased P-N junction

• A photon generates an EHP in the depletion region
• Due to the electrical field in the depletion region, the photo
generated electron and hole drift apart from each other
• The generated current is related to the number of generated
EHPs
Photodiode I-P characteristics
Photodiode Characteristics

The reverse current through a photodiode varies linearly with illuminance once you
are significantly above the dark current region.
Howstuffworks
 •Responsivity of a photodiode (R) =
Spectral Responsivity R
Responsivity (A/W) Ip/Po(AW-1 ) = output photocurrent/ incident
1 optical power , which is a performance
0.9 parameter of the device.
0.8 Ideal Photodiode •Electron gen rate = re = Ip / e = η (P0 / hν)
0.7 QE = 100% (  = 1) As quantum efficiency η = re / rp
0.6 •Output photocurrent = Ip = e. re
0.5
0.4
g = η e (P0 / hν)
0.3 Si Photodiode • Responsivity of a photodiode (R)
0.2 = η e λ/ hc = η λ (μm)/ 1.24 in AW-1
0.1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 R ~ 90-95% in the near IR have been
achieved.
Wavelength (nm)
Response Time
Responsivity (R) vs. wavelength () for an ideal
photodiode with QE = 100% ( = 1) and for a typical  A measure of how long it takes a
detector to respond to a change in light
commercial Si photodiode. power falling on it
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

 The speed of response of a photodetector may be limited by capacitative effects, by the trapping
of charge carriers or by the saturation speed of charge carriers in the semiconductor. These
phenomena all lead to a reduction in the response of the photodetector in the high-frequency
domain.
 p-i-n Photodiode
In order to allow operation at
longer wavelength where light
penetrates more into the material
a wider depletion region is
necessary. To achieve this in
between p and n zone very low p+ i-Si
doped or intrinsic material is
introduced. The structure is Diffusion
therefore referred to as p-i-n. h> Eg e– E
Such a structure is interesting
because it is possible to maintain Drift
high levels of doping in the n and h+
p regions without significantly
reducing the extent of the SCR, W
whose width is then largely
determined by the thickness of
the “i” layer. Additionally,
increasing the width of the SCR Vr
reduces the capacitance of the
structure, which makes p-i-n A reverse biased pin photodiode is illuminated with a short
structures particularly well-suited wavelength photon that is absorbed very near the surface.
for high-speed operation. The photogenerated electron has to diffuse to the depletion
region where it is swept into the i-layer and drifted across.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

The p-i-n photodiode
• Pn junction photodiode has drawbacks
– Reverse current breakdown
– Capacitance is too large to allow detection at
high frequencies
– Depletion width is a few microns – penetration
depth is greater and EHPs are in the n region
– Diffusion based device
– QE is low at long wavelengths

• Pin design – p+ – intrinsic – n+

– Width of Intrinsic layer = W
– W can be tailored to enhance efficiency
– Field in the intrinsic region is uniform unlike pn
junction
– Field prevents further diffusion of charge
carriers, lower noise
Pin Photodiode

P-I-N photodetector have an increased detection volume compared to

simple P-N junction photodetectors
 SiO 2
Electrode Electrode
p+

i-Si n+
(a)

r n et

eNd

(b)
x

–eNa

E (x)

x
(c)

Eo

h> Eg E

–
(d) h+ e

Ip h R Vout

Vr
PIN Diode Characteristics
Capacitance C = eoerA/W No V dependence ~ pF

RC time constant with 50 ohm load ~ 50ps

With a Reverse Bias

E = Eo + Vr/W ~ Vr/W since it is large comparatively

Photon absorption is in the intrinsic region. EHPs migrate and generate a photo-Current
that is detected by measuring the voltage across the Load Resistor

Response time depends on transit time across W

A larger W yields more EHPs but slower response as τdrift = W/vd

Drift velocity (m s -1 )

105 Silicon
Electron At E = 106 V m-1,
vd ~ 105 m s-1.
104 If W = 10 μm,
Hole
then tdrift ~ 0.1 ns.
tdrift > RC
103
Drift velocity is proportional to E, this
assumption is valid upto a range of
102
E. This is due to hot carrier effect,
104 105 10 6 10 7
-1
where carrier drift velocity becomes
Electric field (V m )
thermal velocity and energy
Drift velocity vs. electric field for holes and electrons in Si. imparted by the field is transferred
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) to the lattice.

