Introduction to Engineering

Note For EEE

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Two Types of Source In Electrical Circuits
1. Voltage Source - 1. AC Voltage Source

2. DC Voltage Source

2. Current Source -

Active Component: Transistor,Diode,SCR etc

Passive Component: Resistor,Capacitor,Inductor

Resistor: R - Ω

Capacitor: C - Farad

Inductor: L - Henry

Short Resistor:

Short Capacitor:
Short inductor:

Variable Resistor:

Variable Capacitor:

Variable Inductor:

Define Circuit:
In electrical a circuit is a complete closed path that electricity flows through. An ideal circuit consists
of a source , conductors and various types of components.
Ohm’s Law:
The Amount of Electricity flowing through a certain
conductor at a constant temperature is proportional
to the potential difference between the two ends of
the conductor.

Limitations of OHM’s Law:

1. Holds true only for conductors of constant
temperature.
2. It is not applicable for complex networks.
3. It is not applicable for weak electrical fields
or non-ohmic materials.
4. Doesn’t apply directly to capacitor & inductor.
5. OHM’s law is not applicable to non-linear elements.
6. OHM’s law is not applicable to unilateral networks.
Power:
Power Is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to another form)
can be done is a specified amount of time i,e: a rate of doing work.
Unit—Watt
Denoted—P

𝑤
P= W = FS W = VQ
𝑡
𝑉𝑄
= [ W = VQ ]
𝑡
𝑉𝐼𝑡
= [ Q = It ]
𝑡
P = VI

P =VI | P =VI
𝑉×𝑉 𝑉
P =IR x I [ V = IR ] | = [ I= 𝑅 ]
𝑅
2
2
𝑉
P =I R | P=
𝑅

Series Circuit:
A circuit consists of any number of elements joined at terminal points, providing at least
one closed path through which charge can flow.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of all voltages around a closed loop
is equal to zero. or Source voltage is equal to the sum of drops voltage.

KVL : V = V1 + V2
= V - V1 - V2 = 0
= V+( - V1 - V2 ) = 0
A closed loop is any continuous path that leaves a point in one direction without leaving the circuit.
In figure (**) by flowing the current. We can trace a continuous path that leaves point a through R1
returns through E without leaving the circuit. Therefore abcd is a closed loop for us to be able to
apply Khirchoff’s voltage law the summation of potential rise and drops must be made in one
direction around the closed path.

Consider for clockwise —

1. When potentia rises ( from - to + ) then a plus ( + ) is assigned for voltage drop.
2. When potentia rises ( from + to - ) then a minus ( - ) is assigned for voltage drop.

Voltage Divider Rule:

In a series circuit the voltage across the resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the
resistive level.

Parallel Circuit:
A circuit consisting of any number of elements
joining a common point is called a parallel
circuit.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) :

Kirchhoff’s Current law states that the algebraic
sum of the currents entering and leaving an
area , system or junction is zero. In other words
the sum of the currents entering an area ,
system or junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving an area , system or junction.
Explanation Of KCL:
The most common application of the law will be at the junction
of two or more paths of current flows, as shown in Figure 1. It
is difficult to determine whether a current is entering or leaving
a junction. Initially, one approach that may help is to picture
oneself standing on the junction and treating the path currents
as arrows. If the arrow appears to be heading toward the
junction, as is the case for I1, I2, and I5 in Figure 1, then it
shows entering the junction. It is called entering current. If we
see the tail of the arrow from the junction as it travels out from
the junction, it is called leaving current, as is the case for I3
and I4, which is shown in Figure 1.
Current Divider Rule:
For two parallel elements of equal
value , the current will divide equally.
OR
In parallel circuit elements of different
values, the current will split with a ratio
equal to the inverse of their resistor
values.
Delta AND Star Circuit:
Thevenins’s Theorem:
Any two terminal, Linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source and series resistor.

Step: 1
Remove that position of the network across which the Thevenin equivalent circuit is to be found in
figure requires that the load resistor RL be temporarily removed from the network

Step: 2
Mark The terminals of the remaining two terminal networks.

Step: 3
Calculating Rth by first setting all sources to zero (Voltage Source short
circuit and current source open circuit) and then finding the resultant
resistance between the two mark terminal

Step: 4
Calculate Vth by first returning all sources to their original position and
finding open circuit voltage between the marked terminals.

