1.

Limit state and working stress method difference

Ans:-

2. Different types of load combination

Ans:-
3. Does column take bending? Why?
Ans:-

4. What do you mean by nominal shear stress?

Ans:-

5. How can you find the shear capacity?

Ans:-

6. Minimum reinforcement
Ans :-
7. Causes and remedy of beam crack and wall crack?
Ans:-

8. Minimum column dimension is 300 mm – explain as per IS 456 .

Ans:-

9. Chicken Mesh
Ans: -

10. Truss analysis Methods

Ans:-

11. Neutral Axis

Ans:-

12. Shape factor

Ans: -
13. Difference between force method and Deflection method
Ans:-
14. Symmetrical and unsymmetrical bending ? example?
Ans:-

Example – unsymmetrical bending: - angle section subjected to load applied along any axis other
than principle axes.
symmetrical bending: - angle section subjected to load applied along principle axes.

15. T-beam? effective span?

Ans:- 23.1 T-Beams and L·Beams (23.1.1 General) :- A slab which is assumed to act as a
compression flange of a T-beam or L-beam shall satisfy the following:
a) The slab shall be cast integrally with the web, or the web and the slab shall be effectively
bonded together in any other manner; and
b) If the main reinforcement of the slab is parallel to the beam, transverse reinforcement shall be
provided as in Fig. 3; such reinforcement shall not be less than 60 percent of the main
reinforcement at mid span of the slab.
23.1.2 Effective Width of Flange,
In the absence of more accurate determination. The effective width of flange may be taken as
the following
16. Height of gantry girder
Ans:- Vf/0.4 fy = web area
Web area / tw = depth of web
17. Weld thickness
Ans:-

18. One- way and two-way slab

Ans:- Ly/Lf >= 2 ------ one way slab
Ly/Lf < 2 ------ two way slab
19. Characteristic strength
Ans:- 6.1.1 The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of material below which not
more than 5 percent of the test results are expected to fall.
20. Beam deflection
Ans:-
21. Lower bound and upper bound theorem
Ans:- - Lower bound theorem or static theorem: a load factor or Load for which a distribution
of bending moments can be found which satisfy the equilibrium condition and the yield condition
is less than or at most equal to the true value of the collapse load factor or the collapse load
- Upper bound theorem or Kinematic theorem: the load factor or Load obtained from the
work equation written for any arbitrarily assumed mechanism is greater or equal to the true
collapse load factor or the true collapse load
- The uniqueness theorem: a load factor or a load P for which the distribution of flexural
moment is statically acceptable and for which the value of the flexural moment is equal to the
plastic moment in a number of sections sufficient for the formation of mechanism is the collapse
load factor or collapse load
22. Portal and cantilever method and its different
Ans:- The portal and cantilever methods are two approximate methods for analyzing tall
buildings for lateral (wind or seismic) loads - nowadays used for preliminary design purposes.

The portal method is suitable for buildings likely to deform in shear mode. It is based on the
distribution of base shears proportional to influence areas.
Assumptions made in Portal Method:-

 Point of inflexion occurs at the mid-height of vertical member (i.e. column)

 Point of inflexion occurs at the mid-length of horizontal member (i.e. girder, beam)
 The Interior column carries twice the horizontal shear than that of the exterior column at
each story.
The cantilever method is suitable for slender buildings likely to deform in flexure mode. It is
based on the distribution of base moment as axial forces on columns proportional to their distance
from the centroidal axis of the building.
An assumption made in Cantilever Method:-

 Point of inflexion occurs at the mid-height of vertical member (i.e. column)

 Point of inflexion occurs at the mid-length of horizontal member (i.e. girder, beam)
 The axial stress in a column is proportional to its distance from the centroid of the cross-
sectional areas of the columns at a given floor level.

