Chapter One

Relativity
Outline:
Invariance of Physical Laws
The Michelson Morley Experiment
The Special Theory of Relativity
The Lorentz Transformation
Time Dilation and Length Contraction
Velocity Transformation
Twin Paradox
Relativistic Mass and Momentum
Equivalence of Mass and Energy
Relativity and Electromagnetism
General Relativity
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Invariance of Physical Laws

Newtonian (Classical) Relativity:

 It is assumed that newton’s laws of motion
must be measured with respect to (relative
to) some reference frame.

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Inertial Reference Frame
A reference frame is called an Inertial Frame if
Newton laws are valid in that frame.
In such a frame, an object at rest remains at rest
and an object in motion continues to move at
constant velocity if no force acts on it.
Any frame of reference frame that moves at
constant velocity relative inertial frame is itself
an inertial frame.

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Newtonian principle of relativity
All inertial frames are equally valid.
There is no universal frame of reference that can
be used everywhere, no such thing as “absolute
motion”.
This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of
relativity or Galilean invariance.

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Inertial Frames K and K’

K is at rest and K’ is moving with velocity

Axes are parallel.
K and K’ are said to be Inertial Coordinate Systems.
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The Galilean Transformation
For a point P
 In system K: P = (x, y, z, t)

 In system K’: P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

x P

K K’
x’-axis
x-axis

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Conditions of the Galilean Transformation
Parallel axes
K’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction
with respect to K

Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental

Invariant, i.e., the same for all inertial observers.

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The Inverse Relations
Step 1. Replace with .
Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with
“unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed.”

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Modern Relativity

Although Newton’s laws of motion had

the same form under the Galilean
transformation, Maxwell’s equations did
not.
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a
fundamental connection between space
and time and that Newton’s laws are
only an approximation.
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Cont’d…
The theory of relativity deals with
consequences of the lack of a universal
frame of reference.
Special relativity treats problems that
involve the inertial frame of reference.
General relativity describes the
relationship between gravity and the
geometrical structure of space and time.

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The Need for Aether

The wave nature of light suggested that

there existed a propagation medium
called the Luminiferous Aether or just
ether.
 Ether had to have such a low density that the planets
could move through it without loss of energy

 It also had to have an elasticity to support the high

velocity of light waves

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Maxwell’s Equations
In Maxwell’s theory the speed of light, in
terms of the permeability and
permittivity of free space, was given by

Thus the velocity of light between

moving systems must be a constant.

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An Absolute Reference System

Ether was proposed as an absolute

reference system in which the speed of
light was this constant and from which
other measurements could be made.
The Michelson-Morley experiment was
an attempt to show the existence of ether.

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The Michelson-Morley Experiment

Albert Michelson (1852–1931) received

the Nobel Prize for Physics (1907), and
built an extremely precise device called
an interferometer to measure the minute
phase difference between two light
waves traveling in mutually orthogonal
directions.

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The Michelson Interferometer

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 Parallel Anti-parallel
velocities velocities
   
vlight v aether v aether vtotal
 
vtotal vlight
vtotal = vlight + v aether vtotal = vlight - v aether
Perpendicular Perpendicular
velocity to mirror velocity after
 mirror
v aether 
vlight 
vtotal
 
vlight vtotal

v aether

=
vtotal vlight 2 − v aether 2 17
The Michelson Interferometer
1. AC is parallel to the motion
of the Earth inducing an “ether
wind”

2. Light from source S is split

by mirror A and travels to
mirrors C and D in mutually
perpendicular directions

3. After reflection the beams

recombine at A slightly out of
phase due to the “ether wind”
as viewed by telescope E.
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Michelson’s Conclusion
Michelson noted that he should be able to
detect a phase shift of light due to the time
difference between path lengths but found
none.
He thus concluded that the hypothesis of the
stationary ether must be incorrect.
After several repeats and refinements with
assistance from Edward Morley (1893-1923),
again a null result.
Thus, ether does not seem to exist!

