CET 307
HYDROLOGY AND
WATER RESOURCES
ENGINEERING
MODULE No.2
WRE/KJG/MOD1 1
SYLLABUS
Run off – components of Run off – Hydrograph
Analysis – Hydrograph from isolated storm –
Base Flow separation, Unit Hydrograph – uses,
assumptions and limitations of unit hydrograph
theory. Computation of storm/flood hydrograph
of different duration by method of superposition
and by development of S-Hydrograph; Floods –
methods of design flood estimation – Empirical
methods; SPF and PMF, Return period
(conceptual ideas only).
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RUN OFF
The term ‘Run Off’ is used for water that is on the run or
in a flowing state.
The run off of a catchment area in any specified period is
the total quantity of water draining into a stream or into a reservoir in
that period. This can be expressed as: cm of water or the total water
in m3.
RUN OFF COMPONENTS
The run off is broadly classified as:
1) Surface run off | DIRECT RUNOFF
2) Sub-surface run off | DIRECT RUNOFF
3) Base flow
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Rain Fall Disposal
The rainfall is disposed off in the following manner:
1) Basin Recharge
2) Direct Runoff
3) Percolation(Down)
4) Evaporation and Transpiration
The Basin Recharge consists of
(a) Rain intercepted by leaves and stems of vegetation
(b) Water held in depressions
(c) Soil water held up in pore spaces of soil (hydroscopic water).
The Direct Run Off is that water which reaches the stream shortly after it falls
as rain. Direct run off consists of
(1) Overland flow or Surface Run off.
(2) Subsurface run off or interflow
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FACTORS AFFECTING RUN OFF
The principal factors affecting run off are
1) Precipitation characteristics –intensity, duration,
distribution, direction, form etc
2) Shape and size of catchment – Fan shaped, Fern
Leaf shaped, Small sized etc
3) Topography – smooth, rugged, steep etc
4) Orientation of Watershed – windward, leeward
5) Geological characteristics – rocky, subsoil etc
6) Meteorological characteristics – Temperature etc
7) Character of the catchment surface –natural,
cultivated, vegetal cover etc
8) Storage characteristics – Dams, Weirs, Lakes,
Ponds etc
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HYDROGRAPH
A Hydrograph is a Graph
showing variations of discharge
with time at a particular point
of a stream.
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HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS
A Hydrograph is generated from run-
off due to precipitation resulting from
either an isolated storm or a series of
consecutive storms and is known as a
storm hydrograph.
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STORM HYDROGRAPH
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COMPONENTS OF A SINGLE PEAKED HYDROGRAPH
The single peaked hydrograph results from an
isolated storm.
The essential components of a single peaked
hydrograph of an isolated storm are:
(i) The rising Limb(Concentration Curve)(AB)
(ii) The Peak or crest element(BPC)
(iii) The recession Limb(CD)
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COMPONENTS OF A SINGLE PEAKED HYDROGRAPH
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Time Parameters in Hydrograph Analysis
1) Effective Time Duration(tre): It is the net
duration of precipitation during which rainfall
rates are more than infiltration rates.
2) Lag time or basin lag(tl): It is the time interval
between the centre of mass of net rainfall
and centre of mass of run off hydrograph.
3) Time to Peak(tp): It is the time interval
between the starting of the rising limb(A) to
the peak(P) of the hydrograph.
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Time Parameters in Hydrograph Analysis(Contd.)
4) Time of concentration (tc): It is taken as the time from the
end of the net rainfall to the point of inflection(C ) of falling limb
of the hydrograph. Kirpich(1940) gave the equation:
tc = (0.000323 L*0.77) / (S*0.385)
tc = time of concentration in hours
L = maximum length of travel of water in metres
S = slope of the channel = H/L
H = difference in elevation between the remote point in
the channel and the outlet point
5) Recession time (Tr): It is the difference in time between the
end of effective rainfall and lowest point D of the recession
limb.