23. Muller Breslau principle

Ans:-In 1886, Heinrich Müller Breslau proposed a technique to draw influence lines quickly.
The Müller Breslau Principle states that the ordinate value of an influence line for any function
on any structure is proportional to the ordinates of the deflected shape that is obtained by
removing the restraint corresponding to the function from the structure and introducing a force
that causes a unit displacement in the positive direction.
24. Proof stress? Euler formulae?
Ans:- Proof stress:- Proof stress of a material can be defined as the stress at which the material
undergoes plastic deformation. Proof stress is determined as the stress corresponding to 0.2% of
strain from the stress-strain curve of the given material. This is the stress value determined for
the materials like aluminum, magnesium and copper whose yield point cannot be easily defined.
The role of proof stress comes into play during the material selection process. As proof stress
gives the value of stress beyond which the material undergoes permanent plastic deformation, it
decides the value of external stress that can be applied to it. Any increase of stress beyond the
proof stress results in the occurrence of plastic deformation hence resulting in fracture. The proof
stress of a material is large enough to stretch the atomic bonds of the materials. This causes the
atoms to move across dislocations. This movement causes permanent deformation. As proof
stress is determined for the materials whose yield point cannot be easily defined ( Aluminium,
Magnesium, Copper), it is called as offset yield stress. Hence proof stress or offset yield stress
are more readily measured for such materials over yield stress. In no case be the proof stress be
confused with ultimate stress value. Proof stress is the value at which the material undergoes
plastic deformation that is irreversible while ultimate stress is the value beyond which the
material undergoes failure.

Euler formulae: - The Euler’s theory states that the stress in the column due to direct loads
is small compared to the stress due to buckling failure. Based on this statement, a formula
derived to compute the critical buckling load of column. So, the equation is based on bending
stress and neglects direct stress due to direct loads on the column.

The maximum axial load that a column can support when it is on the verge of buckling is called
the crippling load or critical buckling load (Pcr). At this stage, the ultimate stress in the column
would less than the yield stress of the material, and the column is pinned at both ends: Pcr=
EI(PI/KL) ^2, Where: Pcr: Critical buckling load, E: Modulus of elasticity

Assumptions

 Initially, the column is perfectly straight.

 The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
 The load is axial and passes through the centroid of the section.
 The stresses in the column are within the elastic limit.
 The materials of the column are homogenous and isotropic.
 The self-weight of the column itself is neglected.
 The failure of the column occurs due to buckling only.
 Length of column is large compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.
 The ends of the column are frictionless.
 The shortening of column due to axial compression is negligible.

Limitations

 The possibility of crookedness in column is not accounted for in this theory, and the load
may not be axial.
 The axial stress is not considered in the formula derived in Euler theory of column
buckling, and the critical buckling load may be greater than the actual buckling load.

25. Mohr”s circle?

Ans;- The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in graphical form by a
plot known as Mohr’s Circle. • This graphical representation is extremely useful because it
enables you to visualize the relationships between the normal and shear stresses acting on various
inclined planes at a point in a stressed body. • Using Mohr’s Circle you can also calculate
principal stresses, maximum shear stresses and stresses on inclined planes.
26. Load acting on gantry girder?
Ans:- Types of Load on Gantry Girder:

1. Vertical Loads on Gantry Girder.

2. Lateral Loads on Gantry Girder.
3. Longitudinal Loads on Gantry Girder.
4. Impact Loads on Gantry Girder.
#1. Vertical Loads on Gantry Girder

A vertical load acting over the gantry girder is the reaction from the crane girder and consists of
the self-weight of the crane, self-weight of the crab, and the crane capacity (the maximum load
that can be hoisted).To calculate the reaction the maximum wheel load is computed. It occurs
when the crab is nearest to the gantry girder. In addition to the reaction from a crane girder, the
self-weight of the rail should also be considered.

#2. Lateral Loads on Gantry Girder

Lateral forces on crane girders may be induced by the,

2.1. Thrust due to the sudden stopping of the crab and load when traversing the crab girders.

 As with the longitudinal gantry girders, the frictional resistance of the rail is transferred
into the crab girders and from them into the crosshead girders, thence, as point loads through the
main wheels, into the top or compression flanges of the gantry girders.
 The positions of the main wheels when maximum lateral bending and shear take place
on the gantry girder will be the same as those when maximum vertical bending moment and
shear occurs.
2.2. Crab dragging weights across the shop floor.

