MODULE – 1

Computer Networks
It is an interconnection of two or more computers together for sharing information, resources
and communications. When a computer is connected to a network then, we call it as nodes.
Father of internet- Vint Cerf
Network Architectures
Network architectures are classified into two groups:
1. Client Server model
• Client: it is a computer (Host) i.e. capable of receiving information or using a
particular service from the service providers (Servers).
• Servers: it is a remote computer which provides information (data) or access to
particular services.
So, Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as its present in the
database. There is a fixed separation between client and server.

2. Peer-to-Peer Model (P2P)

In the P2P network architecture, the computers connect with each other in a workgroup
to share files, and access to internet and printers. There is no fixed separation between
client and a server. All nodes will act as both the client and server.

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 Applications of Networks
1. Resource sharing
Printers, scanners, files
2. Information sharing
Files, documents
3. Communication
Email, call, message broadcast, social media
4. Entertainment
Gaming, simulation games, movie, live programs, music
5. Access to remote database
Hotel reservations, airplane booking, online newspapers, automated library
6. Home applications
Instant messaging, managing bank account(e-banking), share movies, music, videos,
e-commerce, e-ticketing
7. Business applications
Without moving to the physical location of the resource, we can access it, used for
advertising, e-commerce.
Forms of e-commerce
1. B2C (Business to Customer)- ordering books
2. B2B (Business to Business)- car manufacturer ordering tires from supplier
3. G2C (Government to Customer)- distributing tax forms to customer (online).
4. C2C (Customer to Customer)- second hand products buying and selling
8. Mobile users
Portable devices like mobile, laptop, smart watches, wearable devices
9. Social media
Realtime communications, blog, vlog, discussion forums, social issues
10. Education
Distant learning, online classes, digital library, online publication medium
11. Weather forecasting

Advantages of Computer Networks

1. Ease of accessibility
Computer networks provide easy accessibility to resources, information, and online services
from anywhere. Users can work remotely, access educational resources, and retrieve personal
files. Communication and collaboration are seamless through email, instant messaging, and
video conferencing.
2. Flexibility
Flexibility means that different people will be able to explore different things as per their
requirements.

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3. Convenient resource sharing
The main aim of a computer network is to enable sharing of resources among its users. You
can use resources such as printers, scanners and photocopy machines that can be shared
across multiple users. This resource sharing is important for big companies as they can use
one single common network to connect with their employees.
4. Connectivity
Computer networks improve connectivity irrespective of a person's location.
5. Security
Computer networks provide security through authorization. Authorization is done via user ID
and password.
6. Great storage capacity
Organizations have an abundance of data that needs to be stored. For that purpose, they are
required to store them in a central server. A central server is a remote server that is accessible
to every employee. So, if in case one loses the data, others have it.
7. Reduced cost
A central server is used that enables companies to store files in one place, thus reducing file
storage expenses.
8. Enhanced Collaboration
With a computer network, individuals can easily share files, documents, and information with
each other, making it easier to work together on projects and tasks. This can lead to increased
productivity and efficiency in the workplace. Additionally, computer networks often include
communication tools such as email and instant messaging, allowing for real-time
communication and collaboration regardless of physical location.
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
1. Lack of robustness
Computer networks rely on the main server called the central server. If the central server
malfunctions or there is an issue in the central server, then the entire network will stop
functioning. So, this is a major disadvantage due to dependency on a single server.
2. Spread of computer virus
As computers in a network are interconnected, there is a high probability that if one of the
computers is affected by the virus, others too can get affected. This spread can actually
damage the entire system. Also, if the central server gets corrupted, then it's quite dangerous
as the network depends on the central server.
3. Costly to set-up and maintain
While computer networks save costs in terms of resource sharing and data storage, they also

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have an implementation cost. Moreover, maintaining computer networks is a costly and
time-consuming affair.
4. Lack of productivity
Since a network has a lot of advantages and applications, it certainly results in the
simultaneous use of many services that cause distraction. Thus, due to employees focusing on
a myriad of tasks, productivity issues are quite common.
5. Health issues
Computer network provides access to a gamut of services including entertainment, gaming,
and movies. These result in making you addicted to the content and thus result in overuse of
these services.
7. Unauthorized access
Hackers can exploit vulnerabilities in the network infrastructure or gain access to sensitive
information through one compromised device. This can lead to the theft of personal or
confidential data, financial loss, and damage to the reputation of individuals or organizations.