Step: 5
Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the previously
removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This
step is indicated by placement of the resistor RL between the terminals of
the Thevenin's equivalent circuit.
Superposition Theorem:
The current through or voltage
across an element in a linear bilateral
network is equal to the algebraic sum
of the currents or voltages produced
independently by each source.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
The maximum power transfer
theorem states that a load will
receive max power from a linear
bilateral dc network when its total
resistive value is exactly equal to the
Thevenin resistance of the network
as seen by the load. (When Rth = RL
Power transfer will be maximum)
Magnetic Induction Of B
Let a positive change q. With arbitrary velocity V through a point P. If a
sideways deflection force acts on it we assert that a magnetic field is
present at point P and define the magnetic induction B of this field in terms
of F and other measured quantities . If we vary the direction of V through
point P. Keeping the magnitude of V unchanged we find in general that
although F will always remain at right angles to V. Its magnitude F will
change having found the direction of B. We are now able to orient V So
That the change moves from right angles to B. We will find that the force F is now a
maximum and we define the
magnitude of B from the
measured magnitude of this
maximum force F.

Magnetic Force On Current:

A current is an assembly of moving change because a magnetic field extra sideways force
on a moving change, we expect that it will also exert a sideways force on a wire carrying a
current fig shows a length L of wire carrying a current I and placed in a field of magnetic
induction B . For simplicity we have oriented the wire so that the current density vector J is at
right angles(90o) to B.
The Current I in a metal wire is carried by the force electrons n being the numbers of such
electrons per unit volume of the wire. The magnitude of average force on one such electron
is given by

Where Vd is the drift velocity or speed from the relation

Putting the value Vd in equation — (i)

We get,
The length L of the wire contain nAl free electron ,Al being the volume of the section of wire of
cross section area A that we area considering the total force on the free electrons in the wire and
thus on the wire itself, is

Since JA is the current I in the wire we have

Only if the wire is at right angles to B we can express the more general situation in vector form as

If we consider a different element of conduction of length dl, the force dF acting unit can be found
Ampere’s law:

Ampere’s law states that,”The magnetic field created by an electric current

is proportional to the size of the electric current with a constant proportionality
equal to the permeability of free space.”

Derivation:
We obtain a relative measure of B for various distance r and for various
current in wire –
Application of Ampere’s Law:

1. It is used to calculate the magnetic field produced by the current carrying

wire
2. Ampere’s law gives a magnetic field inside a torrid.
3. Ampere’s law gives a magnetic field inside the conductor.
4. It also provides ways to calculate the force between the conductors.
Biot - Savart Law: Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field due to a
current carrying conductor at a distance point is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the conductor and point and the magnetic field is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and current flowing in the
conductor.

According to biot-savart law the magnitude of the magnetic

field dB is proportional to the current I and the element length
dl and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r

Example -1:
If an element of length l is
placed in a magnetic field that
carries current 10A the
magnetic field placed at
distance of 0.5 m from the y
axis the length of the element is
10-12 m calculate its magnetic
field.
Application of Biot-savart Law:

1. To calculate the magnetic field in an indefinitely long straight wire lowing to

a constant current
2. To calculate the magnetic field in the center of current carrying wire
3. To calculate the force between two parallel and lengthy current carrying
conductors.

Hall Effect:
The certainty of a voltage across a current carrying conductor by a
magnetic field is known as the hall effects.

Another word, The hall effect is the deflection of electrons in an n-type or p-type
semiconductor with current flowing perpendicular to a magnetic field.
The deflection of these charge carriers sets up a voltage , called the Hall voltage
, whose polarity depends on the effective charge of the carrier.
Details About Hall Effect;

A field of magnetic B is set up at right angles to strip by placing the strip between
poles of an electromagnetic field. This field excerpts a deflection force f on the
strip ( given by il x B) which points to right in the figure —* . Since the sideways
force on the strip is due to the sideways forces of the charge carriers , whether
they are positive or negative will fend to drift towards the right as fig— * as they
drift along the strip producing a transverse hall potential difference Vxy between
points such x and y. The sign of the charge carriers is determined by the sign of
this hall potential difference if the charge carriers are positive y will be at a higher
potential than x; if they are negative y will be a lower potential that x.

The charge carriers do not build up without limit or the right edge of the strip
because displacement of gives rise to a transverse hall electric field EH hall
potential and is related to it by E = Vxy / d — (i) Eventually an equilibrium is
reached in which the sideways magnetic deflection force on the charge carriers
are canceled by the hall electric field

The numbers of the charge carriers per unit volume can also be found from hall
effect measurements. If we write equations in terms of magnitude, for the case in
which Vd and B are at right angles. We obtain,
Example-1:
A copper strip 2.8 cm wide and 1.0 mm thick is placed in a magnetic field
with B=1.5 web/m2 if a current 200 amp is set up in the strip what hall potential
difference appears across the strip.