 The crane is often requisitioned to drag weights across the shop floor. If the load is
extremely massive, it is usually mounted on roughly fashioned rollers, probably running on a
timber plank track.
 The lateral thrust and pull on the compressive flanges of the gantry girders then become
a matter of conjecture.
 The resisting forces are, firstly, the friction of the main wheel treads upon the gantry rails
and, secondly, the forces offered by the flanges of the main wheels bearing against the gantry
rails.
 The lateral thrust is assumed to act in the plane of the center of gravity of the upper
flange. Acting as it does at the rail level, it has really a lever arm producing torque.
 This small lever arm and, therefore, the torque are neglected. No help is assumed to be
afforded by the lower or tensile flange in resisting lateral thrust.
 However, should this help be considered, then the torque due to the thrust multiplied by
the distance from the line of action of the thrust to the N.A. (n in this case)—should also be taken
into consideration.
#3. Longitudinal Loads on Gantry Girder

Longitudinal loads are caused due to the stopping or starting of the crane girders and produce a
thrust along the rails.

The largest of these, especially in quick-acting electric overhead traveling cranes, is due to the
sudden application of the brakes.
The frictional resistance to the sliding of the locked wheels upon the rails is supplied by the crane
girder. This element in turn distributes it amongst all the crane column shafts.

The lateral and longitudinal thrusts are transferred at the rail level. Therefore, gantry girders are
also subjected to bending moments due to these loads.

#4. Impact Loads on Gantry Girder

The stresses produced in gantry girders due to the above loads are more than those caused by
gradually applied loads.

This is due to the forces set up by the sudden application of brakes to the rapidly moving loaded
cranes acceleration, retardation, vibration, possible slip of slings, etc.

The steelwork which carries these quick-acting cranes must be heavier than the steelwork which
supports slow-moving cranes.

With quick-acting electric overhead traveling (E.O.T) cranes, the stresses in the gantry girders
are produced almost instantaneously, whereas with slow-moving hand-operated cranes, the
bending stresses in the girder are induced gradually from zero up to their maximum values, as
the cranes traverse the girder from the end towards the center.

Types of Load Additional Load

(a) Vertical forces transferred to the rails

i. For electric operated cranes 25 % of maximum static wheel load

ii. For hand-operated cranes 10 % of the maximum static wheel load

(b) Horizontal forces are transverse to the rails.

10 % of the weight of the crab and the

i. For electric operated cranes
weight lifted on the crane.
 5 % of the weight of the crab and the
ii. For hand-operated cranes
weight lifted on the crane.

(C) Horizontal forces along the rails 5 % of the static wheel load

27. Stiffener and purpose of design.

Ans:- Stiffeners are made from plates that are attached to member webs or flanges to stiffen
them against local deformations and to increase locally the resistance. Stiffeners are also used to
provide additional support to members at connection locations.

Stiffeners are employed to resist lateral loading of the plate and are usually made from the
rolled shapes integrally welded to the plate. Such stiffeners are distinct from the other stiffeners
used to prevent plate buckling. Typically, stiffeners run continuously through the supporting
frames.

28. Different codes with years

Ans:-
29. Carbon percentage of mild steel and tor steel
Ans:- Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon

MILD STEEL: It contains 0.05–0.25 % carbon in form of cementite. It has relatively low tensile
strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.
Due to high iron content it is prone to corrosion.

TMT STEEL: Thermo-Mechanized Treated steel.

No residual stress is involved, which in turn increases the corrosion resistance.

TOR STEEL: The technical term is Cold Twisted Deformed Steel Reinforcement Bar. Steel
bars have surface deformation formed by twisting the steel after elongation. This impart high
yield strength to steel and provide proper bondage with concrete.
30. Grade of steel used in steel structure
The most common is Hot Rolled Medium and High Tensile Structural Steel conforming to IS:
2062 (latest version is 2011 per my knowledge).

This is used in steel structures in India.

You get these steels with varying chemical composition and mechanical properties and they are
designated further by Grades.

The available grades are Grade 250 up to Grade 650.

The yield strengths start from 250MPa going up to 650 MPa.

The most commonly used grade is 250.

But for steel used as reinforcement in RCC construction the material grades are

IS 432 for mild steel medium tensile bars and

IS: 1786 for High strength deformed bars.