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The Special Theory of Relativity
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was only two years
old when Michelson reported his first null
measurement for the existence of the ether.
At the age of 16 Einstein began thinking about
the form of Maxwell’s equations in moving
inertial systems.
In 1905, at the age of 26, he published his
startling proposal about the principle of
relativity, which he believed to be fundamental.

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Einstein’s Two Postulates
1) The principle of relativity: The laws of
physics are the same in all inertial systems.
There is no way to detect absolute motion,
and no preferred inertial system exists.
2) The constancy of the speed of light:
Observers in all inertial systems measure the
same value for the speed of light in a vacuum.

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Re-evaluation of Time
In Newtonian physics we previously
assumed that t = t’
 Thus with “synchronized” clocks, events in K
and K’ can be considered simultaneous

Einstein realized that each system must

have its own observers with their own
clocks and meter sticks
 Thus events considered simultaneous in K
may not be in K’
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The Problem of Simultaneity
 Frank at rest is equidistant from events A
and B:

A B
−1 m +1 m
0

 Frank “sees” both flashbulbs go off

simultaneously.
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Cont’d…
 Mary, moving to the right with speed v,
observes events A and B in different order:

−1 m 0 +1 m
A B
 Mary “sees” event B, then A.
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Observation
Two events that are simultaneous in one
reference frame (K) are not necessarily
simultaneous in another reference frame (K’)
moving with respect to the first frame.
This suggests that each coordinate system has its
own observers with “clocks” that are
synchronized…

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Synchronization of Clocks
Step 1: Place observers with clocks throughout
a given system.
Step 2: In that system bring all the clocks
together at one location.
Step 3: Compare the clock readings.
If all of the clocks agree, then the clocks are said
to be synchronized.

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The Lorentz Transformations
The special set of linear transformations that:
i. Preserve the constancy of the speed of
light (c) between inertial observers and
ii. account for the problem of simultaneity
between these observers
known as the Lorentz Transformation
Equations.

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Lorentz Transformation Equations

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Cont’d…
A more symmetric form:

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Properties of γ
Recall β = v/c < 1 for
all observers.
equals 1 only
when v = 0.
Graph:
(note v ≠ c)

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Derivation
Use the fixed system K and the moving system K’
At t = 0 the origins and axes of both systems are
coincident with system K’ moving to the right along the
x axis.
A flashbulb goes off at the origins when t = 0.
According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in
both systems and the wave-fronts observed in both
systems must be spherical.
K K’

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Cont’d…
Spherical wave-fronts in K:

Spherical wave-fronts in K’:

Note: these are not preserved in the classical

transformations with

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Cont’d...
Let x’= (x – vt) so that x = (x’ + vt’)
We want a linear equation (1 solution!!)

1) By Einstein’s first postulate :

2) The wave-front along the x,x’- axis must satisfy:

x = ct and x’ = ct’
3) Thus ct’= (ct – vt) and ct = (ct’+ vt’)

4) Solving the first one above for t’ and substituting

into the second...
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Cont’d…
Gives the following result:

from which we derive:

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Finding a Transformation for t’
Recalling x’= (x – vt) substitute into x = (x’ + vt’)
and solving for t ’ we obtain:

with:

t’ may be written in terms of β (= v/c):

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Cont’d…
Thus, the complete Lorentz Transformation:

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Remarks
1) If v << c, i.e., β ≈ 0 and ≈ 1, we see these
equations reduce to the familiar Galilean
transformation.
2) Space and time are now not separated.
3) For non-imaginary transformations, the frame
velocity cannot exceed c.

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Time Dilation and Length Contraction
Consequences of the Lorentz
Transformation:
 Time Dilation: clocks in K’run slow with
respect to stationary clocks in K.

 Length Contraction: lengths in K’ are

contracted with respect to the same lengths
stationary in K.

