PHYSICS PROJECT

OPTICS

Name-Thanay Vijay Veeravalli

Grade-XII

Roll No.-20
INDEX
 INTRODUCTION

Like all the different types of light, the spectrum of visible light is absorbed and
emitted in the form of tiny packets of energy called photons. These photons have
both the properties of a wave as well as a particle. Hence this type of property is
called wave-particle duality and the study of light in the area of physics is known
as Optics.

Optics is the branch of physics which is concerned with light and it’s behavioural
pattern and properties. Optics is a branch of physics that deals with the
determination of behaviour and the properties of light, along with its interactions
with the matter and also with the instruments which are used to detect it.
Optics, in a simple manner, is used to describe the behaviour of visible light,
infrared light, and ultraviolet. Imaging is done with the help of a system called an
image forming an optical system. Ray optics is also called geometrical optics. It is
a branch of science that describes light propagation in terms of “rays”.

Light and Its Optical Properties

Light is a form of energy that is in the form of an electromagnetic wave and is
almost everywhere around us. The visible light has wavelengths measuring
between 400–700 nanometres. The Sun is the primary source of light by which
plants utilize this to produce their energy.
In physics, the term light also refers to electromagnetic radiation of different kinds
of wavelengths, whether it is visible to the naked eye or not. Hence, by this, the
gamma rays, microwaves, X-rays, and radio waves are also types of light. Learn
more by visiting the links below.

• Gamma rays
• Microwaves
• X-rays
• Radio waves
Light exhibits various properties which are given below:
Reflection
Reflection is one of the primary properties of light. Reflection is nothing but the
images you see in the mirrors. Reflection is defined as the change in direction of
light at an interface in-between two different media so that the wave-front returns
into a medium from which it was originated. The typical examples for reflection of
light include sound waves and water waves.

Speed of light
The rate at which the light travels in free space is called the Speed of light. For
example, light travels 30% slower in water when compared to vacuum.

Refraction
The bending of light when it passes from one medium to another is
called Refraction. This property of refraction is used in a number of devices like
microscopes, magnifying lenses, corrective lenses, and so on. In this property,
when the light is transmitted through a medium, polarization of electrons takes
place which in turn reduces the speed of light, thus changing the direction of light.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

When a beam of light strikes the water, a part of the light is reflected, and some
part of the light is refracted. This phenomenon is called as total internal reflection.

Dispersion
It is a property of light, where the white light splits into its constituent
colours. Dispersion can be observed in the form of a prism. The other properties of
light include diffraction and interference. So, what do you observe when you look
out at the beautiful scenario? Whether the light gets reflected, dispersed, refracted,
internally reflected, or diffracted.
Applications of Optics
The properties of optics are applied in various fields of Physics-

• The refraction phenomenon is applied in the case of lenses (Convex and

concave) for the purpose of forming an image of the object.
• Geometrical optics is used in studies of how the images form in an optical
system.
• In medical applications, it is used in the optical diagnosis of the mysteries of
the human body.
• It is used therapeutically and surgeries of the human tissues.
 RAY OPTICS

Reflection from Curved or Spherical Mirror

A spherical mirror is a piece cut from a reflecting sphere. There are two main types
of mirrors: convex mirrors and concave mirrors. The reflecting surface of the
spherical mirror will be curved inwards or outwards. When the reflecting surface
of the spherical mirror is curved inwards, it is called a concave mirror, and when it
is curved outwards, it is called a convex mirror.

Images Formed by a Concave Mirror

A concave mirror is a type of spherical mirror in which the reflecting surface is
the inner-curved surface of the sphere, i.e., in this type of mirror, the reflecting
surface seems to be away from the incident light source. Because of their shape,
the incident light is reflected inwards (converged); thus, they are also called
converging mirrors and are used for focusing light.

Both laws of reflection are valid at every point on the curved surface of the mirror.
The normal is drawn along the radius, i.e., it is drawn by joining the centre of
curvature of the mirror to the point of incidence. The convergence of the rays after
reflection is because the normal to the reflecting surface differs at each point on the
mirror.

