CET 307
HYDROLOGY & WATER
RESOURCES ENGINEERING
MODULE No. 4
STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT
RIVER TRAINING WORKS &
RESERVOIRS
WRE/KJG/MOD1 1
MODULE IV
Streamflow measurement – area velocity
method of stream gauging, selection of site for
stream gauging station. Stage-discharge curve,
flow duration curve – uses and characteristics.
River training works – types; Meandering and
meander parameters; Reservoir – types, zones,
yield of reservoir; determination of storage
capacity and yield by mass curve method;
Reservoir sedimentation and control – trap
efficiency – computation of life of reservoir.
2
STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT
Stream flow is the discharge that is found in
a stream channel in a given time at a given section.
Process by which the discharge in a stream
channel is measured is known as stream gauging
Methods adopted for measuring discharge in the
field are:
1) Area – velocity method
2) Chemical method
3) Weir method
4) Meter-flume method
5) Stage – discharge curve
3
AREA – VELOCITY METHOD
In Area – Velocity method, the Discharge(Q) is
found out as the product of Area of Cross
Section(A) and the Mean Velocity(V).
The General Formula for Discharge is:
Q=A x V
For streams having more width, the following
formulae can be applied:
Q = A1V1 + A2V2 + A3V3 + A4V4+… where A1.
A2, A3 …. etc are the areas and V1, V2, V3… etc
are the corresponding velocities .
4
STREAM VELOCITY
Accurate measurement of Velocity is difficult.
The velocity is distributed over the section of
the stream. Average velocity free from other
influence of structures are to be estimated.
5
VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
Following are the methods:
1) Surface Floats
2) Subsurface Floats
3) Twin Floats
4) Velocity Rod
5) Current meter
6) Pitot Tube
6
(1) Velocity – Surface Float Method
Surface Floats are made of light material
such as cork or hollow wooden block.
Two wire ropes are stretched across the
channel, one at the beginning and the other at
the end of selected reach for conducting the
test. This distance is called test reach. A third
rope is also stretched nearly 15m upstream of
1st rope. The floats are dropped from the 3rd
rope and the time taken by each float from the
2nd rope to 3rd rope are observed.
Velocity of Float = Distance Travelled by
Float / Time Taken
7
(2) Velocity – Subsurface float
The surface float gives the surface velocity
only. It is required to get the mean velocity of
the channel section.
The subsurface float consists of hollow
metal sphere or cylinder attached to the surface
float by means of a chord. The length of chord is
adjustable. Mean velocity is obtained such that
the centre of sphere is about 0.2d above the
bed level.
8
Velocity – Subsurface float – Fig.
9
(3) Velocity – Twin Float
Twin float consists of two hollow metal
sphere floats attached with a chord. Upper
sphere floats on the surface and the lower
sphere is so weighed as to keep the float
vertical. The velocity is observed with the lower
float at just clear off the bottom.
10
(3) Velocity – Velocity Rod
They are made of Hollow tube or wooden
rod. They are made vertical by with lead shots
put at the bottom of the tube. The velocity is
calculated from the formula.
Formula:
Mean velocity:
Vm = V(1.02 – 0.116 x Sqrt (d1/d)), where,
V = Observed Velocity
d = depth of flow in the channel
d1 = clearance between lower end of rod and bed
11
(5) Velocity – Current meter method
A current meter is a device which measures
the velocity directly. The instrument consists of a
wheel which is caused to revolve by the force of
current when immersed in water and is provided
with a gear to record the number of revolutions of
the wheel.
The instrument is mounted on a rod on which
it can be fixed in any position. The rod is made to
rest on the bed of the channel, where the velocity is
to be measured. On large channels the current
meter can be suspended from a boat by a cable and
is weighed down by a heavy streamlined anchor.
12
VELOCITY - CURRENT METER (AMSLER TYPE)
13
Current-meter(Contd.)