Network Topologies
Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and how these components are
connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
• Point to Point Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Tree Topology
• Hybrid Topology
1. Point to Point Topology
➢ Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality
of the sender and receiver.
➢ It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the
sender and the other one is the receiver.
➢ Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

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 2. Bus Topology
➢ In which every computer and network device is connected to a single cable.
➢ It is bi-directional.
➢ It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes.
➢ CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) protocol is used. Each node must
monitor the bus before sending the messages.

Advantages of Bus Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used
• cost of the cable is less
• easy installation
• no limit to connect the nodes to the network
• CSMA/CD (Collision Detection) and CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) is the most
common method for this type of topology.
• Used to build small networks
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
• quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the backbone cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA etc.

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 • Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Less security
• Not suitable for long distance communication.
3. Ring Topology
➢ it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighbouring devices.
➢ A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
➢ it is unidirectional
➢ it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
➢ In this, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations (nodes) to
transmit the data.

• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the

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 token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• high-speed data transmission
• possibility of collision is minimum
• Cheap to install and expand.
• less costly
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
• Less secure.
4. Star Topology
➢ In this, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
➢ This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node.
➢ The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
➢ protocols (Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)/ CD etc.

Advantages of Star Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N.
• it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.

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 • It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect the failure.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

5. Mesh Topology
➢ In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel.
➢ the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols)
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
➢ mainly used in military communications

➢ N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology

the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1.
[ In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total
number of ports required by each device is 4]
The total number of ports required = N * (N-1)
➢ No: of links= N(N-1)/2
[there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links
required is 5*4/2 = 10]
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Fast communication
• robust.

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 • Reliable (the fault is diagnosed easily)
• Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• High cost
• Maintenance cost is high.
6. Tree Topology
➢ This topology is the variation of the Star topology.
➢ various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater
➢ bidirectional
➢ not robust
➢ mainly used in large organozations

Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows the networks to get isolated.
• Easy to add new nodes to existing network.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• High cost due to cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

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 7. Hybrid Topology
➢ combination of all the various types of topologies
➢ It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a
combination of various types of topologies
➢ Each individual topology uses the protocol
➢ Mainly used in university campus

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• very flexible.
• can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
• challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• requires a lot of cabling and network devices.

Network Hardware
Two important dimensions for computer network is Transmission technology and Scale

1. Transmission Technology
Transmission media is basically divided into two categories: Broadcast Networks,
Point-to-Point Networks.
a) Broadcast Networks
Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial networks.
➢ basically, a group of radio stations, television stations, or any other electronic
media outlets that simply generate agreement to air, or broadcast, content
generally from a centralized source.
➢ Broadcasting is simply a method of transferring messages to all the
recipients simultaneously.

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 Broadcasting
➢ Multicasting is a classification of broadcasting
➢ Multicasting- sending data from one source to a group of users (single
multicast address)

Multicasting
Advantages of Broadcast Networks
• In this network, packets are generally transmitted and received by all of computers.
• It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as required.
• It ensures better utilization of all resources available.
Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks –
• It cannot accommodate huge number of devices.
• It doesn’t allow personalization of message.
• Not all devices may be interested in the data
• Less secure
• High latency

b) Point-to-Point Networks
➢ Connects two computers together
➢ Single dedicated link between two devices
➢ Same as Unicasting
➢ Unicasting -message send from one sender to one receiver

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 Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks
• It increases productivity.
• Guaranteed delivery
• More secure
• Low latency
• Less traffic
Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks
• we can only connect two sites.
• very expensive for distant locations.