There is a formation of different images in a concave mirror. It mainly depends on

the distance between the object and the mirror. Concave mirrors form both real and
virtual images. When the concave mirror is placed very close to the object, a
virtual and magnified image is obtained, and if we increase the distance between
the object and the mirror, the size of the image reduces and real images are formed.
These real images can be projected on a screen. The focal point and the centre of
curvature of the concave mirror lie in front of the mirror.

Image Formation Important Terms

1. Pole: It is the centre of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror. It lies on

the surface of the mirror, and it is usually denoted by P.
 2. Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere formed by the reflecting part
of a spherical mirror is called the centre of curvature. It is generally denoted
by C. This is not a part of the mirror, and it lies outside the reflecting surface
of the mirror. In a concave mirror, it lies in front of the mirror.
3. The radius of curvature: It is the radius of the sphere formed by the
reflecting part of the sphere. It is represented by R.
4. Principal axis: It is the straight line passing through the pole and centre of
curvature of the spherical mirror. This is normal to the mirror at its pole.
5. Principal focus: The incident rays coming parallel to the principal axis after
reflection appear to converge to a common point on the principal axis, and
this point is called the principal focus of a concave mirror. It is usually
denoted by F.
6. Focal length: It is the distance between the pole and the principal focus of
the concave mirror. It is denoted by f.

Concave Mirror Ray Diagrams

Ray diagrams are necessary for understanding the formation of an image by a
concave mirror. For constructing ray diagrams and for a better understanding of
image formation, we should consider at least two incident rays coming from the
object. The intersection of these two rays after reflection gives the position of the
image of the object. For a concave mirror, any of the following four ray diagrams
can be used for locating the image formed:
a) A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the
principal focus of a concave mirror.

b) A ray which is passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror, after
reflection, will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
c) A ray passing
through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, after reflection, is reflected
along the same path. The light rays come back along the same path because the
incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface.

d) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards the point P (pole of the
mirror), on the concave mirror, is reflected obliquely. The incident and reflected
rays follow the laws of reflection at point P, making equal angles with the principal
axis.
Concave Mirror Image Formation
Rays emerging from a point meet at another point after reflection, and this point is
called the image of the first point. The image is real if the rays converge to the
point, and it is virtual if the rays do not meet it, but appear to diverge from a point
when the rays are produced backwards. During image formation, we assume that
the rays are paraxial, i.e., they are incident at points close to the pole P of the
mirror and make small angles with the principal axis. For a concave mirror, we
consider six positions of the object before the mirror.
1. When the object is placed at infinity
2. When the object is placed beyond C (centre of curvature)
3. When the object is placed at C
4. When the object is placed between C and F (principal focus)
5. When the object is placed at F
6. When the object is placed between F and P (pole)

When the Object Is at Infinity

In this condition, we consider two rays parallel to the principal axis originating
from the object. These rays, after reflection, converge and form an image at F, the
principal focus of the mirror, in front of the mirror. The image thus formed is
highly diminished, point size, real and inverted.
The Object Is Placed Beyond C
In this situation, we consider two different rays emerging from the object. One is
parallel to the principal axis, and the other is directed towards the centre of
curvature of the mirror. These rays, after reflection, form an image between the
centre of curvature (C) and the focus (F). The image thus formed is diminished,
real and inverted.

The Object Is Placed at C

Here, the two rays emerging from the object are one parallel to the principal axis
and the other passing through the focus of the mirror. These rays, after reflection,
form an image at point C. The image formed has the same size as that of the object,
and it is real and inverted.

The Object Is Placed between C and F

Here, the two rays considered are one parallel to the principal axis and the other
passing through the principal focus of the concave mirror. The image is formed
beyond C. The image is larger compared to the size of the object, and it is real and
inverted.
The Object Is Placed at F
The rays considered here are one parallel to the principal axis and the other passing
through the centre of curvature of the mirror. This results in the formation of a
highly enlarged image which is real and inverted at infinity.

