5.

CHAPTER 5:
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter the research process, design and methodology will be discussed further by
referring to accepted trends and models from the research methodology literature, which was
used as a basis to structure a research strategy and plan.

The functional structure of the North-West University will also be discussed, as well as the
different campuses and learning models, as well as the institutional plan and its goal related
to customer focus and quality. This is necessary to be able to motivate the specific research
design and methodology that were designed, as well as the specific research questions that
were formulated and needs to be answered in the next chapter.

The details of the selected research process, design and methodology will also be
elaborated on, based on the discussed literature review.

5.2 Literature overview of the research design and methodology

In this section the research process, as well as the relevant research design and
methodology will be discussed and elaborated on. This is necessary to provide an overview
of the different approaches that are used in the research environment, in order to identify and
develop the most appropriate and suitable research process, design and methodology for
this specific study.

5.2.1 Reasons for undertaking research

It is necessary to first ponder a moment on the reasons why academics, scholars, managers
and others conduct research in a wide range of disciplines. Brynard and Hanekom (2006:2)
attempt to provide some rationale behind this when stating that research is always
undertaken with a specific objective in mind, which should assist in:

 Making rational and factually correct decisions,

 setting detailed goals and plan a schedule according to it,

 ensuring the best possible utilisation of existing resources,

 identifying problem areas in a specific discipline,

 developing possible solutions to these problems, as well as future control

mechanisms,

 enhancing the knowledge and insight of a specific trend or discipline,

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  developing new theories or modify existing ones to accommodate for changing
conditions,

 and determining whether specific theories still apply to specific circumstances.

The purpose or goal of this study was discussed at length in section 1.4, but can be
considered to be a combination of the above objectives.

5.2.2 The research process

The different phases of the research process are shown in Figure 5.1, as drawn up by
Blumberg et al. (2005:57), and also shown in Cooper and Schindler (2008: 82).

[Link] Stage one: The research question

Bryman and Bell (2007:304) argue that the research question must be specified accurately,
while Hair et al. (2007: 35) state that well-defined research questions will enable researchers
to specify their research objectives, determine information needs and determine the suitable
research designs.

The research question forms the basis of the research design, data collection and eventually
of the data analysis and interpretation.

Easterby-Smith et al. (2002: 60) identified several influences on the construction of the
research question, which is shown in Figure 5.2. The experience of the researcher should
be taken into consideration and the supervisor or promoter should provide the necessary
guidance to ensure that the research question is appropriate, relevant and realistic. The
specific field of study will also play a role on the nature of the research question, while both
corporate and academic stakeholders can also influence the research question‘s formulation.
The supervisor or promoter and researcher should protect the integrity of the research
project at all cost and not allow any improper influences on any part of the research project.

This study identified five related research questions, which are shown in section 1.6, and
then elaborated on in sections 6.5 to 6.9.

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 Figure 5.1: The research process

Source: Blumberg et al. (2005:57)

[Link] Stage two: The research proposal

Hair et al. (2007:44) define a research proposal as a formal document that clearly define the
problem that needs to be researched, indicate how it will be explored, and the expected cost
and time frame. Greenfield (2002:53) also refers to the cost element and highlights the
importance of drawing up a well presented and clear research proposal with specific
reference to how the objectives will be met, in an effort to obtain adequate funding.

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 Figure 5.2: Influences on the research question

Source: Easterby-Smith et al. (2002: 60)

According to Hackley (2003:30) it is also important to motivate the choice of the research
topic in the proposal, and to identify a working title. He argues that the title might be modified
or altered, but recommends that the field of topic should not be changed once it has been
identified.

Not all research projects are commercially driven, and Cooper and Schindler (2008:636)
identified three purposes of drawing up a research proposal:

 To introduce the research question to the supervisor, promoter or sponsor, and to

indicate its relevance and importance,

 to provide an overview of other related research project and available literature,

 and to recommend what data will be required to test and answer the research
question, as well as how the data will be collected, analysed and interpreted.