2. Scale
Scale in network is the distance or coverage area of the network. According to the
scale, there are different types of networks:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

➢ PAN is the most basic type of computer network.
➢ This network is restrained to a single person, that is, communication between
the computer devices is centred only on an individual’s workspace.
➢ network range of 5 to 10 meters
➢ Its transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance
➢ very low cost.
➢ It works with other technologies like RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)
➢ RFID- it uses radio waves to identify a tagged object.
➢ Uses a master-slave architecture
➢ Example: Bluetooth

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 2. Local Area Network (LAN)
➢ LAN is the most frequently used network.
➢ connects computers through a common communication path, contained
within a limited area, that is, locally (within a room, office or building)
➢ coverage area is 10- 1000 mtrs (up to 1km)
➢ The two important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet
and Wi-Fi.
➢ When LANs are used by companies then we call it as Enterprise networks
➢ speed is very high with easy maintenance and low cost.
LAN networks are classified into two: Wired LAN and wireless LAN
Wired LAN
Wired LAN is also known as Ethernet
Speed between 100Mbps- 1Gbps
IEEE standard is IEEE802.3

Wireless LAN

Speed between 11Mbps to 100 Mbps

IEEE standard id IEEE 802.11
Eg: Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

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VLAN (Virtual LAN)
VLAN is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on layer 2 (data link layer).

Power-Line Networks
Nodes are connected through electric lines.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
➢ A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
➢ connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared
communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.
➢ range from 5km to 50km.
➢ Its transmission speed is 10- 100Mbps.
➢ It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost.
➢ Error rate is less
➢ Uses hybrid topology
➢ Example of wireless MAN is WiMAX (Worldwide interoperability for
microwave access)
Examples: networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple
buildings, cable networks etc.

➢ Handled by a person or organisation

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Advantages

• Used for resource sharing

• Data exchange
• High security
• Provides backup and recovery
• Provides disaster recovery (restore functions and access by providing a secondary
channel for communications)
• Centralized management
Disadvantages

• Security problems (hacking)

• Scalability (Increases complexity)
• Reliability issues
• Interoperability (different LAN uses different technologies and protocols)
• High cost
• Latency problem (depends on distance between two LANs)

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

➢ WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path.
➢ Router- it is a networking device which transfers packets and also
interconnects LANs.
➢ extends over many locations.
➢ defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each other
with a range above 50km.
➢ transmission speed is very low
➢ very high maintenance and very high cost.
Example of WAN is the Internet.

Advantages

• higher capacity
• resource sharing

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 • large coverage area
• large scalability
Disadvantages

• traffic congestion
• Fault tolerance ability is very less
Fault Tolerance – ability of network to continue operating properly in the event of
failure of two or more faults within some of its components
• Chance of noise and error
• Slow data rate
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
➢ A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network using the public
network with the help of tunnelling protocols.
➢ It is a technology that creates a safe and encrypted connection over a less secure
network such as internet
➢ Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network
remotely.
➢ user can be a part of the local network sitting at a remote location
➢ can be used as legally or illegally
➢ masking IP address- hides their browsing activity, identity and location
➢ VPN protects you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a
protected network connection.

Network Software
Network software is used to describe a wide range of software that streamlines the
operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.
Protocol hierarchies
Protocol is simply defined as a set of rules and regulations for data communication. Rules are
basically defined for each and every step and process at time of communication among two
or more computers. Networks are needed to follow these protocols to transmit the data
successfully.
There are three aspects of protocols given below :
• Syntax – It is used to explain data format that is needed to be sent or received.
• Semantics – It is used to explain exact meaning of each of sections of bits that are
usually transferred.
• Timings – It is used to explain exact time at which data is generally transferred along
with speed at which it is transferred.

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Generally, Computer networks are comprised of or contain a large number of pieces of
hardware and software.

• To simplify network design, various networks are organized and arranged as a stack of
layers of hardware and software, one on top of another.
• function of each layer might vary and can be different from one network to another.
• The main purpose of each of layers is just to offer and provide services to higher layers
• Each and every layer has some particular task or function. simply to reduce and
minimize complexity of design of network software.