The Object Is Placed between F and P

The rays considered here are one going parallel to the principal axis and the other
passing through the centre of curvature of the mirror. The image formed here is
virtual and erect, and it is larger than the object.
Image Formation Tabular Data

Position of the Position of the Size of the Image Nature of the

Object Image Image

At infinity At focus, F Highly diminished and Inverted and real

pointed in size

Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Inverted and real

At C At C Same size Inverted and real

Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Inverted and real

At F At infinity Highly enlarged Inverted and real

Between F and P Behind the mirror Enlarged Erect and virtual

Concave Mirror Sign Conventions

For deriving the relevant formulas for reflection by spherical mirrors, there is a
standard sign convention for measuring distances. The normally used convention is
the Cartesian sign convention. According to this convention, all the distances are
measured from the pole of the mirror, i.e., the pole (P) of the mirror is assumed as
the origin. The principal axis of the mirror is taken as the x-axis of the coordinate
system. The conventions are as given below:
• The object is always placed on the left side of the mirror. This means that
the light from the object falls on the mirror from the left-hand side.
• All the distances which are parallel to the principal axis are measured from
the pole of the mirror.
• All the distances measured towards the right of the origin (along + x-axis)
are taken as positive and while those measured to the left of the origin (along
– x-axis) are taken as negative, or the distances measured in the same
direction as that of the incident light are taken as positive and those
measured in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken
as negative.
• Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis of the
mirrors are taken as positive.
• Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis of the
mirrors are taken as negative.
Relation between Radius of Curvature and Focal Length
Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis striking the concave mirror at a point
M on its reflecting surface. Then CM will be perpendicular to the mirror at point
M. Let θ be the angle of incidence, and MD be the perpendicular from M to the
principal axis.

Then from the figure,

∠MCP = θ and ∠MFP = 2θ
Now,
Tanθ = MD / CD and tan2θ = MD / FD
For small values of θ, which is true for paraxial rays, tan θ ≈ θ and tan 2θ ≈ 2θ
Therefore, MD / FD = 2 X MD / CD or FD = CD / 2
Now, FD = f and CD = R, therefore the above equations become
f=R/2
This is from the assumption that for small values of θ point, D is very close to
point P.

Mirror Equation
The figure shows two rays emerging from the object. These rays, after reflection,
form an image A’B’. From the geometry of ray diagrams, the two right-angled
triangles ABF and MPF are similar. This is because, for paraxial rays, the line MP
can be considered to be a straight line perpendicular to CP. Therefore,
B’A’ / PM = B’F / FP or B’A’ / BA = B’F / FP (Since PM = AB) …………………
(1)
Since ∠APB = ∠A’PB’, the right-
angled triangles A’B’P and ABP are
also similar,
B’A’ / BA = B’P / BP ……………… (2)
Comparing the equations (1) and (2), we get,
B’F / FP = B’P – FP / FP = B’P / BP
This is the relationship involving the magnitude of distances.
In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object
distance (u) and the distance of the image from the pole is called the image
distance (v). As mentioned earlier, the distance of the principal focus from the pole
is called the focal length (f).
Substituting u, v, and f by following the sign convention, we get,
-v + f / -f = -v / -u or v – f / f = v / u or 1 / u + 1 / v = 1 / f
This equation is known as the mirror equation. This is valid for both convex and
concave mirrors.

Linear Magnification (m)

Linear magnification (m) is the ratio of the height of the image (h’) to the height of
the object (h).
m = h’ / h
h’ and h are given a positive or negative value as per the Cartesian sign
convention.
In triangles A’B’P and ABP, we have
B’A’ / BA = B’P / BP
By applying sign convention, we get
m = h’ / h = – v / u
A negative sign for the value of magnification indicates that the image is real, and
a positive sign indicates that the image is virtual.
Concave Mirror Solved Questions
1. An object is found to be 5 cm in front of a concave mirror with a radius of
curvature of 15 cm. Determine the position, nature, and magnification of the
image in each case.
Answer:
focal length, f = =15/2 cm = 7.5 cm
u = -5 cm
Applying the mirror formula, we get,
1 / V + I / -5 = 1 / -7.5
1 / V = I / -7.5 + 1 / 5 = 1 / 15
Therefore, v =15 cm
Thus, a virtual and erect image is formed 15 cm behind the mirror.
Magnification, m = – v / u = 15 / -5 = 3
Thus, the image formed is virtual, erect and magnified by a factor of 3.
2. An object, 4 cm in size, is placed at 25 cm in front of a concave mirror of
focal length 15 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be
placed to obtain a sharp image? Determine the nature and the size of the
image.
Answer:
Object size, h = + 4 cm
Object distance, u = – 25 cm
Focal length, f = –15 cm
By using the mirror equation,
1 / V = I / -15 – 1 / -25 = – 1 / 15 + 1 / 25
1 / V = -5 + 3 / 75 = 2 / 75
i.e. v = – 38.5 cm
To get the image on the screen, the screen should be placed at a distance of 38.5
cm from the mirror.
Magnification, m = h’ / h = – v / u
Therefore,
h’ = – vh / u = (-38.5 x 4) / -25 = 6.16
Height of the image, h’ = 6 cm, so the image formed is real, inverted and enlarged.

