MATERIAL

TESTING
MATERIAL
TESTING
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical testing plays an important role in
evaluating fundamental properties of engineering
materials as well as in developing new materials and in
controlling the quality of materials for use in design and
construction. If a material is to be used as part of an
engineering structure that will be subjected to a load, it is
important to know that the material is strong enough and
rigid enough to withstand the loads that it will experience
in service. As a result engineers have developed a
number of experimental techniques for mechanical testing
of engineering materials subjected to tension,
compression, bending or torsion loading.
TENSION
TEST
TENSILE TESTING
• The most common type of test used to
measure the mechanical properties of a
material is the Tension Test.
• Uses the Universal Tensile Machine (UTM)
to apply measured force to a test
specimen. The amount of extension can
be measured and graphed.
• Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity,
tensile strength, ductility and shear
strength can be determine.
• Test specimens can be round or flat.
Why are Metals
Tested?
● To ensure quality
● To test its properties
● To prevent failure in
use
● To make informed
choices in using
materials
The following MATERIAL
PROPERTIES can be determined
by TENSILE TESTING:
● Malleability
● Strength
● Modulus of
● Ductility
Toughness
● Elasticity
● Modulus of
● Stiffness Resilience
The Tensile Tester
A machine which applies a tensile
force (a force applied in opposite directions)
to the specimen, and then measures that
force and also the elongation.
This machine usually uses a hydraulic
cylinder to create the force. The applied
force is determined by the system pressure,
which can be accurately measured.
Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine
A Universal Testing Machine
(UTM), also known as a universal testing,
materials testing machine or materials
test frame, is used to test the tensile
stress and compressive strength of
materials. It is named after the fact that
it can perform many standard tensile
and compression tests on materials,
components, and structures.
Tensile Test Specimens

flat test piece

round test piece

Ductile Material Stress- Strain Curve
Stress-Strain Diagram for Brittle
Materials
The rupture occurs along a
surface perpendicular to the loading
plane.
For example:
• Glass
• Stone
• Normal concrete
• Aluminum
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength= Maximum Load
Cross Section Area

• Maximum load is the highest point on the

graph.

• Often called Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

Modulus of Elasticity

A measure of a materials ability to regain its original dimensions

after the removal of a load or force. The modulus is the slope of the
straight line portion of the stress- strain diagram up to the proportional
limit.
Breaking/ Rupture Stress

The maximum amount

of stress that can be applied
before rupture occurs. The
material fractures in the
necking region w h e r e t h e
material reduces in diameter
as the material elongates.
Modulus of Resilience
A measure of a materials ability to absorb energy
up to the elastic limit. This modulus is represented by the
area under the stress versus strain curve from zero force
to the elastic limit.
Modulus of Toughness

A measure of a materials ability to plastically deform without

fracturing. Work is performed by the material absorbing energy by the
blow or deformation. This measurement is equal to the are under the
stress versus strain curve from its origin through the rupture point.
Calculation Page
Applications
● Aerospace Industry
● Shear and tensile strength testing of
fasteners e.g. bolts, nuts and screws
● Textile Industry
● ‘Pull-off’ characteristics of buttons,
stitched-on decorations, press studs,
zip fasteners, hook-and-loop
fasteners
Benefits of Tensile Testing
The data produced in a tensile test can be used
in many ways including:
● To determine batch quality
● To determine consistency in manufacture
● To aid in the design process
● To reduce material costs and achieve lean
manufacturing goals
Compression
test
COMPRESSION TEST