Example :
Below is diagram representing a five-layer network.

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Advantages :
• The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between networks
• It increases network lifetime.
• It also uses energy efficiently.
• It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.
Design issues of layering approach
1. Reliability
• Error detection
• Error correction
2. Routing
3. Protocol layering
4. Internetworking
• Addressing
• reassembling
5. Scalability
• For large network traffic will be high
• High error rate
• Data loss
6. Flow control
• Controlling the flow of both sender and receiver
7. Congestion
• More computers are sending message at the same time traffic should be high
8. Real-time delivery
9. QoS (Quality of service)
• Correctness and time of delivery
10. Security
• Confidentiality
• Authentication
• Integrity
Connection-oriented and connection-less services
Connection-oriented service is related to the telephone system. It includes connection
establishment and connection termination. In a connection-oriented service, the Handshake
method is used to establish the connection between sender and receiver.

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 Primitive Meaning

Listen waiting for incoming connection request.

Connect establishing connection

Accept accepts incoming connection from the peer.

Receive waiting for an incoming message.

Send sends or transfer the message to the peer.

Disconnect terminate or end the connection

Connection-less service is related to the postal system. It does not include any connection
establishment and connection termination. Connection-less Service does not give a
guarantee of reliability. In this, Packets do not follow the same path to reach their
destination.

REFERENCE MODELS

OSI model (Open System Interconnection)

• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.

• It was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for Standardization’, in the
year 1984.
• It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform.

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The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:
1. Physical Layer – Layer 1
• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model.
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
• It contains information in the form of bits.
• It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full-duplex.

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 • Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
• It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to
the Host using its MAC address.
• The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending
on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card).
• DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) .

• Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

• Protocol Use : ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol)
Functions of the Data Link Layer
• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished
by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.
3. Network Layer – Layer 3
• It works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

• Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

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 • Protocol Use : IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
Functions of the Network Layer
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source
to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed
in the header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device
uniquely and universally.
4. Transport Layer – Layer 4
• The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from
the network layer.
• This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into
smaller units this process is known as Segmentation.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End-to-End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

• Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and

communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.

• The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.

• Protocol Use : TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Functions of the Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session)
layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has
a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station
reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port
address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the
message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
5. Session Layer – Layer 5
• This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.

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 • Protocol Use : RTCP (Real Time Control Protocol) , PAP (Password Authentication
Protocol), PPTP (Point-to-point Tunneling Protocol)
Functions of the Session Layer
• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not
cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Token Management:
6. Presentation Layer – Layer 6
• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
• The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is
known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
7. Application Layer – Layer 7
• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network
and for displaying the received information to the user.
• The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
• Protocol Use : SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
Functions of the Application Layer
The main functions of application layer are given below.
• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

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 • FTAM- File transfer access and management: This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.
• Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD).

• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.
• It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.
• The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another.
The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver
will receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and
combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

1. Network Access Layer

• It is a combinations of physical layer and data link layer in OSI reference model.

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 • This layer is responsible for generating the data and requesting connections.
• Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer.
• Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two
examples of data-link layer protocols.
• It is also known as Link layer
2. Internet Layer

• This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer.

• It defines the protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data
over the entire network.
The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
• IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet
headers.
• ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
• ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy
ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols
that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from
one device to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP
address, which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets should
take to reach it.
3. Transport Layer

• The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error.
• Ensures end-to-end communication.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
• TCP: TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission
rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the
whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection
make up this transmission.
• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.

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4. Application Layer

• It is same as the transport layer of the OSI model.

• It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data.
The three main protocols present in this layer are:
• HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS
stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer).
• SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is similar to Telnet. It is used to maintain the
encrypted connection.
• NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on
our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions.
Some common functions of transport layer are:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably
between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For
example, if a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can
request that the packet be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up
large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network,
and then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted
more efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
3. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented
service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the
need for intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet Protocols is
how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some Common Internet Protocols
include:
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and
Websites.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent over the
Internet.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive data.