Uses of Concave Mirrors

Concave mirrors are used in many instances. Some of the common ones are given
below.

• Torches, searchlights and vehicle headlights use concave mirrors to get

powerful parallel beams of light.
• Shaving mirrors used are usually concave mirrors to get a magnified image
of the face.
• To see large images of the teeth of patients, dentists use concave mirrors.
• Concave mirrors are also used in reflecting telescopes.
• Concave mirrors are used to form optical cavities, which are important in the
construction of lasers.
• For concentrating sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces, large concave
mirrors are used.
• Concave mirrors are used as the mirror landing aid system of modern
aircraft carriers.
Images formed by a Convex Mirror:

A convex mirror is a type of spherical mirror in which the reflecting surface is the
bulged-out portion of the sphere, i.e., in this type of mirror, the reflecting surface
bulges out towards the incident light source. Because of their shape, the incident
light is reflected outwards (diverged); thus, they are also called diverging mirrors,
and so they are not used for focusing light.

Both the laws of reflection are valid at each and every point in the mirror. The
normal, in this case, is drawn normal to the tangent at the point of incidence, i.e., it
is drawn by joining the centre of curvature of the mirror to the point of incidence.
Thus, the divergence of the rays after reflection is because the normal to the
surface differs at each point on the mirror.

Convex mirrors always form virtual images. This is because the focal point and the
centre of curvature of the convex mirror are imaginary points that cannot be
reached. So, the image is formed inside the mirror and cannot be projected on a
screen. The image formed looks smaller than the object from a distance, but it gets
larger as the object is brought closer to the mirror.
Ray Diagrams
Ray diagrams are necessary for understanding the formation of an image by a
convex mirror. For constructing ray diagrams and learning image formation, we
should consider at least two incident rays coming from the object.

The intersection of these two reflected rays gives the position of an image of the
object. In the case of a convex mirror, any of the following four ray diagrams can
be used for locating the image formed:

a) When the ray is parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, the rays appear to
diverge from the principal focus of a convex mirror.

b) When a ray is directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after
reflecting, it will emerge parallel to the principal axis.
c) When a ray is directed in the direction of the centre of curvature of a convex
mirror, the rays will be reflected along the same path. This occurs because the
incident rays fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface.

d) When a ray incident is oblique to the principal axis and towards the pole of the
mirror on the convex mirror, it is reflected obliquely. The incident and reflected
rays follow the laws of reflection at point P, making equal angles with the principal
axis.
Image formation by Convex Mirror
Rays emerging from a point actually meet at another point after reflection, and this
point is called the image of the first point. The image is real if the rays converge to
the point, and it is virtual if the rays do not meet it, but appear to diverge from a
point when the rays are produced backwards.

During image formation, we assume that the rays are paraxial, i.e., they are
incident at points close to the pole P of the mirror and make small angles with the
principal axis. For a convex mirror, we consider two positions of the object before
the mirror.

• When an object is placed at infinity.

• When the object is placed between infinity and the pole of the mirror.
For the image formation by a convex mirror in this condition, we consider two rays
parallel to the principal axis and one directed towards the pole of the mirror
originating from the object. These rays, after reflection, form an image at F, the
principal focus of the mirror, which is behind the convex mirror. The image thus
formed is highly diminished, virtual and erect.