Current-meter is used in three ways:
(a) Single point method: The current-meter is
immersed to 0.6 of the depth of the stream. At this
depth the velocity recorded is taken as the mean
depth. Gives values at 5% error.
(b) Double point method: The meter is
introduced at 0.2d and at 0.6d of the stream.
Average of these two gives the velocity at 2.5%
error.
(c) Integration method: The velocity at 0.1d,
o.2d, 0.3d…. etc. are taken and averaged out to find
the mean velocity.
14
(6) Velocity – Pitot Tube Method
This method is suitable for laboratory conditions.
The Pitot tube is a tube bent into L-shape. The Pitot
tube is suspended in the stream with it’s nozzle
pointing upstream. Due to dynamic pressure exerted
on the mouth of the tube by flowing water, the level of
water in the vertical limb of the tube rises above water
surface of the channel by an amount h. The velocity in
the channel is then equal to: Sqrt 2gh.
15
MEASUREMENT OF AREA OF FLOW
The cross sectional area is divided into a
number of small vertical strips. For measuring
the width of the strip a steel cable is suspended
from two towers erected on either side of the
bank. Then divide the width into suitable strips
of known width. Depth of water at each point is
measured by sounding rod. The width and depth
of each strip being known, cross-sectional area
of various strips can be calculated.
Q = A1V1 + A2V2+A3V3+…….. = Sum of AV
16
MEASUREMENT OF AREA
17
SELECTION OF SITE FOR STREAM GAUGING STATION
The following factors are considered:
1. A straight and well defined reach of the
channel section should be selected.
2. The site should be free from the disturbing
influence of hydraulic strucures.
The site located upstream of a structure will
be affected by backwater curve, whereas a
site located at the downstream of a
structure will be affected by the falling curve.
3. The cross-sectional area of the channel
should be fairly constant.
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 18
STAGE DISCHARGE CURVE
Stage – Discharge curve is a curve between
Discharge and Depth of water in the channel.
Stage or depth is plotted as ordinate against the
Discharge as abscissa. Initially the statistical data
collected is plotted at various stages covering
the minimum and maximum flow of the river.
Once a stage discharge curve is plotted, it
can be used for finding out the discharge at any
subsequent period by measuring the stage. Then
the stage discharge curve has to be checked
periodically to account for the changes in the
regime conditions of the channel.
19
STAGE – DISCHARGE CURVE
20
FLOW-DURATION CURVE FOR RIVER
DISCHARGE
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 21
RIVER FLOW, FLOW - DURATION CURVE
Flow – Duration curve consists of a
plot of values of Stream Flow in
increasing order of magnitude as
ordinate and the percent of time
duration the flow equaled or exceeded
as abscissa.
The area under the flow – duration
curve represent the average yield from
the stream. 22
F-D CURVE USES
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 23
PROCEDURE FOR F-D CURVE
DRAWING
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 24
RIVER FLOW – FLOW DURATION CURVE
25
FLOW DURATION CURVE DATA FOR COMPUTATION
26
RIVER FLOW – FLOW DURATION CURVE(Contd.)
The given flow-duration curve also
show that natural flow sufficient to
meet the flow demand is available for
nearly 57% of time.
Another information is regarding
the firm yield from the river. For the
whole year 19 cumec of discharge is
assured as firm yield of the river.
27
RIVER ENGINEERING – CLASSIFICATION OF RIVERS
Rivers can be broadly classified as:
(1) Rivers in upper reaches in hilly region
(2) Rivers in Lower Reaches in alluvial plain
Rivers in the hilly region are characterized by
steepness of their slope, the high velocity of flow,
the occurrence of landslides and the formation of
rapids along their courses.
Alluvial rivers are characterized by alluvial soil
formation on the banks, which are prone for
siltation and accretion. They are characterized by:
(a) The meandering type (b) The aggrading type
And (c )The degrading type, formations.
28
MEANDERING OF RIVERS
Meandering Rivers erode sediment from the outer
curve of each meander bend and deposit it on the
inner curve.