The speed of pin diodes is limited by the transit time of photogenerated carriers
across the intrinsic layer. When field in depletion region exceeds saturation value
carriers travel with constant maxm drift velocity. So transit time is limited by
saturation value. To reduce τdrift if we reduce the width of the i-Si layer, the quantity
of absorbed photons and thus the responsivity will also be reduced.
Various optical responses of photodetectors:
Trade-off between quantum efficiency & response time
• To achieve a high quantum
efficiency, the depletion layer
width must be larger than
1/  s
(the inverse of the absorption
coefficient), so that most of the
light will be absorbed. At the same
time with large width, the
capacitance is small and RC time
constant getting smaller, leading to
faster response, but wide width
results in larger transit time in the
depletion region. Therefore there
is a trade-off between width and
QE. It is shown that the best is:

1/  s  w  2 /  s
The Avalanche Photodiode
• The common device, in the past, that provided gain was the
photomultiplier tube (PMT).
• The PMT has a number of practical limitations:
• It is a bulky vacuum tube;
• it generates heat; and compared to a photodiode,
• it offers limited linearity, a narrow spectral response range, and a low
QE (< 25%).
• APD are designed to provide an internal current
• Gain is achieved by impact ionization
• In the avalanche photodiode, a large (up to 2kV) external bias accelerates
photoelectrons so that each primary electron ultimately results in
thousands of electrons at the electrode.
• Advanced APD structure
• 1. Heterostructure APD
2. Multiquantum –well (MQW) APD
The APD

An avalanche photodiode is driven in reverse mode, close to junction

breakdown: the internal field is then so large than accelerated charge carriers
have enough energy to generate new electron-hole pairs (avalanche effect)
 Ip h R
Electrode SiO2

The Avalanche Diode E

h > Eg
e– h+
(a)
n+ p š p+
Lightly doped π-layer (almost intrinsic).

Under a sufficient reverse bias, the r n et

Electrode
depletion region in the p-layer widens
to reach-through to the π-layer
(reach-through APD). (b)

Photogeneration occurs mainly in the x

π-layer.

The electric field is maximal at the E(x)

n+p junction.
(c)

x
Absorption
region
Avalanche
region

(a) A schematic illustration of the structure of an avalanche photodiode (APD) biased

 The Avalanche Process
E
E e–
Ec
h+
e– Ev

h+
n+ p š
Avalanche region
(a) (b)

(a) A pictorial view of impact ionization processes releasing EHPs and

the resulting avalanche multiplication. (b) Impact of an energetic
conduction electron with crystal vibrations transfers the electron's
kinetic energy to a valence electron and thereby excites it to the
conduction band.
The drift ©
electrons acquire
1999 S.O. Kasap, sufficient
Optoelectronics energy
(Prentice in the p-layer to impact-ionize some
Hall)
silicon covalent bonds and release EHPs.

The generated EHPs can further gain sufficient kinetic energy to cause impact
ionization and release more EHPs, leading to an avalanche of impact ionization
processes.
A large number of EHPs can thus be generated from a single electron entering the
player.
In silicon electrons have higher impact ionization efficiency.
Schematic of the structure of a silicon APD
Responsivity of APD

• The multiplication factor (current gain) M for all carriers generated in the
photodiode is defined as:
IM
M 
Ip
• Where
I M is the average value of the total multiplied output current & I is
P
the primary photocurrent.

• The responsivity of APD can be calculated by considering the current gain

as:

q
 APD  M  0 M
h
Current gain (M) vs. Voltage for different optical wavelengths