This test are used to determine

how a product or material reacts when it
is compressed, squashed, crushed or
flattened by measuring fundamental
parameters that determine the specimen
behavior under a compressive load.
Compression Testing- Procedure
During a typical compression test, data are collected regarding
the applied load, resultant deformation or deflection, and condition of
the specimen. For brittle materials, the compressive strength is
relatively easy to obtain, showing marked failure. However, for ductile
materials, the compressive strength is generally based on an arbitrary
deformation value. Ductile materials do not exhibit the sudden
fractures that brittle materials present. They tend to buckle and
“barrel out”.
Types of
Compression
Testing
● Flexure/ Bend
● Spring Testing
● Top-load/ Crush
● Compressive Shear
● Compressive Burst
Flexure Testing
Flexure/ bend testing is also
known ad transverse testing or modulus
of rupture testing. It is a way of
determining the flexural strength, or how
something will react when it is being
bent. This is done by supporting the
specimen at given points along its length
and applying an axial compressive load
evenly at one or more points.
Flexure Testing
Spring Testing
If a spring is consistently doing the job it
was designed for, it must, within acceptable
tolerances, exert the required force over its range
of use, and over extended time in use. Only
rigorous testing can ensure this quality, but since
springs are so complex and varied, so are the
means of testing.
Spring Testing
Top-Load/ Crush

To-load and crush

resistance testing reduces
the risk of containers
deforming or failing when
subject to forces during
filling, closure, storage and
transport.
Top- Load/ Crush
Compressive Shear
Compressive shear testing is
simply the pushing apart of a material
sample along a plane parallel to, and
between, opposing forces. Typically it is
used to test adhesive bonds, where it is
the compressive equivalent of a tensile
lap shear test, or the internal strength
of a material that is designed to bear
shear force.
Compressive Shear
Compressive Burst
The integrity of a fluid or gas- filled container can be
tested in terms of its propensity to burst. This may involve
material failure (e.g. splitting), closure failure, or seal/seam
failure. There is a variety of test methods involving
inflationary burst, including sensitive gaseous leak detection,
but a realistic option involves simply compressing a filled
container using a standard radius cylindrical compression
fixture or flat plate.
Compressive Burst
Benefits of
Compression Testing
Compression testing provides
data on the integrity and safety of
materials, components and products,
helping manufactures ensure that
their finished products are fit-for
–purpose and manufactured to the
highest quality.
The data produced in a compression
test can be used in many ways
including:

● To determine batch quality

● To determine consistency in manufacture
● To aid in the design process
● To reduce material costs and achieve lean
manufacturing goals
● To ensure compliance with the
international and industry standards
Applications of Compression
Testing

Aerospace and Automotive Industry

Construction Industry
Cosmetics Industry
Electrical and Electronic Industry
 “
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR
THERMAL EXPANSION
It is a material property that is
indicative of the extent to
which a material expands upon
heating. Different substances
expand by different amounts.
LINEAR EXPANSION
When solids are heated, their length increases or they
elongate. They contract when they are cooled. This means
the length of solids increases as temperature increases and
their length decreases as temperature decreases.

Formula:
� = ��� �
How To Measure
Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
To determine the thermal expansion coefficient,
two physical quantities (displacement and
temperature) must be measured on a sample that
is undergoing a thermal cycle. Three of the main
techniques used for CTE measurement are
dilatometry, interferometry, and
thermomechanical analysis.
DILATOMETRY
Mechanical dilatometry techniques are
widely used. With this technique, a
specimen is heated in a furnace and
displacement of the ends of the
specimen are transmitted to a sensor
by means of push rods. The precision of
the test is lower than that of
interferometry, and the test is
generally applicable to materials with
CTE above 5×10–6/K (2.8×10–6/°F) over
the temperature range of –180 to 900
°C (–290 to1650°F).
INTERFEROMETRY
With optical interference techniques,
displacement of the specimen ends
is measured in terms of the number
of wave lengths of monochromatic
light. Precision is significantly
g r e a t e r t h a n w i t h
thermomechanical dilatometry.
THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS
Measurements are made with a
thermomechanical analyzer consisting of a
specimen holder and a probe that transmits
changes in length to a transducer that
translates movements of the probe into an
electrical signal. The apparatus also consists
of a furnace for uniform heating, a
temperature-sensing element, calipers, and
a means of recording results.
BEAM DEFLECTION
What is beam deflection?
Ø The beam’s deflection towards a
particular direction when force is
applied to it is known as Beam
deflection. The beam can be bent
or moved away from its original
position. This distance at each
point along the member is the
representation of the deflection.
The Importance of
Beam Deflection
Deflection is important for measuring
the weight of a structure and how it
affects the supporting beams. A beam is
necessary to ensure the structure of
building floors, and too much movement
can affect the overall structural integrity
of the building.
 Shear /
torsion test
What is a Torsion Test?