This is the peculiarity of Alluvial Rivers. A river
meandering through an alluvial plain has a series of
consecutive curves of reversed order connected
with short straight stretches.
Width of meandering belt MB is the transverse
distance between the apex point of one curve and
apex point on reverse.
Length of Meander ML is the air distance along
river between tangent point of one curve and
tangent point of other curve of same order. 29
MEANDERING OF RIVER - LENGTH & WIDTH
FIGURE:
30
CAUSES OF MEANDERING
The primary cause of meandering is the
excess of total charge and discharge during
floods. Accordingly excess turbulence is
developed. With these phenomenon eroding of
banks takes place and deviation from the axial
flow causes for the river to meander in a step by
step procedure.
31
FACTORS CONTROLLING MEANDERING
The basic factors controlling the process of
meandering are:
(1) Valley slope
(2) Stream load
(3) Discharge
(4) Bed and side resistance
32
GENERAL FEATURES OF MEANDERING
The general features of meandering of rivers
are:
(1) A fully developed meander has a definite
pattern of curvature, length, width and depth
of channel
(2) The width and length of meander and width
of river vary with square root of discharge
(3) Increase in slope of river increases the
meandering feature like size of bends, length
of meander, width and degree of sinuosity.
33
RIVER TRAINING
The River Training implies the various
measures adopted on a river to direct and guide to
train and regulate the riverbed or to increase the
water depth.
The various objectives of River Training are:
(1) Passing of High Flood discharge safely
(2) Transporting of Excess Sediment Load and
Suspended Load
(3) To reduce bank erosion
(4) Provide sufficient draft for navigation
(5) To align the direction of flow through a desired
path.
34
CLASSIFICATION OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS
The River Training works can be classified as:
(1) High Water Training or Training for Discharge
High Cross-sectional area for speedy discharge is
ensured
(2) Low Water Training or Training for Depth
River is trained to provide more depth especially
for navigation etc and reducing width if required
(3) Mean Water Training or Training for Sediment
River is trained to keep the channel in good
shape and for efficient transport of sediments
35
DESCRIPTION OF RIVER TRAINING WORKS
Following are the types of River Training and
control works:
(1) Guide Bank system
(2) Groynes or spurs
(3) Levees or Embankments
(4) Bank Protection or Pitched banks
(5) Pitched Islands
(6) Miscellaneous methods - Bandalling
36
(1) GUIDE BANK SYSTEM
Guide Banks are made for guiding the stream
near an important structure so as to confine it in
a reasonable width of the river and to provide a
good protection to the structure.
The end portions of the guide bank are
specially given bell mouth shape to prevent end
return erosion and consequent failures.
37
GUIDE BANK SECTIONAL DRAWINGS
38
(2) GROYNES OR SPURS
Groynes are structures construed
transverse to the river flow and extend from the
bank into the river upto a limit. The groynes are
also known as Spurs or Dikes. The groynes are
classified according to the function it serves as:
(1) Attracting Groyne
(2) Deflecting Groyne
(3) Repelling Groyne
(4) Sedimenting Groyne
39
CHOICE OF GROYNE
The choice of a groyne depends upon:
(1) Fall velocity of river
(2) Width of waterway
(3) Depth of waterway
(4) Character of Bed material
(5) Available material and funds
(6) Amount of silt carried in the stream
40
PURPOSE OF A GROYNE
Groynes serve the following purposes:
(1) Contracts a river channel to improve it’s
depth
(2) Protects the river bank
(3) Silts up the area in the vicinity by creating a
slack flow
(4) Trains the flow along a certain course
41
GROYNE TYPES
(a) Repelling Groyne
The repelling groyne is constructed in such
a way that it is pointing towards upstream at an
angle of 10 to 30 degree to the line normal to
the bank. The head of groyne causes the current
to be deflected.
The head of groyne is made sufficiently
strong. In case of repelling groyne a still water
pocket is formed upstream of it and suspended
load gets deposited in the pocket.