The initial research proposal of this study was adapted after it was accepted and is shown in
chapter one.

[Link] Stage three: The research design

Cooper and Schindler (2008:140) define research design as ―the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data‖, but warn that it is a wide-ranging concept. According to
Welman and Kruger (2001:46) the research design is the strategy or plan which is used to
acquire participants or subjects, and how to collect what type of data from them, in order to
arrive at conclusions about the initial research question.

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[Link].1 Types of research designs

Bryman and Bell (2007:44) identify five types of research designs, namely:

 Experimental design, which is unusual in management research due to the challenge

of accomplishing exact control levels when dealing with organizational behaviour.

 Cross-sectional design or social survey design, which involves data collection on

several cases during the same time frame in order to collect qualitative or quantitative
data related to two or more variables, in an effort to determine associations between
the variables after the data has been analysed. This study can therefore be classified
as a cross-sectional design, because both qualitative or quantitative data were
collected on several variables during the same time .

 Longitudinal design is specifically used to monitor changes over a period of time in

the relevant research environment.

 Case study design is an intensive examination of a particular situation or instance.

 Comparative design is where identical or contrasting cases are studied, and the
similarities or differences are reported.

The differences between qualitative and quantitative research methodologies also need to be
discussed in the next section.

[Link].2 Qualitative and quantitative research

Hackley (2003:9) claims that most studies are a mixture of both qualitative and quantitative
research, as they are not mutually exclusive in research. He states, however, that there is
always an emphasis on one or other of the approaches. Gill and Johnson (2010: 148), on
the other hand, argue that qualitative research can be defined as an approach which does
not use quantitative data.

Holliday (2007:2) warns about oversimplification when trying to distinguish between

qualitative and quantitative research, because social research can be a very complex area.
Further caution is expressed by Welman and Kruger (2001:8), who state that it would be a
mistake to consider qualitative research as an effortless alternative for quantitative research,
as it possesses sufficient ―checks and balances‖ to eliminate the risk of reaching groundless
conclusions.

Easterby-Smith et al. (2002:42) consider quantitative research to be fast, economical and of

significant relevance when policy decisions needs to be made, but warn that it might be rigid
and artificial due to the structured nature of questionnaires. On the other hand, they indicate
that quantitative research might feel ―untidy‖ because it is harder to manage the progress
and end points. It can also be considered as ―too subjective‖ by some stakeholders.

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[Link].3 The research design of this study

This study combined both approaches, as indicated in Figure 5.3 on the next page.
Structured (qualitative) interviews were conducted with the registrars, while (quantitative)
questionnaires were drawn up for administrative staff members and undergraduate students
at the ten different learning models at the three campuses. This included students from all
the different faculties and modes of delivery (on- and off-campus students). In this study the
majority of the research was therefore quantitative in nature, but some of the questions in the
structured (qualitative) interviews with the registrars were aligned with similar questions in
the (quantitative) questionnaires for the administrative staff members and undergraduate
students. This alignment of these questions is shown in Appendix 3 at the end of this study.

Figure 5.3 also displays the research design, the NWU structure (with the different campuses
and modes of delivery) and the target populations. The distribution of questionnaires also
depended on this mode of delivery and the different methods of contact with the staff and
students are shown in colour codes. The customer experience management approach
(CEM) between the specific student populations and the relevant staff members responsible
for rendering administrative services to them is also shown with large arrows, as well as the
CEM approach the registrars experience that their sub-ordinates render to the students on
their campuses.

The NWU research ethics application form was also completed and submitted to the
research unit of the faculty, to ensure that the study adheres to the research ethics
guidelines of the NWU. An informed consent section were also included in the beginning of
the questionnaires for the students and administrative staff members, as well as in the
questions asked to the registrars during the structured interviews. This paragraph can be
seen in the beginning of the attached questionnaires for students (Appendix 1),
administrative staff (Appendix 2) and registrars (Appendices 4-7). The field workers that
managed the completion processes of the questionnaires in the class rooms also referred to
this section specifically when they briefed the students before completion of the
questionnaires. It was also posted in the e-learning environment.