31. Fe500?
Ans:- “Fe” is the symbol that indicates the presence of Iron in the TMT steel bar. Fe stands for
Ferrum, the Latin word for the chemical element Iron. Figure 500 in Fe 500 TMT refers to the
minimum yield strength of the TMT steel bar.
32. How many seismic zone?
Ans:- Based on the past seismic history, Bureau of Indian Standards grouped the country into
four seismic zones namely Zone-II, Zone-III, Zone-IV and Zone-V. Of all these four zones,
Zone-V is the most seismic active region whereas Zone-II is the least.
33. Corner reinforcement of slab? and why it provided?
Ans:-
34. Deflection of beam?
Ans:-
35. ILD? conjugate beam method? yield stress?
Ans:- In the literature, researchers have defined influence line in many ways. Some of the
definitions of influence line are given below.
• An influence line is a diagram whose ordinates, which are plotted as a function of distance
along the span, give the value of an internal force, a reaction, or a displacement at a particular
point in a structure as a unit load move across the structure.
• An influence line is a curve the ordinate to which at any point equals the value of some
particular function due to unit load acting at that point.
• An influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, shear, moment, or deflection
at a specific point in a member as a unit concentrated force moves over the member.

36. Static and kinematic indeterminacy?

Ans;- Static indeterminacy:- The aim of structural analysis is to evaluate the external reactions,
the deformed shape and internal stresses in the structure. If this can be accomplished by equations
of equilibrium, then such structures are known as determinate structures. However, in many
structures it is not possible to determine either reactions or internal stresses or both using
equilibrium equations alone. Such structures are known as the statically indeterminate structures.
The indeterminacy in a structure may be external, internal or both. A structure is said to be
externally indeterminate if the number of reactions exceeds the number of equilibrium equations.

kinematic indeterminacy: - The joint displacements in a structure is treated as independent if

each displacement (translation and rotation) can be varied arbitrarily and independently of all
other displacements. The number of independent joint displacement in a structure is known as
the degree of kinematic indeterminacy or the number of degrees of freedom.

37. Method of measured deflection?

Ans:- Deflections by Integration of the Bending-Moment Equation
Deflections by Integration of Shear-Force and Load Equations
Method of Superposition
Moment-Area Method (First moment-area theorem, Second moment-area theorem)
Strain Energy of Bending (Castigliano's Theorem (Energy Method))

38. Minimum shear stress of circular section?

Ans:- 4/3 of average shear stress

39. Displacement and force method in indeterminate structure.

Ans:- The force and displacement methods are the methods of analysis of indeterminate
structures. these methods are used to determine the unknown parameters of the structure.
Different types of unknowns are considered for structure analysis in these two methods.

Here few points are given to understand the difference between force method and displacement
method.
Force Method Displacement method
In this method, Static indeterminacy of structure is In this method, Kinematic indeterminacy of
considered. structure is considered.
Compatibility equations are the main governing Equilibrium equations are the main governing
equations for structural analysis. equations for structural analysis.
Force displacement relations are represented in Force displacement relations are represented in the
the flexibility matrix. stiffness matrix.
Displacement and slopes are considered to the
Different forces are considered to be unknown.
unknown.

40. Slope – deflection method

Ans:- In 1915, George A. Maney introduced the slope-deflection method as one of the classical
methods of analysis of indeterminate beams and frames. The method accounts for flexural
deformations, but ignores axial and shear deformations. Thus, the unknowns in the slope-
deflection method of analysis are the rotations and the relative joint displacements. For the
determination of the end moments of members at the joint, this method requires the solution of
simultaneous equations consisting of rotations, joint displacements, stiffness, and lengths of
members.
41. Moment distribution method
Ans:- Moment distribution method offers a convenient way to analyses statically indeterminate
beams and rigid frames. In the moment distribution method, every joint of the structure to be
analyzed is fixed so as to develop the fixed-end moments. Then, each fixed joint is sequentially
released and the fixed-end moments (which by the time of release are not in equilibrium) are
distributed to adjacent members until equilibrium is achieved. Moreover, the moment
distribution method in mathematical terms can be demonstrated as the process of solving a set
of simultaneous equations by means of iteration. Added to that, it falls into the category of
displacement method of structural analysis. Finally, moments distribution method of structural
analysis is thoroughly presented in the following sections in addition to provide solved example.
42. Point of contrafracture
Ans:- A point of contraflexure is a point where the curvature of the beam changes sign. It is
sometimes referred to as a point of inflexion and will be shown later to occur at the point, or
points, on the beam where the B.M. is zero.
43. Rectangular beam shear stress diagram?
Ans:-

44. Sf & bm ?
Ans:- Shear force is defined as the algebraic sum of all the forces acting on either side of the
section. Bending moment is defined as the algebraic sum of all the moment of the forces acting
on either side of the section.
45. Castiglianos – theorems

Ans:- Castigliano’s structural analysis theorem relates a structural member's deformation to the
strain energy available within the structure. This theorem provides a method of determining the
displacements of a linear elastic body based on the partial derivative of the strain energy.