42
REPELLING GROYNE
FIGURE:
43
(b) DEFLECTING GROYNES
A deflecting groynes has much shorter length
than a repelling groyne. It is taken in a
perpendicular direction to the bank and it
deflects the flow.
44
(c ) ATTRACTING GROYNE
The attracting groyne is constructed in
such a way that it points downstream of the
direction of normal flow. With this the flow
shows an attracting tendency.
45
SECTION OF GROYNES
A general section of a Groyne is given below.
Normally the outer construction material is
Granite, with an inner layer of sand and gravel.
46
(3) LEVEES OR EMBANKMENT
Levee is an earthen bund constructed
parallel to the river. During flood more discharge
and water surface elevation is ensured for the
river. Provided at locations of low banks.
47
(4) BANK PROTECTION AND PITCHED BANKS
Bank protection includes any protection work
that aims at maintaining the stability of land
against the action of water.
The purpose includes to check the erosion of the
banks by water current and waves.
This also helps in preventing the side slope from
slipping into the river.
The piping effect of the soil banks are also
prevented.
The protection can be by vegetative cover, stone
pitching etc. In Kerala stone masonry is adopted.
48
(5) PITCHED ISLANDS
It consists of a sand core pitched with boulders
along it’s sides and slopes and protected at the
toe by a falling apron. Typical diagrams are
included.
49
(5) PITCHED ISLANDS
50
(6) Miscellaneous Methods – Bandalling works
A bandal consists of a framework of
bamboos driven in the river bed. It is designed
to confine the low water flow in a single channel
with a view to maintain suitable depth of flow.
51
RESERVOIRS
52
SURFACE WATER STORAGE SYSTEMS
Mainly Storage and Diversion of
water are achieved by Dams. Dams are
constructed across the rivers and streams
to create an artificial lake or reservoir
behind it.
The water in a reservoir is then
utilized as and when it is needed for uses
such as for Irrigation, Drinking water,
Power generation, Industrial needs, Flood
protection, Navigation, Aquatic life etc.53
CLASSIFICATION OF RESERVOIRS ACCORDING TO USE
Reservoirs are classified as:
1) Storage Reservoirs
2) Diversion Reservoirs
3) Detention Reservoirs
4) Flood Protection Reservoirs
5) Multipurpose Reservoirs etc
54
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS ACCORDING TO USE
Dams are classified according to use as:
1) Storage Dams: – Gravity Dam, Earth Dam,
Rockfill Dam, Arch Dam etc
2) Diversion Dams:- Weir, Barrage
3) Detention Dams: - Dike, Water spreading
Dam, Debris Dam etc
55
STORAGE RESERVOIR / SYSTEM
Storage Dams are the most common type
of dams, normally constructed. Storage dam is
constructed to impound water to it’s upstream
side during periods of excess supply in the river
and is used in periods of deficient supply.
Accordingly behind such a dam a reservoir is
formed. The water can be used for various
purposes such as Irrigation, Water power
generation or for water supply purposes.
56
DEVERSION RESERVOIR/DAM
The purpose of a diversion reservoir is for
diverting water into ditches, canals or other
conveyance systems to place of use. Weirs and
Barrages are common diversion schemes.
57
DETENTION RESERVOIR / DAM
A detention Dam is constructed to store
water during floods and release it gradually at a
safe rate at times of need.
At many times, the water stored in a
detention dam is useful for increasing the water
table of the region. Also many crops can be
raised with these water.
A detention dam is sometimes called a
water spreading dam or a dike.
58
ZONES OF DISCHARGE IN A RESERVOIR
The various zones of storage in a reservoir are:
1) Useful storage
2) Surcharge storage
3) Dead storage
4) Bank storage
5) Valley storage
59
ZONES OF STORAGE IN RESERVOIR
60
RESERVOIR STORAGE ZONES - Definitions
1. Useful storage:- The volume of water stored
between the normal pool level and the
minimum pool level is the useful storage.