●T o r s i o n t e s t s t w i s t a m a t e r i a l o r t e s t
component to a specified degree, with a
specified force, or until the material fails in
torsion. The twisting force of a torsion test is
applied to the test sample by anchoring one
end so that it cannot move or rotate and
applying a moment to the other end so that
the sample is rotated about its axis.
Types of Torsion
Tests

Ø FAILURE
Ø PROOF
Ø OPERATIONAL
FAILURE
Ø A torsion test for failure requires that the test
sample be twisted until it breaks and is
designed to measure the strength of the
sample.

PROOF
Ø A proof test is designed to observe the material under a specified
torque load over a set period of time.

OPERATIONAL

Ø Operational testing is measures the material’s performance under the

expected service conditions of its application.
Different Types of Torsion
Testing Materials

●These materials may be composed of metals,

plastics, woods, polymers, composites, or
ceramics among others and commonly take the
forms of fasteners, rods, beams, tubes and
wires.
Common Torsion Testing Applications

Ø Torsion Testing of Bone Screws | Equipment

Ø Torsion Testing of Wire | Equipment
Ø Torsion Tests on Engineered Composite Materials | Equipment
Ø Torsion Test Machine | Teaching Lab Academic Spotlight
Ø Torsional Test Machine with Static Axial Load
Ø Wire Torsion Strength Test | Equipment
 What Is a Torsion Machine?
●Torsion test machines measure the torsional
strength, stiffness and stress-strain properties
of materials and products which are the ideal
solution for biomedical, automotive, and
aerospace applications. Torsional testing
machines are used to simulate real life service
conditions and to check product quality for
products such as drill tool bit tips and medical
devices, screws and other fasteners, wire, and
much more.
Impact Testing
WHAT IS IMPACT TESTING?
• An impact test is a technique used in
determining the behavior of material
subjected to shock loading in bending,
tension or torsion.
• This method is commonly used to measure
the impact toughness, impact strength and
notch sensitivity of the material used. This is
described as the toughness and the ability of
the material to absorb energy due to sudden
loading. Toughness takes into account the
ductility and strength of the material being
tested.
Application of Impact Testing
• Impact testing is commonly used in manufacturing industries
involving oil and gas, Aerospace, power generation, automotive,
and nuclear
• This method is primarily required by many industries in
manufacturing products, including steel hull plate for ships,
nuclear plant pressure vessels, and forgings for electric power
plant generator rotors.
• It is mostly used to test the toughness of metals, but similar
tests are used for polymers, ceramics and composites.
Factors Affecting Impact Test
• Impact properties can also change when additives, such as coloring
agents, are added to plastics.
• If the dimensions of specimens are maintained as indicated in
standards, notched-bar impact test results are affected by:
- the lattice type of materials, (Polymer TEELE orientation)
- testing temperature,
- thermo-mechanical history,
- chemical composition of materials, etc.
Types of Impact Testing
● Impact Testing of materials is performed to
determine the impact resistance or toughness
of materials by calculating the amount of
energy absorbed during fracture.
● There are basically two types of impact tests:
pendulum and drop weight.
Pendulum Testing
● A pendulum impact testing machine is used to
determine the impact strength or toughness of a
material under impact loading by measuring the
amount of energy the material is able to absorb.
● This is done by means of a swing pendulum. A
pendulum of a known weight is hoisted to a
known height on the opposite side of a pivot
point.
Pendulum Testing
● By calculating the acceleration due to gravity the
weight falling from a set height will contain a
certain amount of impact energy at the bottom of
the swing.
● By clamping or supporting a specimen on the
bottom, the sample can be released to strike and
break the specimen.
Pendulum Testing
Pendulum Testing
• The pendulum will continue to
swing up after the break event to
a height somewhat lower than
that of a free swing. The engineer
can use this lower final height
point to calculate the energy that
was lost in breaking the
specimen. With the equation
E = m.g.(h-h’)
Pendulum Testing
• Many pendulum machines will incorporate a
pointer and energy reading device so that
calculation is unnecessary.
• Izod, Charpy, and tensile impact are the most
common of the pendulum type tests.