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 Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

TCP/IP OSI

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

TCP/IP uses both the session and

OSI uses different session and
presentation layer in the application
presentation layers.
layer itself.

TCP/IP follows connectionless a

OSI follows a vertical approach.
horizontal approach.

The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In the OSI model, the transport layer
provide assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.

While in the OSI model, Protocols are

Protocols cannot be replaced easily in
better covered and are easy to replace
TCP/IP model.
with the technology change.

TCP/IP model network layer only

Connectionless and connection-
provides connectionless (IP) services.
oriented services are provided by the
The transport layer (TCP) provides
network layer in the OSI model.
connections.

Examples of Networks
1. Internet
• Collection of different networks
• ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network)
The First internet was implemented in 1969. IMP (Interface message
Processor)- first generation of gateways. Which are known as todays
Routers. Packet switching techniques were used in the ARPANET to
interconnect different nodes.
• NSFNET( National Science Foundation NET)
NSF decided to build a backbone network to connect six super

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 computer centers, which contains microcomputers called Fuzzball.
• ANSNET (Advanced Network and Servives)
As the growth continued, NSF realised that the government could not
continue financing for networking. So they added some commercial
organizations called ANSNET.
• NAP (Network Access Point)
For the easy transmission, make sure that every regional network
could communicate with every other regional network
• Access Methods
Different access methods are available for accessing networks that are
dia-up, DSL, ISDN, cable, satellite, cellular network, mobile network,
wi-fi, wi-max , Optical Fiber (FTTH- Fiber-To-The-Home)
2. Mobile Phone Network
• 1G
Analog signals are used in this generation, only voice calls are
available.
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) technology was used.
• 2G
Voice calls in digital form. Text messaging was available in this
generation.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Services), EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for
GSM connection) technologies were used
• 3G
Digital and broad band services were used in this generation.
Technologies used:
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems)
HSPA (H)- High Speed Packet Access- 14 Mbps
HSPA+(H+) - 42 Mbps
• 4G
Faster and better.
Technologies used:
LTE(Long Term Evolution)- 300mbps data speed
VoLTE(Voice Over LTE)- advanced version of LTE
• 5G
VoLTE technology is used.
3. Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11)
802.11 networks made of clients such as laptops, mobile phones.
Ad hoc network
The devices communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a base
station or access points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-ordination.

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 Multipath Fading
In radio communication, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that
results in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths.

4. RFID and Sensor Networks

RFID(Radio frequency Identifier)
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) refers to a wireless system comprised of
two components: RFID tags and readers. The reader is a device that has one
or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the RFID
tag. Tag contains a microchip. RFID tags are installed on tracking fields. Two
types of RFID:
• Active RFID- power source on tag
• Passive RFID- energy supplied from radio waves.
According to the frequency there are two types RFID: HF RFID (High Frequency) and LF RFID
(Low Frequency).
Sensor Networks
Interconnection of two or more sensor nodes are known as sensor networks. Each sensor
nodes in sensor networks are known as Motes. Each sensor node contains four parts:

• Sensing unit
• Processing unit
• Communication Unit
• Power unit

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 Transmission media
Purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another. According to
the type of medium used we can divide the transmission media into two: Guided and
Unguided transmission media.
Guided Transmission Media (Wired Media)
A physical medium is used to transfer the information bits from one computer to another is
known as guided media. Wired communication media are also known as Guided media and
are a type of Transmission media. This type of communication is the most stable which is why
it is considered better than wireless. In wired communication media, wire is used to transfer
data from source to destination. Various guided medias are:
Magnetic media

• Magnetic tape or removable media (DVD, Disk) are used to get the information in the
destination machine.
• The receiver can read the data from magnetic disks
Advantages
1. Minimum cost
2. Limited delay
3. Portable
4. Reliable
Disadvantages
1. Virus
2. Data will be lost due to damage

Twisted pair cable

• Two twisted pairs of cables or wires made up of insulated copper.