2. Surcharge Storage:- The volume of water stored
between the normal pool level and the
maximum level corresponding to a flood is
called surcharge storage.
3. Dead Storage:- The volume of water below the
minimum pool level is known as dead storage.
4. Bank storage and Valley storage:- refers to the
volume of water stored in the pervious
formations of the river banks and the soil above
it. 61
STORAGE CAPACITY AND YIELD
1) YIELD : Yield is the amount of water that can be
supplied from the reservoir in a specified
interval of time.
2) SAFE YIELD or FIRM YIELD: The maximum
quantity of water that can be guaranteed
during a critical dry period is known as the safe
yield or firm yield.
3) SECONDARY YIELD: This is the quantity of water
available in excess of safe yield during periods
of high flood.
4) AVERAGE YIELD: The arithmetic average of the
firm and the secondary yield over a long period
of time is called average yield. 62
FLOOD HYDROGRAPH OF INFLOW
63
MASS –INFLOW CURVE
The Reservoir capacity corresponding to a
specified yield is determined by the help of mass
inflow curve and demand curve.
A mass inflow curve is a plot between the
cumulative inflow in the reservoir with time.
A mass inflow curve continuously rises as it
shows accumulated inflow. If there is no inflow
during a period, the mass inflow curve will be
horizontal during that period. The curve will rise
very sharply during the period of high flood.
The mass inflow curve prepared from the
Flood Hydrograph of Inflow is shown.
64
MASS INFLOW CURVE
65
MASS –INFLOW CURVE (Contd.)
The hatched area in the Flood Hydrograph
shows the total quantity of water flown to the
reservoir from 1957 to 1960. In the mass inflow
curve the corresponding ordinate at time t1 will
be equal to the volume of water indicated by
the hatched area in the inflow hydrograph.
66
DEMAND CURVE
A demand curve is a plot between accumulated
demand with time. It can be straight or curved.
67
CALCULATION OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY FOR A SPECIFIED
YIELD, FROM THE MASS INFLOW CURVE.
68
DETERMINATION OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY
1) From the Flood Hydrograph of inflow for
several years, prepare the mass inflow curve.
Also prepare the mass curve of demand on the
same scale.
2) From the apices A1, A2, A3…. etc of the mass
inflow curve draw tangents parallel to the
demand curve
3) Draw the maximum vertical intercepts for all
the demand – gap portions.
4) The biggest of the vertical ordinate represent
the required reservoir capacity.
69
DETERMINATION OF SAFE YIELD FROM A
RESERVOIR OF A GIVEN CAPACITY
70
DETERMINATION OF SAFE YIELD FROM A RESERVOIR OF A GIVEN CAPACITY
Following is the procedure:
(1)Prepare the mass inflow curve and locate the Apex
points. On the same diagram draw straight lines from a
common origin representing demands at various rates say
varying from 0 to 5000 ha-m per year.
(2) From the Apices A1, A2, A3 etc draw tangents in such
a way that their maximum departure from the mass
inflow curve does not exceed the specified reservoir
capacity. Thus E1D1, E2D2, E3D3 , all equal to reservoir
capacity.
(3) Measure the slope of each of these tangents. The
slopes indicate the yield which can be obtained from the
reservoir of given capacity. The slope of the flattest
demand line is the firm yield or safe yield.
71
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
All rivers carry a certain amount of silt
eroded from the catchment area during heavy
rains. The extent of erosion and the silt load in
the stream depends upon the following factors:
(a) Nature of soil of the catchment area
(b) Topography of the catchment area
(c) Vegetation cover
(d) Intensity of rainfall
72
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION
73
RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION (Contd.)
The sediment transported by the river can be
divided into two heads:-
(1) Bed Load
(2) Suspended Load
The bed load is dragged along the bed of the
stream. The suspended load is kept in suspension
because of the vertical component of the eddies
formed due to friction of flowing water against the
bed. The bed load is nearly 10 to 15 % of the
suspended load. Major part of the sediments are
deposited at the upstream of the Reservoir. 74
MEASUREMENT OF SEDIMENT LOAD
The amount of silt or the sediment load
carried by a stream is determined by taking the
samples of water carrying silt at various depths.