Strain Energy: It is defined as the energy stored in a structural member due to its deformations.
It can also be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve upto the elastic limit. The area
under the stress-strain curve gives the strain energy per unit volume or strain energy density.
Castigliano’s theorems are based on the partial derivatives of the strain energy.
Castigliano also gives a theorem related to the theorem of least work; according to that,
redundant reaction forces in a statically indeterminate structure will be such that it makes the
strain energy to its minimum value. Castigliano's theorem for deflection and slope are the same
theorems, but with the help of these theorems, a relation between slope and deflection of a
member can be established. There are two Castigliano’s theorems available, which are used in
structural analysis.

Castigliano's First Theorem

Castigliano’s theorem relates the strain energy with the point load acting on the member.
According to Castigliano’s first theorem, the First partial derivative of total strain energy
available in the structure with respect to the deflection component at any point is equal to the
point load acting at the deflection point in the same direction.

Castigliano's first theorem is applicable to the linearly or nonlinearly varying elastic structures
with the condition of constant temperature and unyielding of the supports. Castigliano’s first
theorem is used to find the value of load causing the deflections.

Castigliano's Second Theorem

Castigliano’s theorem also relates to the strain energy with the deflections of the member in its
second theorem. According to Castigliano’s second theorem, the first partial derivative of the
total strain energy with respect to the point load acting on the member is equal to the deflection
of the member at the point of loading in the same direction of load.

δ=∂U/∂P

Castigliano’s second theorem applies to the elastic body within its limit. Both Castigliano’s
theorem is applicable up to the deformations and force relation are linear.

46. Flexibility method, stiffness method and its use?

Ans:- Statically indeterminate structures can be analyzed by using the flexibility method or the
stiffness method.
• Flexibility Method The flexibility method is based upon the solution of equilibrium equations
and compatibility equations. There will always be as many compatibility equations as redundant.
It is called the flexibility method because flexibilities appear in the equations of compatibility.
Another name for the method is the force method because forces are the unknown quantities in
equations of compatibility.
• Stiffness Method In the stiffness method, displacements (rather than forces) are taken as the
unknown quantities. For this reason, the method is also called the displacement method. The
unknown displacements are obtained by solving equations of equilibrium (rather than equations
of compatibility) that contain coefficients in the form of stiffnesses.
47. Wave force?
Ans:-
48. Modular ratio?
Ans:- m= Es/Ec
49. Where we use the modules of elasticity? value of modules of elasticity of timber?
Ans:- You can use the elastic modulus to calculate how much a material will stretch and also
how much potential energy will be stored. The elastic modulus allows you to determine how
a given material will respond to Stress.
Modulus of elasticity of timber- 11-16 Gpa

50. I crac ,Igros , Ieffc difference

Ans:- [Link]

Gross moment of inertia :- this is the moment of inertia use in uncrack portion of a member.
The whole cross-sectional area is used to calculate it. It is the actual moment of inertia of the
section.
Crack moment of inertia :- This is the moment of inertia use in crack portion of a member,
where the concrete below neutral axis should be neglected and the area of steel should be
converted to concrete in order to calculate it. This value is less then the actual or gross moment
of inertia.
Effective moment of inertia:- This is the moment of inertia use in both crack and uncrack
portion of a member by averaging gross and crack moment of inertia by some methods given by
different code. This is less then gross moment of inertia but greater then crack moment of ineria.
51. Force and displacement method different methods.

Ans:-

Types of Displacement Method:- As we discussed, the displacement method is one of the

methods of analysis of indeterminate structures in which displacements are considered to be
unknown parameters of structure. With the help of this, other structural parameters can be
determined. So, all those methods in which displacement is considered to the unknown
parameters are the type of displacement method. Here, a few such methods are listed below:

 Moment distribution method

 Kani’s method
 Slope-deflection method
 Castigliano’s first theorem method
 Stiffness matrix method
Types of Force Method/Flexibility Method/Compatibility Methods

1. Virtual work/Unit load Method

2. Method of consistent deformation
3. Three-moment theorem
4. Castigliano's theorem of minimum strain energy
5. Maxwell-Mohr's equation
6. Column Analogy Method