When the Object Is Placed between Infinity and Pole

In this situation of image formation by a convex mirror, we consider two different
rays emerging from the object. One is parallel to the principal axis, and the other is
directed towards the centre of curvature of the mirror. These rays, after reflection,
form an image between the pole (P) and the focus (F) behind the mirror. The image
thus formed is diminished, virtual and erect.
 Nature of the
Position of the Object Position of the Image Size of the Image
Image

At focus, F, behind the Highly diminished and Virtual and

At infinity
mirror pointed in size erect

Between infinity and the Between P and F, Virtual and

Diminished
pole of the mirror behind the mirror erect

Uses of Convex Mirrors

• Because they have wider fields of view, as they are curved outwards, they
are commonly used in automobile side mirrors.
• Convex mirrors are also a good security device because single security
personnel could see large portions of the store while monitoring from a
single location.
• They are used in driveways and roads to provide safety to bikers and drivers
at curves and other places where there is a lack of visibility.
• They are also used in ATMs as a handy security feature that allows the user
to see what is happening behind them.
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour of light and other waves.
It includes the properties of waves, their propagation, and the methods used to
measure them. Optics also includes the theory of lenses, mirror reflection, and
images.

Optical instruments use light to detect, measure, or image physical phenomena.

They can be divided into three main categories: reflective, refractive, and
catadioptric.

Optical sensors are used in many applications, including environmental

monitoring, security, and machine vision. They are also used in medical
diagnostics and imaging. Optical instruments include microscopes, telescopes, and
cameras. They are used in various fields, including engineering, science, and
medicine. Optical systems include lasers, optical fibres, and optical receivers. They
are used in various applications, including telecommunications, information
storage, and photonic systems.

Optical Instruments
Optical instruments are devices used to measure and control the propagation of
light. They come in various shapes and sizes, but all share a common goal: to help
us see things that are too small, too faint, or too far away.

There are a few components of optical instruments that make up optical

instruments, including the lens, the light detector, and the eyepiece. The lens is
what converts the image from the object being viewed into a form that the user can
see. The light detector is what converts the image into electrical signals that the
computer can process. The eyepiece is what allows the user to see the image.

Types of optical instruments are microscopes and telescopes. Microscopes allow us

to see objects too small to be seen with the naked eye, while telescopes allow us to
see objects too far away or too faint to be seen with a microscope.

Characteristics Of Optical Instruments

Some of the key characteristics of optical instruments include precision, accuracy,
and stability. These instruments are used for various purposes, including medical
diagnosis, security monitoring, and industrial measurement. They are also used in
optical communication, which is the transmission of information using light waves.
Optical instruments are devices used for optical measurements, such as
microscopes, telescopes, and spectrometers. Finally, optical systems are assemblies
of optical components used to create an image or perform a function.

Optical instruments are typically very accurate, which is essential for the accurate
transmission of data. They are also very stable and important for high-quality
images or videos applications. In addition to their accuracy and stability, optical
instruments are also often portable and easy to use. As a result, they can be used in
various settings, including hospitals, laboratories, and security systems.

Applications Of Optical Instruments

Optical instruments are used in many applications, such as astronomy, microscopy,
surveying, and photogrammetry. They are also used in industrial and
manufacturing settings, such as in the production of lasers, contact lenses, and
medical equipment.

Applications of Optical Instruments can be divided into two main categories:

image acquisition and image processing. Image acquisition applications involve
capturing images of objects or scenes to acquire data for analysis or processing.
Image processing applications involve using the data acquired by image
acquisition applications to improve images’ quality or the accuracy or generate
new images.

There are different types of optical instruments, and each has its unique capabilities
and applications. Some of the most common optical instruments include cameras,
telescopes, microscopes, and spectrometers. Cameras capture images by capturing
light waves and converting them into digital files. Telescopes take images by
focusing light waves onto a predetermined point.

Microscope

A microscope is an instrument that may be used to inspect small objects, such as

cells. The image of an object is enlarged in the microscope by at least one lens.
This lens bends light toward the eye, causing an item to look bigger than its
original size.

There are four types of microscopes

1. Simple microscopes
2. Compound microscope
3. Light microscope
4. Stereomicroscope

o Simple Microscope
o A simple microscope functions similarly to a magnifying glass, using a
single lens for magnification.
o It uses a lens to magnify an object entirely by angular magnification, giving
the spectator an enormously expanded virtual picture.
o Simple magnification devices, such as magnifying glasses, loupes,
telescopes, and microscope eyepieces, make use of a primary convex lens or
groups of lenses.
o It is simply a convex lens with a short focal length that is used to magnify
images of small objects.