 Charpy Test
• Charpy tests show whether a metal can
be classified as being either brittle or
ductile. This is particularly useful for
ferritic steels that show a ductile to
brittle transition with decreasing
temperature
• The method determines the toughness or
impact strength of the material in the
presence of a flaw or notch and fast
loading conditions.
Charpy Test
• The test material is secured horizontally in
a place at both ends and striker hits the
center of the material.
• The amount of energy absorbed by the
material during fracture is measured.
Types of specimens include Charpy V
notch and U notch.
 Izode Test
● The izod test involved the striker, the testing material, and the
pendulum. The striker was fixed at the end of the pendulum.
The test material was fastened at a vertical position at the
bottom, and the notch was facing the striker.
Drop/Falling Weight Impact Test
Ø A drop weight impact test typically determines
a material's resistance to a sudden external
force. This type of test is also applicable for
pipe testing where the impact resistance of
thermoplastic pipes is measured.
Ø This method aims to drop a weight in a vertical
direction, with a tube or rails to guide it during
the "free fall."
Drop/Falling Weight Impact Test
Ø The height and weight are known, therefore
impact energy can be calculated,
Ø Since the falling weight either stopped dead
on the test specimen, or destroyed it
completely in passing through, the only
results that could be obtained were of a
pass/fail nature.
Drop/Falling Weight Impact Test
Falling weight impact has several key advantages over other
methods.
Ø It is applicable for molded samples, molded parts etc.
Ø It is unidirectional with no preferential direction of failure.
Failures originate at the weakest point in the sample and
propagate from there. Samples don't have to shatter to be
considered failures. Failure can be defined by deformation,
crack initiation, or complete fracture, depending on the
requirements.
These factors make falling weight testing a better simulation
of functional impact exposures, and therefore closer to real-
life conditions.
Drop/Falling Weight Impact Test
Drop/Falling Weight
Impact Test
DIFFERENCE OF SPECIMENS
Instrumented Impact Testing
• Simple impact tests are useful but lack
important information about what was
happening to the test specimen during the
impact event and can be misleading.
• An instrumented impact test is an impact test
where the load on the specimen is continuously
recorded as a function of time and/or specimen
deflection prior to fracture.
• This gives a much more complete representation
of an impact than a single calculated value. All
of the above impact tests can designed with
electronic sensing instrumentation.
Instrumented Impact Testing

● The best systems record load vs. time or deformation for the
entire period of the impact event.
● Another area of improvement with instrumentation is time. Test
times can be reduced and automation can even be
incorporated into the testing.
● Instrumented drop weight and pendulum testing is considered
to be the best general impact testing method presently
available. By multiple testing at various rates, a very complete
impact profile can be developed for a polymer. This approach
can be useful in simulating
SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT
TESTING OF MATERIALS
● Impact resistance is one of the most important
properties for component designers to consider,
as well as the most difficult to quantify.
SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT
TESTING OF MATERIALS
● Since impact testing determines the amount of
energy absorbed by a material during fracture,
impact testing proves a material’s
credibility/quality to withstand forces.
● This is a critical measure of service life and
more importantly, in many application, most
especially in engineering and manufacturing
industry, affects products safety and liability.
DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
WHAT IS DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
• Destructive testing is a testing method that analyzes the point at
which a component, asset, or material fails.
• It is a undertaken in order to understand a specimen’s performance
or material behavior, these procedures are carried out to the test
specimen’s failure. Destructive testing procedures can either follow
specific standards or can be tailored to reproduce set service
conditions
• are commonly used for failure analysis, process validation, materials
characterization, and can form a key part of engineering critical
assessments
HOW DOES IT WORK?