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Figure 5.3: Research design and target population

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[Link] Stage four: Data collection

In most research cases it would be impossible, time-consuming and expensive to conduct

research on the whole population, and therefore samplings offer a workable solution.

Hackley (2003:25) recommends that researchers must have a criterion for selecting the
sample to ensure that the data is collected in a systematic manner, in order to ensure that
the collected data set is in line with the research objectives.

[Link].1 Sampling

Sampling is therefore an element of data collection, and is defined by Bryman and Bell
(2007:182) as the fragment or section of the population that is selected for the research
process. Gill and Johnson (2010:123), however, warn that the sample size and selection are
major concerns for researchers when designing and planning the research design.

The use of sampling methods offers the following benefits according to Blumberg et al.
(2005:228):

 Lower costs

 Greater accuracy of results

 Greater speed of data collection

 Availability of population elements.

Iacobucci and Churchill (2005:283) recommend the following model (Figure 5.4) when
drawing up a sample.

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 Figure 5.4: Six step procedure for drawing a sample

Source: Iacobucci and Churchill (2005:283)

The different steps in this model can be further described as follows:

[Link].1.1 Define the target populations

It is necessary to distinguish between the different types of target populations first. Hair et al.
(2008:38) state that research in the marketing management environment must ensure an
accurate selection of the target population, as marketing related research has to deal with
the resolution of specific problems related to their target markets.

In this study the target populations were clearly identifiable:

 Undergraduate students from the different campuses and modes of learning of the
NWU whose administrative support is provided by NWU staff only.

 NWU administrative staff members who render administrative support to

undergraduate students of the NWU. Temporary staff members were only included if
they had been contracted for a minimum term of 12 months. Administrative staff not
working directly with students (e.g. the filing or archives staff), or only dealing with
post-graduate students or alumni, were not included in this study.

 The registrars of the NWU at the three campuses and the institutional office.

[Link].1.2 Identify the sampling frame

May (2001:93) describes the sampling frame as the ―list‖ of the population that exists. This
was done for each of the populations.

 Ten different strata or groups were identified and their sizes determined using data
from the NWU Management Information system and the 2008 annual report of the
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 North-West University (2009c:31). It was also compared with the student numbers
provided by the faculties‘ administrative managers. There were some discrepancies
found, mainly due to the fact that honours degree student numbers are included in
the NWU management information statistics as part of the undergraduate statistics.
As this study only focused on undergraduate students (excluding honours degree
students) the data derived from class lists as provided by the administrative
managers were used to determine the final populations in such cases. The number
of students per stratum identified to form the sample size is shown in Figure 5.3 and
Table 5.2. The ten strata and their sizes were as follows:

o Mafikeng On-campus: 4,870 students from five different faculties

o Mafikeng Off-campus : 600 students

o Potchefstroom On-campus: 13,201 students from eight different faculties

o Potchefstroom Telematic Learning: 1,629 students

o Potchefstroom Flexible Learning: 412 students

o Potchefstroom Bursary students: 1,056 students

o Potchefstroom SEDIBA-programme: 211 students

o Potchefstroom School-based programme: 156 students

o Vaal Triangle On-campus: 4,870 students from five different faculties

o Vaal Triangle Off-campus: 468 students

o The students from the two co-operation agreement off-campus programmes of

the Potchefstroom Campus with the Open Learning Group, South Africa
(OLG) and the Institute for Open Learning, Namibia (IOL) were excluded from
this study.

 There were 106 administrative staff members identified on the Potchefstroom

Campus, 18 on the Mafikeng Campus and 22 on the Vaal Triangle Campus who
render administrative support to undergraduate students of the NWU.