Compound Microscope

o A compound microscope is a type of microscope that has many lenses.

Because it is utilized in laboratories, it is also known as a biological
microscope.
o It is made up of lenses as well as two optical components called an objective
lens and an eyepiece or ocular lens.
o The lenses closest to the object are referred to as objective lenses, whereas
those closest to the human eye are referred to as eyepiece lenses.
o Inside the microscope, the objective lenses produce an enlarged picture of
the item being examined, and the ocular lenses form an enlarged image of its
first image.

o Light Microscope
o A light microscope is a biology laboratory device or tool that uses visible
light to detect, magnify, and expand extremely minute items.
o It focuses light on the specimen, intensifying and forming an image. The
specimen is normally positioned close to the small lens.
o A microscope’s magnification varies greatly depending on the kind and
number of lenses employed. Based on the number of lenses, microscopes are
classified into two types: simple light microscopes and compound light
microscopes.
o The lenses are placed in such a way that they may bend light for effective
picture magnification.
o The light microscope’s operation is dependent on its capacity to concentrate
a beam of light through a very tiny and transparent object to form a picture.
o The image is then magnified using one or two lenses before being shown.
The specimen’s transparency allows light to penetrate easily and quickly.
 o Stereo Microscope
o A stereo microscope is an optical microscope that allows you to see a
specimen in three dimensions. It is also known as a dissecting microscope
and a stereo-zoom microscope.
o Separate objective lenses and eyepieces are included in dissecting
microscope components. As a result, each eye has two distinct optical
channels. A three-dimensional visual is produced by the slightly varied
angling views to the left and right eyes.
o Reflected light from the object is used by a stereo or dissecting microscope.
It magnifies at low magnification, making it perfect for magnifying opaque
things.
o It is useful for examining solid or thick materials because it employs light
that naturally reflects from the specimen.
o A stereo microscope has a magnification range of 10x to 50x.
o Higher-powered lenses can be connected to modify magnification and
operating distance dependent on the demands of the user.
o For example, if a longer working distance is necessary, a lens with a
magnification less than 1x is required: 0.3x, 0.5x, or 0.7x. One may use an
ocular lens or eyepiece to change the magnification of your microscope to
300x or more.

Telescope

As we use a telescope to view an object that is in a very distant place, a telescope

needs at least two lenses. The first lens forms a diminished image that is nearer to
its focal point. This device is designed in a way so that the real and inverted image
formed by the first lens is just nearer to the second lens than its focal length. With
the help of a magnifying glass, we get an enlarged image that is virtual. The final
image is then inverted with respect to the object. This doesn’t really matter with
the astronomical telescope. While observing an object that is on earth, we usually
prefer a straight image that is obtained using the third lens.

Like microscopes, telescopes use convex lenses to make enlarged images.

However, telescopes make enlarged images of objects, such as distant stars, that
only appear tiny because they are very far away. There are two basic types of
telescopes: reflecting telescopes and refracting telescopes. These two types are
compared in the Figure beside. They differ in how they collect light, but both use
convex lenses to form enlarged images.
 OPTIC FIBERS
Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the technology that transmits information as
light pulses along a glass or plastic fiber. A fiber optic cable can contain a varying
number of these glass fibers -- from a few up to a couple hundred. Another glass
layer, called cladding, surrounds the glass fiber core. The buffer tube layer protects
the cladding, and a jacket layer acts as the final protective layer for the individual
strand.

Fiber optic cables are commonly used because of their advantages over copper
cables. Some of those benefits include higher bandwidth and transmit speeds. Fiber
optics is used for long-distance and high-performance data networking. It is also
commonly used in telecommunication services, such as internet, television and
telephones. For example, Verizon and Google use fiber optics in their
Verizon FIOS and Google Fiber services, respectively, providing Gigabit internet
speeds to users.

Working
Fiber optics transmits data in the form of light particles -- or photons -- that pulse
through a fiber optic cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding each have a
different refractive index that bends incoming light at a certain angle.

When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core
and cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, following a process called total
internal reflection. The light signals do not travel at the speed of light because of
the denser glass layers, instead traveling about 30% slower than the speed of light.