• These wires or cables are 1mm in diameter.
• The twisted-pair cable is made up of 2 copper wires (insulated) arranged in a spiral
pattern.
• Noise interference is more often the problem in these cables

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Types of Twisted pair cables are:-
• Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
• Shielded Twisted pair (STP)
1. Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
• UTP cables are the most common twisted pair cables that are used in computer
networks as well as in telecommunication.
• These cables are made up of 4 color-coded copper wires twisted together to cancel
the disturbances from outer sources and electromagnetic interference.
• There are different categories of UTP cables used for telecommunication and other
purposes.
Category 1: used for telephone lines
Category 2: up to 4 Mbps
Category 3: up to 16 Mbps
Category 4: up to 20 Mbps
Category 5: up to 200 Mbps

Advantages
• These cables are cheaper.
• The maintenance cost is low.
• It doesn’t require any ground wire.
Disadvantages
• The transmission rate of data is slow.
• Noise is high in these cables.
2. Shielded Twisted pair cables (STP)
• Shielded twisted pair cables are costlier and consist of metal foil sometimes made
up of insulated conductors.
• eliminates noise.
• used to reduce crosstalk
Crosstalk :- interference due to unwanted electromagnetic coupling

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 • cables are used for both Analog and digital transmissions.

Advantages
• The transmission rate of data is fast.
• Noise is slow in these cables.
Disadvantages
• expensive
• difficult to maintain
• difficult to install
Co-axial cable

• used in various applications like tv wires and ethernet connection setup, radio
transmission antenna, digital audio
• it is a form of transmission media that consists of two conductors kept parallel to
each other.
• It has a central core conductor of a solid copper wire enclosed in an insulating sheet
and the middle core conductor is made up of copper mesh and lastly an outer
metallic wrap that helps in noise cancellation.
• The whole cable is covered and protected by a plastic cover.
• the higher frequency ranges.
• Coaxial cables are best suited for shorter distances
• Cost and maintenance are also less, unlike fiber optic cables
• durability of these cables is more.

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Advantages

• inexpensive
• better noise immunity
• Easy to install
• Higher bandwidth
Disadvantages

• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Fiber-optic cables

• Also known as optic fiber cables are highly efficient and advanced data transmission
cables that allow the transfer of data in a very large volume.
• Fiber optic cables allow data transmission with the help of electrical signals.
• These are thin pipes made up of glass or plastic known as optic fibres and data or
information flows via light in these cables.
• With higher bandwidth and high-quality performance optic fibre cables are best
suited for long-distance data transfer and communication.
• It consists of three major parts named core, Cladding and Outer jacket.
Here, the Core is a thin part of the glass of the optic fiber cable and cladding is the insulation
around the core coating is the protective layer for the optical fiber the strengthening part
allows protection to the core and at last outer jacket for the whole optic fiber tube.

Application
• One of the most popular and important uses of Fibre -optic cables is the INTERNET.
• Television broadcasting
• Medical purposes
• Defence purposes
• Industrial purposes

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Advantages

• Increased data capacity and bandwidth

• Lightweight
• Less noise problems
• Immunity to electromagnetic interferences
• Resistance to crosstalk
Disadvantages

• Difficult to install
• Difficult to maintain
• High cost
• Bending may cause the network access

Unguided Transmission media (Wireless Media)

• No physical link between 2 or more devices.
• Communicating wirelessly.
• Antenna attached to the circuit of computer or wireless device for converting digital
data to wireless data (receiver can convert back to digital data).

Radio waves Microwave Infrared Visible light

3Hz 1GHz 300 GHz 400THz 900

THz

1. Radio Transmission
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions
of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional (the signals are propagated in all the directions).
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3KHz to 1 GHz.
o It can penetrate through walls and structures.
o Used in indoor and outdoor applications, military applications
o It can be used for long distance communications without repeaters
o LoS is not required.
LoS (Line of Sight):- imaginary line between sender and receiver
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio

Advantages

• High Frequency radio waves can travel in straight line

• Low frequency radio waves can penetrate through walls
• No need to align

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 Disadvantages

• Interference between the user is the problem

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

2. Microwaves

o Microwaves are of two types:

Terrestrial microwave (Within the earth)
Satellite microwave communication (beyond the earth)

Terrestrial Microwave communication

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam
of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o frequency in the range from 1GHz to 300 GHz.
o unidirectional
o uses parabolic antennas
o It works on the line-of-sight (LoS) transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.
o When direction changes, it cannot work
o Works for small distance
Advantages
o cheaper than using cables.
o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

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 Disadvantages
o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious
user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can
distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than
cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
o The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies
the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Advantages
o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the centre
of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages
o designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years.