 Each Campus has its own registrar, and the institutional office also has a registrar,
bringing the total to four registrars of the NWU.

[Link].1.3 Select a sampling procedure

There are several probability sampling and non-probability sampling techniques available for
the researcher to consider when planning and developing a research plan.

According to Fox and Bayat (2007:54) probability sampling is used when every element of
the population has a known and ―not-zero‖ chance of being included in the sample. May
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(2001:93) explains that the probability sampling techniques makes it possible to state the
mathematical likelihood of sample characteristics being duplicated in the population. It
implies that every person

On the other hand, non-probability sampling is considered as a range of techniques where

the probability of selection each sampling unit is not known and the selection of sampling
units is done according to the researchers‘ judgement or knowledge. It therefore follows a
subjective approach, according to Cooper and Schindler (2006:455). Hair et al. (2000:345)

According to Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:277) pure quantitative studies normally use
probability sampling techniques, and qualitative research usually apply purposive or non-
probability techniques. They admit, however, that no research tradition can claim a specific
technique and that a variety or mix of sampling techniques can be used in an effort to answer
the research question.

The use of more than one sampling method is also supported by Easterby-Smith et al.
(2002:41) and Greenfield (2002:189), who argue that it provides more perspectives on the
issue being investigated. In this study elements of both probability and non-probability
sampling techniques were thus used, as will be motivated and elaborated on in this section.
This was due to the possible smaller response rate at some campuses and learning models
(partially due to their large numbers on the one end, and unavailability of internet- and e-
Fundi-access on the other hand.

The different sampling techniques for probability sampling and non-probability sampling are
shown in Table 5.1, along with the different sources that support it, in order to provide a
broad overview. Each of the different sampling techniques will then be discussed in more
detail, including whether it was used in this research design or not. The decision on which
sampling technique was used, will also be motivated.

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 Table 5.1: Summary of probability and non-probability sampling techniques

 Probability sampling techniques

The following probability sampling techniques from the literature study will be discussed,
and an indication will be given which of these techniques were suitable for the different
strata of the undergraduate student populations.

o Simple random sampling is considered by Hair et al. (2000:345) as a sampling

procedure that ensures that all sample units in the specific population will have the
same, equal, known chance of being selected. Fox and Bayat (2007:56) state that it is
not the best method to establish a sample, as it is not necessarily a true reflection of
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 the population as a whole. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:278) suggest that it can be
achieved by simple techniques, like drawing names from a hat, to more complex
computer-generated random sampling programme. There were more suitable
techniques available for this study, as will be argued in this section.

o Complex probability sampling is described by Cooper and Schindler (2006:446) as a

set of sampling techniques that are more efficient as simple random sampling, as it
provides a given precision, also called the standard error of the mean or proportion.
They consider the following four sampling techniques as complex probability sampling
techniques:

 Systematic random sampling is defined by Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:278) as

sampling techniques by selecting every nth unit of the target population from a
randomly used list. Fox and Bayat (2007:56) consider it as a popular sampling
technique, as it is more cost-effective and practical than most other techniques. In
this study this technique was used to select the undergraduate student participants
from all the strata. First, second and third year modules were randomly selected from
all faculties, and then the researcher obtained permission from the relevant lecturers
(for the on campus programmes) to visit the lecture room during a contact session to
conduct the research. Every tenth student (as they were seated in the lecture room)
was then handed a questionnaire to complete. The programme managers of the off
campus programmes were requested to provide a list of all the study centres,
facilitators at those centres, as well as the time tables for all the modules. Modules
were randomly selected from all off campus programmes and the facilitators were
contacted. If they agreed to assist, a parcel with questionnaires, a list with detailed
instructions (including the details on how to select every tenth student, as well as
details on the completion of the questionnaires), together with a pre-paid return parcel
were courier to them. They then assisted with supervising the completion of the
questionnaires at these off campus study centres, while the researcher was available
by telephone to answer any questions or assist with any problems or uncertainties.
Completed questionnaires were then couriered back to the researcher, coded and
then analysed together with the questionnaires of the on campus participants.