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Time Dilation
Measurement of time intervals are
affected by relative motion between an
observer and what is observed.
Hence, a clock that moves w.r.t an
observer ticks more slowly than it does
with out such motion.

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Time Dilation
To understand time dilation the idea of
proper time must be understood:
The term proper time,T0, is the time
difference between two events occurring
at the same position in a system as
measured by a clock at that position.

Same location
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Cont’d…

Not Proper Time

 Beginning and ending of the event occur

at different positions.

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Cont’d…
If someone in a moving spacecraft finds
that the time interval b/n two events in
the spacecraft is T0, we on the ground
would find that the same interval has
longer duration T.
This effect is called time dilation.

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Cont’d…

where
T0 = time interval on clock at rest relative to an
observer (Proper Time)
T’ = time interval on clock in motion relative to an
observer.
V = speed of relative motion
C = speed of light

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Cont’d…
1) T ’ > T0 or the time measured between two
events at different positions is greater than the
time between the same events at one position:
time dilation.
2) The events do not occur at the same space and
time coordinates in the two system
3) System K requires 1 clock and K’requires 2
clocks.

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Example:
A spacecraft is moving relative to earth.
An observer on earth finds that, between
1 P.M. and 2 P.M. according to her clock,
3601 seconds elapse on the spacecraft's
clock. What is the spacecraft’s speed
relative earth?

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Length Contraction
To understand length contraction the idea
of proper length must be understood:
 Let an observer in each system K and K’have
a meter stick at rest in their own system such
that each measure the same length at rest.
 The length as measured at rest is called the
proper length.

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Cont’d…
The length L of an object in motion w.r.t an
observer always appears to the observer to be
shorter than its length L0 when it is at rest w.r.t.
to him. This contraction occurs only in the
direction of the relative motion.
L0 = the proper length
The relativistic shortening of distances
(contraction of lengths) in the direction of
motion:

Hence, L0 > L, i.e. the moving stick shrinks.

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Lorentz v = 10% c
Contraction

v = 80% c

A fast-moving plane
at different speeds.

v = 99% c

v = 99.9% c

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Example:
Muons are created at high altitudes (>6000m)
by fast cosmic-ray particles (largely protons)
from space when they collide with atomic
nuclei in the earth’s surface. A muon has a mass
of 207 time that of electron and has a charge of
+e or -e; it decays into electron or positron after
an average life time of 2.2 µs. Cosmic-ray
muons have a speed of about v = 2.994 x 108
m/s and reach the sea-level in large amount.

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 Muon Decay (Experimental Verification)

The number of muons detected with speeds near 0.98c is much different (a)
on top of a mountain than (b) at sea level, because of the muon’s decay. The
experimental result agrees with our time dilation equation.

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Solution:
Muons can travel a distance only:
 VT0 = 2.994 x 108 m/s x 2.2 x 10-6 s

= 6.6 x 102 m
= 660 m.
 Before decaying, where they are actually
created at altitudes of 6km or more.
To resolve this paradox, we note that the
muons lifetime of T0 = 2.2 µs is what the an
observer at rest w.r.t. a muon would find.

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Cont’d…
Because the muons are hurtling to ward us at a
speed of 0.998c, their life time are extended in
our frame of reference by the time dilation to:

2.2 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
=
1−(0.998)2
= 34.8µs

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Cont’d…

Therefore, the moving muons have the

lifetime 16 times than those at rest in
which they can cover a distance:
 VT’ = 2.994 x 108 m/s x 34.8 x 10-6 s
= 1.04 x 104 m
= 10.4km
 Muons can reach the ground from altitudes
as much as 10.4km.

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Twin Paradox
The Set-up
Twins Frank and Mary at age 20 decide on two career paths: Mary
decides to become an astronaut and to leave on a trip 20 light-years
(ly) from the Earth at a speed of 0.8C and to return; Frank decides to
reside on the Earth.