3. Infrared
o used for communication over short ranges (small distance communication).
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.
o It will not be affected by the use of other systems in the next room
o Mainly used in indoor applications
o the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.

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 o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.
Advantages

• Cheap
• Easy to build
• High data rate
Disadvantages

• Cannot be used for long distance communications

• Unreliable in outdoor applications (sun rays contain infrared rays)
• Cannot penetrate through obstacles

4. Light wave transmission ( VLC- Visible Light Communication)

• visible light communication (VLC) is the use of visible light with a frequency of 400–
900 THz
• it is a subset of optical wireless communications technologies.
• Using LASER technology (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
• Signals travel in straight line
• LoS is needed
• Unidirectional
• Two devices need to be installed: Laser (Tx) and Photodetector (Rx)
• Cannot penetrate through obstacles
Advantages
• Safe data transmission (difficult to tap)
Disadvantages
• Costly

Satellite Communications
• An artificial body which is placed in an orbit around the earth for the purpose of
communication is known as satellite communication.
• consists of various artificial communication satellites orbiting around the earth for
the purpose of communication.
• A satellite network is a combination of nodes that provides communication from one
point on the Earth to another.
• A node in the network can be Satellite, an Earth station, or an End-user terminal or
Telephone.
• Satellite networks are like cellular networks, they divide the planet into cells.
• Electromagnetic waves are used as carriers
• Managed by Government or private organizations

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• Used for various applications: radio, TV, military applications etc.

Earth Station Earth station

• The frequencies reserved for the satellite microwave communication are in GHz
range.
• Each satellite sends and receives over two different bands.
• Transmission from earth to satellite is called the Uplink. Transmission from the
satellite to the earth is called the Downlink.
• Uplink and downlink frequencies must be different to avoid interference.
• Now, stations at the earth have greater power sources than that of satellite as it has
only solar power.

• Satellite has two segments:

Space segment- communication satellite
Earth segment- earth stations

• Orbit
An artificial satellite needs to have an orbit, the path in which it travels around the
Earth.
• Satellite process microwaves with bidirectional antennas. Therefore, the signal from
the satellite is normally aimed at a specific area called the footprint.

• Two types of satellites:

one-way communication satellite: -involves the transmission of signals in a single
direction.
two-way communication satellite: -involves the transmission of signals in both
directions – between the satellite and the ground station.

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 Two-way satellite communication
Satellite Categories
Based on the purpose and location of the orbit, satellites can be divided into three
categories as follows

GEO:
• GEO stands for Geostationary Earth Orbit.
• The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about 36000 km
above the earth’s surface
• orbital time period is about 24 hours.
• Geostationary Orbit Satellites are used for radio broadcasting.
• To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same speed as
the earth, so that it seems to remain fixed above a certain spot. So such satellites are
called geostationary.
• minimum of three GEOs are needed for global coverage.
MEO:
• MEO stands for Medium Earth Orbit.
• The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about 6000 to
20,000 km above the earth’s surface.
• orbit takes approximately 2 to 8 hours to circle the Earth.

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 • One Example of a MEO satellite system is Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Need 10 MEOs for global coverage
LEO:
• LEO stands for Low Earth Orbit.
• orbit operates at a distance of about 500 to 1200 km above the earth’s surface
• orbital time period generally ranges between 95 to 120 minutes.
• makes global radio coverage possible.
• Need 50 LEOs for global coverage

Advantages

• Large coverage area

• Easy installation
Disadvantages

• Expensive (Initial)
• Interference problem

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41