After the group of students were briefed about the purpose of the study, and they
agreed to participate, hard copy questionnaires were handed out to every tenth
student. The researcher answered any questions and addressed any uncertainties,
and then collected the completed questionnaires after it were completed.

 Stratified random sampling: Shui et al. (2009:474) define it as ―a probability sampling

technique in which the defined target population is divided into groups‖. Samples are
then collected from all of these groups or strata. According to Welman and Kruger
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 (2001:56), this technique strives to eliminate the risk of the sample consisting out of
members of one group (e.g. a specific campus, learning model, faculty or year group).

 Proportionate stratified sampling is applied when the proportion of the units

randomly selected from each stratum is the same as the proportion of the
population, according to Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:279). Cooper and
Schindler (2006:449) consider it as a popular stratified sampling technique
because it has a higher statistical efficiency than simple random sampling and is
easier to conduct. It was not practically possible to use this technique in this
study (due to the larger size of some campuses and learning models, as well as
the differences in internet access).

 Disproportionate stratified sampling is used when the same sample size is

utilized for each stratum, irrespective of the relative size of the strata when
compared with the population size, according to Hair et al. (2007:178), Shui et al.
(2009:474) as well as Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:279). This technique could
have been used if the stratum sizes did not differ much, but given the range of
the stratum sizes (from 13,201 down to 156), it would not have been practical to
use the same sample sizes for all strata, as a representative sample of the larger
stratum would have been more than the total population for a smaller stratum.

 Cluster sampling utilizes a natural group in the population and not individuals,
according to Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:279). This group is then called a cluster.
According to Hair et al. (2000:351) there are similarities with stratified random
sampling, but it differs because the sampling units (clusters) are divided into ―mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations‖, and not treated as individuals.

 Multistage cluster sampling. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:279) define it as reducing

the sample further by selecting a random sample from the selected cluster. Two
further divisions of this technique is possible:

 Area sampling. Cooper and Schindler (2006:451) describe it as a sampling

method used in specific geographical areas and consider it the most significant
type of cluster sampling. Hair et al. (2000:352) mention that is a popular
technique for information and marketing research. This technique was not
considered to be appropriate for this study, although some of the strata of this
study are situated in specific geographical areas (e.g. the on-campus students).

 Design sampling. According to Cooper and Schindler (2006:452) homogeneous

clusters can produce low statistical efficiency. They propose that design
sampling can then be constructed by first determining whether the clusters are
homogeneous, whether equal-sized or unequal-sized clusters will be used, the
160
 size of the clusters, whether a single-stage or multistage cluster will be used, as
well as the size of the actual sample. These factors will then be taken into
consideration when designing a specific and suitable sample from the clusters.
This technique was not considered for this study.

o Double sampling, also called sequential sampling or multiphase sampling, is another

technique described by Cooper and Schindler (2006:453). They argue that it might be
necessary (due to financial or convenience reasons) to gather information by sampling,
and then use the data as basis to select a sub-sample for further study. This technique
was not suitable for this study.

 Non-probability sampling techniques

Fox and Bayat (2007:59) indicate that, although units of analysis of non-probability
sampling do not have an equal chance of being included in the sample, it still is frequently
used because of its convenience and inexpensiveness. The following non-probability
sampling techniques are the most popular in the literature:

o Convenience or accessibility sampling. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:280) describe it

as a technique where elements of a sample are drawn from a group or sub-population
which is readily available. According to Welman and Kruger (2001:62) it is a more
opportune method, as the population is more easily accessible to participate in the
research. Hair et al. (2007:181) caution that it should only be used if other sampling
techniques are not effective.

o Purposive sampling. Greenfield (2002:189) defines it as the technique where

subjective judgements are used to resolutely select groups that the researcher believes
will represent the population. There are also elements of accessibility sampling
(selecting more easily available groups) and purposive sampling that are often
combined in practice. Cooper and Schindler (2006:456) distinguish between three
specific strategies:

 Judgment sampling, according to Hair et al. (2000:355), is used when the

participants are selected according to a experienced researcher‘s conviction that they
will meet the requirements of the study. Fox and Bayat (2007:59) also refer to the
expert opinion of the researchers when defining it. This approach was not used in
this study.