• Inspectors subject the material they are testing to different

destructive test methods, which will deform or destroy the material
completely, in order to gain insights about how the material
performs under pressure.
• Destructive testing methods can identify physical properties of a
component, like toughness, hardness, flexibility, and strength. It is
almost commonly called destructive physical analysis (DPA) or
destructive material testing (DMT).
• For example, DT is used before a component is mass produced or
used in its actual application in order to understand what will
happen when it’s placed under different kinds of stress.
Destructive physical analysis is an important testing method that
identifies the limits of components in order to mandate accurate
operating, maintenance, and replacement recommendations.

METAL SAMPLES FOR STRENGTH TESTING | SOURCE: DEDMITYAY,

ISTOCK
ADVANTAGES OF DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
• Verifies properties of a material
• Determines quality of welds
• Helps to reduce failures, accidents and costs
• Provides materials characterization
• Determines impact resistance
• Analyses ductility
• Can produce knowledge about yield and ultimate tensile strength,
fracture toughness and fatigue strength.
• Can form a key part of engineering critical assessments
• Can find fabrication validation
• Predicting service life
Destructive testing and material verification can also can also be
included in structural welding tests to look at the properties of welds
following fabrication. Welds have to be equal to, or better than, the
material properties that the pieces have joined, so destructive testing
can be carried out on representative weld samples, known as coupons,
to confirm the properties of the weld.

WELD SAMPLE
INDUSTRIES THAT USE DESTRUCTIVE
MATERIAL TESTING
INDUSTRIES THAT USE DESTRUCTIVE TESTING INCLUDE:
• Aerospace
• Automotive
• Chemical
• Construction
• Electrical Engineering
• Fabrication
• Infrastructure
• Manufacturing
• Oil & Gas
• Pipeline
• Power Generation
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
TECHNICIANS
Occupations that conduct destructive tests include:
• Chemists
• Electrochemical process experts
• Failure analysis experts
• Material scientists
• Metallurgical and polymer engineers
• Quality control analysts
• Regulatory compliance experts
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
The most common types of destructive testing methods are:
• Aggressive environment testing
• Corrosion testing
• Fatigue testing
• Hardness testing
• Hydrogen testing
• Residual stress measurement
• Software testing
• Tensile (elongation) testing
• Torsion testing
AGGRESSIVE ENVIRONMENT
TESTING
Aggressive environment testing is used to test fatigue and fracture points of a
component when it is exposed to corrosive environments at different pressures
and temperatures. Tests mimic the environment where components will be
operating.
Examples of corrosive environments include those that contain:
• Salinity
• Humidity
• Hydrogen sulfide
• Carbon dioxide
• And other natural elements
CORROSION TESTING

Corrosion testing tests a component’s corrosion point when it is exposed to

saltwater and freshwater. This covers non-toxic, small-scale, aqueous
corrosion testing in a variety of different environments including fresh and sea
water.

Corroded pipes
HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness testing determines whether a component undergoes permanent
deformation under stress using the Rockwell scale. How much a material
resists indentation is what determines hardness. This test determines how well
a component will perform over time and how long it can be in use.

Hardness testing
FRACTURE AND MECHANICAL
TESTING
This includes different types of destructive testing methods such as tension
tests, bend tests, Charpy impact tests, Pellini drop weight testing, peel tests,
crush testing, pressure and fracture testing. As well as the testing of metals,
fracture and mechanical tests can be carried out on different materials, such as
welded polymers including plastic pipes.

FRACTURE AND MECHANICAL

TESTING
SOFTWARE TESTING
This includes different types of destructive testing methods such as tension
tests, bend tests, Charpy impact tests, Pellini drop weight testing, peel tests,
crush testing, pressure and fracture testing. As well as the testing of metals,
fracture and mechanical tests can be carried out on different materials, such as
welded polymers including plastic pipes.
HYDROGEN TESTING
This type of testing covers materials that have a risk of corrosion from exposure
to hydrogen. These tests can be carried out at a variety of different temperatures
and strain rates.