6) Time base of Hydrograph (Tb) : It is time from which direct
run off begins to the time when it stops.
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7) ERH – Effective Rainfall Heytograph
BASEFLOW
Base Flow is the portion of the Stream Flow that
is sustained between precipitation events, fed to
streams by delayed pathways. It is different from
Ground Water Flow.
Baseflow is also called drought flow, ground
water recession flow, low water flow, sustained
or fair weather flow etc.
Baseflow is derived from bedrock water storage
near surface valley soils and riparian zones.
Water percolates to ground water and then
flows to a body of water.
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI /kjg 13
BASEFLOW Contd.
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / kjg 14
BASEFLOW Contd.
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / kjg 15
BASE FLOW SEPARATION
Three methods of separation of Base Flow and
Direct Runoff are:
1) Straight Line method
2) Two Lines method
3) Curves Extension method
(1) Straight Line Method
In straight line method, the points A and D
which mark the beginning and end of the direct
run off are joined by a straight line AD. Thus the
base Flow is separated.
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BASE FLOW SEPARATION
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BASE FLOW SEPARATION (Contd.)
(2) Two Lines Method
In this method, the base flow is separated
from direct run off by two lines. The first line AE
is obtained by extending the base flow curve,
existing prior to the commencement of the
surface run off till it intersects a vertical line
drawn from the peak(P) in a point E. Then Points
E and D are joined by a straight line. The
segments marked by two lines AE and ED
demarcate the Base Flow and Direct Run off
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BASE FLOW SEPARATION (Contd.)
(3) Curves Extension Method
In this method, the base flow curve is
extended backward from recession side till it
intersects a vertical line through the point of
inflection(C ) in point F. Points A and F are then
joined by an arbitrary smooth curve. Thus the two
segments marked by the two curves AF and FD’
demarcate the Base Flow and the Direct Run Off.
The surface Run Off Hydrograph obtained after the
base flow separation is known as Direct Run Off
Hydrograph(DRH).
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RESULTING DIRECT RUN OFF HYDROGRAPH
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UNIT HYDROGRAPH
A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph
representing 1cm of run off from a rainfall of
some unit duration and specific areal
distribution.
The concept was introduced by L. K. Sherman
(1932)
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Assumptions & Limitations of Unit Hydrograph Theory
1) The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed within
it’s duration of specified period of time.
2) The effective rainfall is uniformly distributed
throughout the whole area of the drainage basin.
3) The base or time duration of the hydrograph of direct
run off due to an effective rainfall of unit duration is
constant.
4) The ordinates of direct run off of common base time
are directly proportional to the total amount of direct
run off represented by each hydrograph.
5) For a given drainage basin the hydrograph of run off
due to a given period of rainfall reflects all the
combined physical characteristics of the basin.
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CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
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CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The following are the steps to construct a unit hydrograph of
some unit duration from the storm hydrograph of the same unit
duration.
1) From the past records, select some unit period of intense rainfall
duration corresponding to an isolated storm uniformly distributed over
the area
2) From the past records of the river discharge for that storm, plot the
storm hydrograph for some days before and after the period of rainfall
of that unit duration.
3) Separate the Ground Water Flow(Base Flow) from the direct run off
4) Subtracting the ordinates of base flow from the total ordinates, find
the ordinates of direct run off
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Unit Hydrograph(Contd.)
5) Calculate the direct run off n (in cm) by the
expression:
Direct Runoff, n = 0.36 {(Sum O X t) / A}, where,
Sum O = Sum of the discharge ordinates(direct
run off) in cumecs
t = Time interval between successive ordinates in hours
A = Area of drainage basin in sq. km
6) Calculate the ordinates of unit Hydrograph by the
relation:
Ordinate of unit hydrograph =
Ordinate of Direct Run Off / Direct Run Off n in cm
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APPLICATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLOOD
HYDROGRAPH RESULTING FROM RAINFALL OF UNIT DURATION
The unit Hydrograph can be used to
construct a flood hydrograph resulting from
rainfall of some unit duration for which unit
hydrograph is available. The unit hydrograph
selected for computing the flood hydrograph
should be corresponding to the storm of like
duration and pattern. However a tolerance of
25% of the unit hydrograph duration can be
allowed. Thus a 6 hour unit hydrograph can be
applied for storms of 4.5 to 7.5 hours duration.
