1.

nteraction with the coast

Main article: Coast

Lighthouse at the coast of Ocean County, New Jersey, U.S.,

facing the Atlantic Ocean at sunrise
The zone where land meets sea is known as the coast, and the part between the lowest
spring tides and the upper limit reached by splashing waves is the shore. A beach is the
accumulation of sand or shingle on the shore.[62] A headland is a point of land jutting out
into the sea and a larger promontory is known as a cape. The indentation of a coastline,
especially between two headlands, is a bay. A small bay with a narrow inlet is
a cove and a large bay may be referred to as a gulf.[63] Coastlines are influenced by
several factors including the strength of the waves arriving on the shore, the gradient of
the land margin, the composition and hardness of the coastal rock, the inclination of the
off-shore slope and the changes of the level of the land due to local uplift or
submergence.[62]

Normally, waves roll towards the shore at the rate of six to eight per minute and these
are known as constructive waves as they tend to move material up the beach and have
little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid succession and are known as
destructive waves as the swash moves beach material seawards. Under their influence,
the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together and abraded. Around high tide,
the power of a storm wave impacting on the foot of a cliff has a shattering effect as air in
cracks and crevices is compressed and then expands rapidly with release of pressure.
At the same time, sand and pebbles have an erosive effect as they are thrown against
the rocks. This tends to undercut the cliff, and normal weathering processes such as the
action of frost follows, causing further destruction. Gradually, a wave-cut platform
develops at the foot of the cliff and this has a protective effect, reducing further wave-
erosion.[62]

Material worn from the margins of the land eventually ends up in the sea. Here it is
subject to attrition as currents flowing parallel to the coast scour out channels and
transport sand and pebbles away from their place of origin. Sediment carried to the sea
by rivers settles on the seabed causing deltas to form in estuaries. All these materials
move back and forth under the influence of waves, tides and currents.[62] Dredging
removes material and deepens channels but may have unexpected effects elsewhere
on the coastline. Governments make efforts to prevent flooding of the land by the
building of breakwaters, seawalls, dykes and levees and other sea defences. For
instance, the Thames Barrier is designed to protect London from a storm surge,[64] while
the failure of the dykes and levees around New Orleans during Hurricane
Katrina created a humanitarian crisis in the United States.

Physical properties
2. Color

Ocean chlorophyll concentration is a

proxy for phytoplankton biomass. In this map, blue colors represent lower chlorophyll and reds
represent higher chlorophyll. Satellite-measured chlorophyll is estimated based on ocean
color by how green the color of the water appears from space.
This section is an excerpt from Ocean color.[edit]
Most of the ocean is blue in color, but in some places the ocean is blue-green, green, or
even yellow to brown.[65] Blue ocean color is a result of several factors. First, water
preferentially absorbs red light, which means that blue light remains and is reflected
back out of the water. Red light is most easily absorbed and thus does not reach great
depths, usually to less than 50 meters (164 ft). Blue light, in comparison, can penetrate
up to 200 meters (656 ft).[66] Second, water molecules and very tiny particles in ocean
water preferentially scatter blue light more than light of other colors. Blue light scattering
by water and tiny particles happens even in the very clearest ocean water,[67] and is
similar to blue light scattering in the sky.

The main substances that affect the color of the ocean include dissolved organic matter,
living phytoplankton with chlorophyll pigments, and non-living particles like marine
snow and mineral sediments.[68] Chlorophyll can be measured by satellite observations
and serves as a proxy for ocean productivity (marine primary productivity) in surface
waters. In long term composite satellite images, regions with high ocean productivity
show up in yellow and green colors because they contain more (green) phytoplankton,
whereas areas of low productivity show up in blue.
3. Water cycle, weather, and rainfall
Further information: Effects of climate change on the water cycle and Water distribution
on Earth
 The ocean is a major driver of
Earth's water cycle.
Ocean water represents the largest body of water within the global water cycle (oceans
contain 97% of Earth's water). Evaporation from the ocean moves water into the
atmosphere to later rain back down onto land and the ocean.[69] Oceans have a
significant effect on the biosphere. The ocean as a whole is thought to cover
approximately 90% of the Earth's biosphere.[70] Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the
water cycle, is the source of most rainfall (about 90%),[69] causing a global cloud cover of
67% and a consistent oceanic cloud cover of 72%.[71] Ocean
temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. One of the most
dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called
"typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms).

As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral

to life on Earth, forms part of the carbon cycle and water cycle, and – as a huge heat
reservoir – influences climate and weather patterns.

4. Waves and swell

Duration: 13 seconds.0:13Movement of water as waves pass
Main articles: Wind wave and Swell (ocean)
The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial
and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical
waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell – a term
used in sailing, surfing and navigation.[72] These motions profoundly affect ships on the
surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer
from sea sickness.

Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that are perpendicular to
the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle breeze
on a pond causes ripples to form. A stronger gust blowing over the ocean causes larger
waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach
their maximum height when the rate at which they are travelling nearly matches the
speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in the
Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organized masses of water called
swell roll across the ocean.[73]: 83–84 [74][75] If the wind dies down, the wave formation is
reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they
meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has
blown over the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet
others coming from different directions, interference between the two can produce
broken, irregular seas.[74]

Constructive interference can lead to the formation of unusually high rogue waves.
[76]
Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft) high[76] and it is not unusual for strong storms to
double or triple that height.[77] Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights
above 25 meters (82 ft).[78][79]

The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough
and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the
surface of the ocean by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy and not
horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into shallow water,
they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or
wrap around rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where
its deepest oscillations of the water contact the ocean floor, they begin to slow down.
This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height, which is
called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth increases
above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water.[76] This rushes
in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of gravity. [80]

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off
waves that can lead to tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous.[81][82]

5. Sea level and surface

Further information: Sea level and Sea level rise
The ocean's surface is an important reference point for oceanography and geography,
particularly as mean sea level. The ocean surface has globally little, but measurable
topography, depending on the ocean's volumes.

The ocean surface is a crucial interface for oceanic and atmospheric processes.
Allowing interchange of particles, enriching the air and water, as well as grounds by
some particles becoming sediments. This interchange has fertilized life in the ocean, on
land and air. All these processes and components together make up ocean surface
ecosystems.