HYDROGEN EXPOSURE TESTING

RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT
Residual stress measurement measures the internal stress of a component and
its effect on the surface stress. These measurements allow engineers to analyze
residual stress distribution. Here are three methods that can be used in residual
stress measurement:
• Neutron diffraction
• Synchrotron diffraction
• X-ray diffraction

Charpy Impact Testing at The Test House

RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT
Residual stress measurement measures the internal stress of a component and
its effect on the surface stress. These measurements allow engineers to analyze
residual stress distribution. Here are three methods that can be used in residual
stress measurement:
• Neutron diffraction
• Synchrotron diffraction
• X-ray diffraction
 “
Fatigue testing
Have you ever
tried biking ?
Fatigue
● Handlebars and wheels are subjected
to high alternating mechanical loads.
● Aircraft experience quite different
stressors during take-off and in
turbulence then on the ground this
type of loading is generally termed
fatigue loading and the material
response to it fatigue.

● Railway bridge seemingly totally

addressed alternately has bear the
additional burden of a heavy freight
train and then only it's own mass.
 A fatigue test helps determine a
material’s ability to withstand cyclic
fatigue loading conditions. By design,
a material is selected to meet or
exceed service loads that are
What is the anticipated in fatigue testing
fatigue test? applications. Cyclic fatigue tests
Determining the lifespan of a material subjected produce repeated loading and
to cyclic loading unloading in tension, compression,
bending, torsion or combinations of
these stresses. Fatigue tests are
commonly loaded in tension –
tension, compression – compression
and tension into compression and
reverse.
Fatigue testing
What is the Purpose of Fatigue Testing?
Usually the purpose of a
fatigue test is to determine A fatigue test is also used
the lifespan that may be for the determination of the
expected from a material maximum load that a
subjected to cyclic loading, sample can withstand for a
however fatigue strength specified number of cycles.
and crack resistance are All of these characteristics
commonly sought values as are extremely important in
well. The fatigue life of a any industry where a
material is the total number material is subject to
of cycles that a material fluctuating instead of
can be subjected to under a constant forces.
single loading scheme.
How to Perform a Fatigue Test?

To perform a fatigue test a sample is

loaded into a fatigue tester or fatigue
test machine and loaded using the pre-
determined test stress, then unloaded to
either zero load or an opposite load.
This cycle of loading and unloading is
then repeated until the end of the test is
reached. The test may be run to a pre-
determined number of cycles or until
the sample has failed depending on the
parameters of the test.
The term fatigue is used because it takes some
time for the failure to occur under repeated loads.
Fatigue testing machine is equipped with a mechanical resonance drive. The
specimen is connected at its left grip via a load cell to the machine frame; at the
right grip a spring is mounted and there in turn a mass imbalance stimulates the
mass to vibrate longitudinal, guides prevent the mass from vibrating in the transverse
direction via the spring. The test force acts on the specimen by varying the excitation
frequency of the imbalance. The test force can be controlled in our case the specimen is
loaded with about 25 cycles per second.
The way we get an impression of the range of scattering to compare materials in
a fair way different cyclic loads are converted to the respective stresses acting in
the specimen in the case the stress alternates waveform around the mean value
which is termed mean stress Sigma M. In this series of tests the mean is zero the
stress amplitude is labeled with a symbol sigma a.
For graphical presentation the SN diagram is used also termed ruler diagram in an
unusual manner. The predetermined variable is plotted upwards on the y axis it is
the stress amplitude sigma a and the result of the test the number of cycles to
failure n is plotted to the right on the x-axis to fit small and large numbers into the
diagram the x axis is not scaled linearly but logarithmically. The results are
displayed as a curve it becomes clear that this material will not break below a
certain level of stress amplitude even after a very large number of cycles this
stress level is termed fatigue limit sigma A.
Thanks!

111