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APPLICATION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH TO THE CONSTRUCT A FLOOD HYDROGRAPH
RESULTING FROM TWO OR MORE PERIODS OF RAINFALL
A unit hydrograph of some specific unit duration can also
be utilized for construction of flood hydrograph resulting from
the rainfall lasting for a long duration. The essential condition is
that the storm pattern should be the same as that for the unit
hydrograph.
For example, a 3 hours unit Hydrograph is available and it
is required to compute the flood Hydrograph resulting from a
rainfall lasting for 9 hours with variable intensities of rainfall,
namely n1, n2 and n3 respectively for the first, second and third
storm. In this case, the flood hydrograph for each part is
computed separately. The summation of First, Second and Third
flood hydrographs will give the Final Flood Hydrograph.
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FLOOD HYDROGRAPH RESUTING FROM A
STORM OF LONGER DURATION
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S – HYDROGRAPH(SUMMATION HYDROGRAPH)
S – hydrograph or S-curve is a hydrograph that is produced by a
continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate for indefinite period. It is a
continuous rising curve in the form of letter ‘S’ till equilibrium is reached.
At the time of equilibrium, it will represent a constant rate of
continuous effective rainfall say Ro cm per hour. At this time of equilibrium
the S-curve will represent a run off discharge given by:
Qo = (A x 100 x 100) Ro / (100 x 3600)
= (A Ro/36) cumecs, where,
A is the catchment area in hectares and
Ro is the constant rate of continuous effective rain rainfall
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S - HYDROGRAPH
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DERIVATION OF S-HYDROGRAPH FROM
UNIT HYDROGRAPH
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METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION FOR COMPUTATION OF
STORM/FLOOD HYDROGRAPH OF DIFFERENT DURATION.
Construction of Shorter or Longer period hydrograph from a
given unit hydrograph.
From the given unit hydrograph of unit
period ‘To’ , derive an S-curve. An offset curve is
then drawn by offsetting the position of the
original S-curve for a period equal to the desired
unit period ‘to’ hours. The difference between
the ordinates of original S-curve and the offset
curve, divided by ‘Ro to’ will give the ordinate of
the desired unit hydrograph.
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CONSTRUCTION OF SHORTER OR LONGER PERIOD UNIT HYDROGRAPH
FROM A GIVEN UNIT HYDROGRAPH
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EMPIRICAL FORMULAE
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 34
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
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SPF AND PMF
Standard Project Flood (SPF) is the flood resulting
from the most severe combination of
meteorological and hydrological conditions
considered reasonably characteristics of the region.
This is used for large projects, where risk involved is
very high. Adopted for design of small Dams.
Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) is the flood
resulting from the most severe combination of
critical meteorological and hydrological conditions
that are reasonably possible in the region. Adopted
in design of Big Dams.
Usually SPF is about 40 to 60% of PMF.
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI 36
METHODS OF DESIGN FLOOD ESTIMATION
DESIGN FLOOD: A design flood is the flood
discharge adopted for design of a hydraulic
structure after careful considerations of hydrologic
and economic factors. A design flood in most of the
cases may be less than MPF.
Following are the methods for determining the
peak discharge in a stream.
1. Physical indication of Past Floods
2. Empirical Formula
3. Unit Hydrograph
4. Flood frequency analysis
5. Enveloping Curves
6. Rational Formula
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI / KJG 37
RETURN PERIOD
A Return period, also known as a
Recurrence interval or repeat interval is an
average time between events such as floods,
Peak river discharge flows to occur.