To renew, or boost, the signal throughout its journey, fiber optics transmission
sometimes requires repeaters at distant intervals. These repeaters regenerate
the optical signal by converting it to an electrical signal, processing that electrical
signal and retransmitting the optical signal.
Fiber optic cables are now able to support up to 10 Gbps signals. Typically, as the
bandwidth capacity of a fiber optic cable increases, the more expensive it becomes.

Types of fiber optic cables

Types of Optical Fibres

The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and
mode of propagation of light.
The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:

• Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which

has a single uniform index of refraction.
• Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as
the radial distance from the fibre axis increases.
The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

• Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core

material for the transmission of light.
• Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.
The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:
 • Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of
signals.
• Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of
signals.
The mode of propagation and refractive index of the core is used to form four
combination types of optic fibres as follows:

• Step index-single mode fibres

• Graded index-Single mode fibres
• Step index-Multimode fibres
• Graded index-Multimode fibres

Fiber optics vs. copper cables

Copper wire cables were the traditional choice for telecommunication, networking
and cable connections for years. Over time, however, fiber optics became a
common alternative. Most telephone company long-distance lines are now made of
fiber optic cables.
Optical fiber carries more information than conventional copper wire, due to its
higher bandwidth and faster speeds. Because glass does not conduct electricity,
fiber optics is not subject to electromagnetic interference, and signal losses are
minimized.

Advantages and disadvantages of fiber optics

Fiber optic cables are used mainly for their advantages over copper cables.
Advantages include the following:

• They support higher bandwidth capacities.

• Light can travel further without needing as much of a signal boost.
• They are less susceptible to interference, such as electromagnetic interference.
• They can be submerged in water.
• Fiber optic cables are stronger, thinner and lighter than copper wire cables.
• They do not need to be maintained or replaced as frequently.

However, it is important to note that fiber optics do have disadvantages users

should know about. These disadvantages include the following:

• Copper wire is often cheaper than fiber optics.

• Glass fiber requires more protection within an outer cable than copper.
• Installing new cabling is labor-intensive.
• Fiber optic cables are often more fragile. For example, the fibers can be broken
or a signal can be lost if the cable is bent or curved around a radius of a few
centimeters.
Fiber optics uses
Computer networking and broadcasting
Computer networking is a common fiber optics use case due to optical fiber's
ability to transmit data and provide high bandwidth. Similarly, fiber optics is
frequently used in broadcasting and electronics to provide better connections and
performance.

Internet and cable television

Internet and cable television are two of the more commonly found usages of fiber
optics. Fiber optics can be installed to support long-distance connections between
computer networks in different locations.

Undersea environments
Fiber optics are used in more at-risk environments, like undersea cables, as they
can be submerged in water and don't need to be frequently replaced.

Military and space

Military and space industries also make use of optical fiber as a means of
communication and signal transfer, in addition to its ability to provide temperature
sensing. Fiber optic cables can be beneficial due to their lighter weight and smaller
size.

Medical
Fiber optics is frequently used in a variety of medical instruments to provide
precise illumination. It also increasingly enables biomedical sensors that aid in
minimally invasive medical procedures. Because optical fiber is not subject to
electromagnetic interference, it is ideal for various tests like MRI scans. Other
medical applications for fiber optics include X-ray imaging, endoscopy, light
therapy and surgical microscopy.
 CONCLUSION

Ray optics helps us to understand the nature of light without going into the realm
of quantum mechanics and waves. We can use geometry to understand the path of
the optical ray. Theories like Fermat's principle, Snell's law etc., helps us in
understanding the nature of light on interaction with surfaces.

Optics in physics is important because it sheds light on the behavior and properties
of light. Understanding how light is propagated, generated, and detected allows
scientists and experts to discover a broad range of applications. Some of its
applications are found in photography, medicine, communication, etc.

Fiber optic transmission is widely used for data transmission and is increasingly
being used in place of metal wires because of its efficiency and high transmission
capacity. We have seen the fiber optic cables have replaced traditional copper
twisted pair cable or coaxial cable. As the use and demand for great bandwidth and
fast speed increases, there is no doubt that fiber optic transmission will bring more
opportunities and be continuously researched and expanded to cater for future
demands.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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