The samples are then filtered and the sediment
is removed and dried. The sediment load is
measured in the units of “parts per
million(ppm)”
75
LIFE OF RESERVOIR
The ultimate destiny of a reservoir is
to be filled with silt deposits. To allow for
silting a certain percentage of the total
storage is usually left unutilized and is
called “dead storage”. As the time passes
on, more and more silting takes place and
the live or effective storage is gradually
reduced. The useful life of reservoir is
terminated when it’s capacity is reduced to
20% of the designated capacity.
76
TRAP EFFICIENCY
The reservoir sedimentation is measured
in terms of it’s Trap Efficiency. Trap Efficiency of
a Reservoir is the per cent of inflowing sediment
which is retained in Reservoir. The trap
efficiency is function of the ratio of reservoir
capacity to the total inflow.
Trap Efficiency = f (Capacity / Inflow)
From the Fig. it can be noticed that the rate of
silting is higher in the initial stages and it
decreases as silting take place.
77
GRAPH – TRAP EFFICIENCY OF RESERVOIRS
78
CALCULATION OF LIFE OF A RESERVOIR
PROCEDURE:
(1) Knowing the inflow rate, calculate the
(Capacity/Inflow) ratio and obtain the trap
efficiency from the curve for full capacity of the
reservoir.
(2) Divide the total capacity into any
suitable interval, say 10%. Assuming that 10%
capacity has been reduced due to sediment
deposit, find the trap efficiency for the reduced
capacity (ie. 90% of the original) and the inflow
ratio.
79
Calculation of Life of Reservoir (Contd.)
(3) For this interval of 10% capacity, find the
average trap efficiency by taking the average of trap
efficiency found in steps (1) and (2).
(4) Determine the sediment inflow rate by
taking water samples and drying the sediment.
Multiply the total annual sediment transported by
the trap efficiency found in step (3). Convert this
sediment deposited into hectare-metre (volumetric)
units deposited in one year.
(5) Divide the volume interval (ie 10% of the
capacity) by the deposit (determined in step 4) to
get the number of years to fill this volume interval
of 10% capacity.
80
LIFE OF RESERVOIR (Contd.)
(6) Repeat this procedure for further
intervals. Ie at 80%, 70%,…. 20% of the capacity.
The total life of the reservoir will be equal to the
total number of years required to fill each other
of the volume intervals.
81
RESERVOIR SEDIMENT CONTROL
Following are the methods for control of silting
of reservoirs.
(1) Proper selection of reservoir site
(2) Control of sediment flow
(3) Proper designing and Reservoir
planning
(4) Control of sediment deposit
(5) Removal of sediment deposit
(6) Erosion control in the catchment area
82
TRAP EFFICIENCY – NUMERICAL PROBLEM
83
TRAP EFFICIENCY – ANSWER TO QN.
84
RESERVOIR CAPACITY Qn.
85
RESERVOIR CAPACITY Ans.
86
87
b
88
MODULE No. 5 & 6 - TEST
Answer All Questions Max. Marks = 25
1) What are the zones of storage in a reservoir? ( Marks 4 )
2) Explain the method of calculating the safe yield from a reservoir
(Marks 4)
3) Explain the following
(a) Trap Efficiency
(b) Flow – Duration curve (Marks 4)
4) What are the divisions of Subsurface water (Marks 3)
5) What is perched Aquifer (Marks 2)
6) Explain Strainer type Tube Well with a sketch (Marks 3)
7) Explain Recuperation Test. During a recuperation test the water in an open
well was depressed by 2.5 metres and it recuperated 1.8 metres in 80
minutes. Find the Yield from a well of 4m diameter under a depression head
of 3 metres (Marks 5)
89