 Quota sampling (also called stratified purposive sampling) is used to improve

representativeness, according to Cooper and Schindler (2006:456). This is done by
using previously known information about the population to divide it into groups, as
explained by Fox and Bayat (2007:60). Although the researcher did use previously

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 known information to determine the different strata, it was not used to determine the
members of the strata that formed part of the sample.

 Random purpose sampling. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:282) describe a third

purposive sampling method when stating that the random purpose sampling
technique is used by selecting a random sample of units in the purposefully selected
target population. They claim that the combination of random and purposive
sampling increases improves the validity of the study.

o Snowball sampling is used by identifying and selecting a set of initial possible

respondents, who then contribute to select more prospective fellow respondents, as
explained by Hair et al. (2000:356). They also mentioned that it was also known as
referral sampling. It was a popular technique when researchers found it difficult to
identify suitable respondents, according to Cooper and Schindler (2006:457). They
explain that this technique was effective because it made use of referral networks of
the initially selected respondents. This technique was not supported for this study.

o Extreme/deviant and typical case sampling is less known, but similar techniques
described by Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:280). Researchers select the most
outstanding cases in order to learn as much as possible from them, or they use the
most average cases with the same purpose in mind. This technique is not mentioned
by most authors and was not considered for this study.

o Confirming/disconfirming cases sampling is another rare technique mentioned by

Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:281). Researchers will attempt to find specific sampling
units that already fit into emerging patterns, in order to confirm existing data.
Alternatively they can also attempt to identify units that will challenge or reject
emerging patterns. This approach would not have been relevant to this study and was
not used.

o Homogeneous case sampling. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003:282) state that this
technique is used by selecting units from a specific subgroup in order to study in more
detail. This can be used for people who have the same qualifications, stay in the same
area, or who follow the same professions. The student population of this study was not
homogeneous enough to consider this technique.

o Accidental sampling is related to convenience or accessibility sampling, according to

Fox and Bayat (2007:58) and is used as a last alternative. An example of this
approach is to carry out a qualitatively study by conducting interviews with people
leaving a shopping centre, which would not have been appropriate for this study.

o Self-selection sampling is described by Fox and Bayat (2007:60) as a technique where

individuals are allowed to participate in the study after the purpose of the study has
162
 been announced within the target population. It was selected as an additional
sampling technique for this study to involve undergraduate students that wanted to
voice their opinion about the customer experience levels they experience from
administrative staff. It was expected that this would complement the purpose of the
study, as it could have been expected that students‘ experiences on either side of the
scale would respond to such an opportunity. Students were informed about this online
questionnaire by using several initiatives, which is discussed in section [Link].

Table 5.2 shows the response of the students from the different strata that participated
in this study. The number of student respondents who selected to complete the online
questionnaire was 178 in total, which was 13,77% of the student respondents. The
balance (86,23%) were identified by using the systematic random sampling technique
described above.

[Link].1.4 Determine the sampling size

According to Iacobucci and Churchill (2005:285) sample sizes can either be fixed (when they
are determined in advance of the study) or sequential (when more data can be collected if
the initially collected data does not answer the research question). This study will aim to
work with a fixed sample size, as described below.

The sampling frame was determined for each of the populations, based on their sizes and
practical considerations.