The Problem
Upon Mary’s return, Frank reasons that her clocks measuring her age
must run slow. As such, she will return younger. However, Mary
claims that it is Frank who is moving and consequently his clocks
must run slow.

The Paradox
Who is younger upon Mary’s return?
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The Resolution
1) Frank’s clock is in an inertial system during the entire
trip; however, Mary’s clock is not. As long as Mary is
traveling at constant speed away from Frank, both of
them can argue that the other twin is aging less rapidly.

2) When Mary slows down to turn around, she leaves her

original inertial system and eventually returns in a
completely different inertial system.

3) Mary’s claim is no longer valid, because she does not

remain in the same inertial system. There is also no
doubt as to who is in the inertial system. Frank feels no
acceleration during Mary’s entire trip, but Mary does.

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Relativistic Momentum
 Linear momentum is defined as:
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
P=
𝑣𝑣
1−( )2
𝑐𝑐

 when v<<c, p = mv (classical momentum)

Relativistic momentum, p = γmv,
1
where γ =
𝑣𝑣 2
1−( )
𝑐𝑐

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Relativistic Energy
Due to the new idea of relativistic mass,
we must now redefine the concepts of
work and energy.
 Therefore, we modify Newton’s second law
to include our new definition of linear
momentum, and force becomes:

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Cont’d…
The work W12 done by a force to move a particle
from position 1 to position 2 along a path is
defined to be

(2.55)

where K1 is defined to be the kinetic energy of the

particle at position 1.

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Cont’d…
 For simplicity, let the particle start from
rest under the influence of the force and
calculate the kinetic energy K after the
work is done.

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Cont’d…

The limits of integration are from an initial value of 0

to a final value of .
…………..(a)
The integral in Equation (a) is straightforward if done
by the method of integration by parts. The result,
called the relativistic kinetic energy, is
…………………(b)

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Relativistic Kinetic Energy
Equation (b) does not seem to resemble the
classical result for kinetic energy, K = ½mu2.
However, if it is correct, we expect it to reduce to
the classical result for low speeds. Let’s see if it
does. For speeds u << c, we expand in a
binomial series as follows:

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Cont’d…
where we have neglected all terms of power
(u/c)4 and greater, because u << c. This gives the
following equation for the relativistic kinetic
energy at low speeds:

…………..(c)
which is the expected classical result. We show
both the relativistic and classical kinetic energies
in Figure 2.31. They diverge considerably above a
velocity of 0.6c.
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Relativistic and Classical Kinetic Energies

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Total Energy and Rest Energy
We rewrite Equation (**) in the form

Total Energy = …….. (d)

The term mc2 is called the rest energy and is denoted by E0.

…………….. (e)
This leaves the sum of the kinetic energy and rest energy to
be interpreted as the total energy of the particle. The total
energy is denoted by E and is given by

………...(f)

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Momentum and Energy

We square this result, multiply by c2, and

rearrange the result.

We use Equation (e) for β2 and find

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Cont’d…
The first term on the right-hand side is just E2, and the second term is
E02. The last equation becomes

We rearrange this last equation to find the result we are seeking, a

relation between energy and momentum.
……….. (g)
or
…………(h)

Equation (g) is a useful result to relate the total energy of a particle

with its momentum. The quantities (E2 – p2c2) and m are invariant
quantities. Note that when a particle’s velocity is zero and it has no
momentum, Equation (g) correctly gives E0 as the particle’s total
energy.
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Electromagnetism and Relativity
Einstein was convinced that magnetic fields
appeared as electric fields observed in another
inertial frame. That conclusion is the key to
electromagnetism and relativity.
Einstein’s belief that Maxwell’s equations describe
electromagnetism in any inertial frame was the key
that led Einstein to the Lorentz transformations.
Maxwell’s assertion that all electromagnetic waves
travel at the speed of light and Einstein’s postulate
that the speed of light is invariant in all inertial
frames seem intimately connected.
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A Conducting Wire

68