TE II / MOD 3 / SJCET PALAI 38
UNIT HYDROGRAPH QUESTION
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Qn. Given the 6 hour Unit Hydrograph. Derive a 9 hour unit hydrograph for the same catchment.
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KTU Questions – DECEMBER 2018
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KTU Questions – DECEMBER 2017
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Answer to Question 2(b)
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ASSIGNMENT No.1
Qn. 1(a) Mention three methods for finding the missing precipitation
over a catchment.
1(b) There were four Rain-gauge Stations A, B,C and D. The value of
precipitation from a storm for Stations A, B and C are 86mm, 108mm
and 92mm.
The normal annual precipitation at A,B,C and D are:
1400mm, 1700mm, 1650mm and 1500mm.
The location co-ordinates of A, B and C are (7,5), (8,-6) and (-5,6)
with co-ordinates of D as (0,0).
Find the missing precipitation at D by the three methods. (Roll Nos 1 to
20)
Roll Nos. 21 to 40 take the precipitation values as
55mm, 65mm and 78mm. Other values same.
Roll Nos. 41 and above take the precipitation values
as 110mm, 93mm and 67mm. Other values same.
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ASSIGNMENT No. 1(Contd.)
Qn. (2) Given the 4 hour unit Hydrograph .
Derive a 6 hour unit Hydrograph for the same
catchment.
Time(Hours) Ordinates of 6 Hour Unit Hydrograph(Cumecs)
00 0
02 7
04 14
06 25
08 34
10 21
12 15
14 8
16 4
18 2
20 0 45
MODULE 2 -TEST PAPER
1) What is Infiltration? Describe the infiltration
indices briefly. 4 Marks
2) Draw and Explain the components of a single
peaked Hydrograph 5 Marks
3) Explain a method for separation of Base flow
and Direct Run off 4 Marks
4) What is a Unit Hydrograph? Explain two uses
of Unit Hydrograph 5 Marks
5) A 12 hour storm rainfall has the following depth in cm for
each hour occurring over a basin;
1.8, 2.6, 7.8, 3.9, 10.6, 5.4, 7.8, 9.2, 6.5, 4.4, 1.8 and 1.6
The surface run off resulting from the storm is 24.4cm depth
over the basin. Determine Windex for the basin. 3 Marks 46
Module Test 2 Contd.
6) The ordinates of a 2 hour unit hydrograph are
given below. Using this derive the 4 hour unit
hydrograph. 4 Marks
Time in Hours Ordinates of 2 Hour Unit Hydrograph in Cumec
0 0
2 25
4 100
6 160
8 200
10 170
12 110
14 70
16 30
18 20
20 8
22 0
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QUESTION: Construct a Unit Hydrograph for the given Storm. The area of the
basin is 25 Sq. Km.
48
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CONSTRUCTION OF UNIT HYDROGRAPH
The following are the steps to construct a unit hydrograph of
some unit duration from the storm hydrograph of the same unit
duration.
1) From the past records, select some unit period of intense rainfall
duration corresponding to an isolated storm uniformly distributed over
the area
2) From the past records of the river discharge for that storm, plot the
storm hydrograph for some days before and after the period of rainfall
of that unit duration.
3) Separate the Ground Water Flow(Base Flow) from the direct run off
4) Subtracting the ordinates of base flow from the total ordinates, find
the ordinates of direct run off
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Unit Hydrograph(Contd.)
5) Calculate the direct run off n (in cm) by the
expression:
Direct Runoff, n = 0.36 {(Sum O X t) / A}, where,
Sum O = Sum of the discharge ordinates(direct
run off) in cumecs, (822 here)
t = Time interval between successive ordinates in hours
(2 hours here)
A = Area of drainage basin in sq. km (25 Sq. Km. here)
Ans. 23.7cm here
6) Calculate the ordinates of unit Hydrograph by the
relation:
Ordinate of unit hydrograph =
Ordinate of Direct Run Off / Direct Run Off n in cm
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THANK YOU
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