 Due to the marked difference in size between the different strata (ranging between
156 students for the school-based learning model, up to 13,201 for the on-campus
students at Potchefstroom, it was decided to adapt the sample size percentage
according to the size of each stratum relative to the total population. For the smaller
strata the sample size was determined as ten percent of the population from the
different campuses and modes of learning of the NWU whose administrative support
is provided by NWU staff only, but for the two largest on-campus strata
(Potchefstroom and Mafikeng) the sample size was planned to be four percent of the
specific population. The sample size per stratum, as well as the eventual number of
participants, is shown in Table 5.2.

 Due to the manageable number of administrative staff members identified on the

three campuses, it was decided to include all 146 administrative staff members in this
study. The total population will therefore be used for this study, as it is practically
possible.

 All four registrars of the NWU were selected to be included in the sample for this
study.

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Table 5.2: Student population and sample size

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[Link].1.5 Collect the data

Malhotra and Birks (2006:94) distinguish between primary and secondary data collection and
consider between primary data as information collected by the researcher in an effort to
address or resolve the specific problem they identified for the research project. They define
secondary data as information that have been collected for other purposes. This study will
focus on the collection and analysis of primary data, although some secondary data may also
become available from the qualitative and quantitative data collection processes.

According to Iacobucci and Churchill (2005:177) the following types of primary data need to
be collected in marketing research:

 Demographics and socio-economic characteristics. In this study this data was

essential for all groups and was necessary to determine possible differences between
the groups bases on their age, gender, campus, year of study, and other related
factors (for the students), and age, gender, years of service, campus, qualification
level, employment status, and other related factors (for the administrative staff).

 Psychological and lifestyle characteristics. This refers to the typical behavioural

patterns that distinguish people from others. In this study the incoming and outgoing
communication preferences students prefer, is a good example of what could be
established by the data collection effort.

 Attitudes and opinions: An individual‘s views and preferences can be classified as

―attitudes‖, while opinions are the spoken expressions of those attitudes. This study
attempted to collect a great deal of data about the attitudes and opinions of the
sample group related to their customer experience levels, as well as their satisfaction
and loyalty levels.

 Awareness and knowledge: Unaided recall, aided recall and recognition are all
methods used by marketing researchers to determine what respondents know of a
specific object. These techniques were not used in this specific study.

 Intentions: This refers to the participant‘s planned or anticipated behaviour and is very
relevant to this study, as it plans to determine the intention of the students to study
further, as well as their advocacy intention towards the NWU. The advocacy intention
of the administrative staff towards the NWU was also determined.

 Motivation: Marketing researchers need to establish why people act in a certain

manner and what motivate and drive them. This can assist them in anticipating and
planning conditions which might lead to a more positive experience for the customers.
This type of primary data is relevant to this study and was collected from the sample

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 group. It was tested in specific statements that were drawn up, using a five point
Likert scale to rate it.

 Behaviour: Iacobucci and Churchill (2005:184) define it as a ―physical activity that

takes place in specific circumstances‖. It occurs at a specific time and usually
involves more than one person. This study was particularly interested in the
behaviour of administrative staff toward undergraduate students in a service
environment, and constructed related questions to both groups in an effort to
determine why certain behavioural patterns existed, and how the students or
customers experienced it.

Another way to distinguish between different types of data, is proposed by Blumberg et al.
(2005:440), who used the measurement characteristics of the data as basis, as displayed in
the following Table:

Table 5.3: Types of data and their measurement characteristics

Source: Blumberg et al. (2005:440)

When the proposed research design is compared to the above types of data, it can be
concluded that this study made use of all the stated types of data to a bigger or lesser
degree.

This study used questionnaires for the students and administrative staff, and structured
interviews for the registrars to collect the data required. The detail of this research design
was discussed and motivated earlier in this chapter ([Link].2), while the comprehensive
methodology will be discussed later in section 5.3.

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[Link] Stage five: Data analysis and interpretation

Cooper and Schindler (2008:93) describe data analysis as the process where collected data
is reduced to a more controllable and convenient size, and where the researcher can start to
identify trends or patterns, apply statistical techniques and summarise the data. This is
necessary to be able to be able to interpret the findings in order to answer the research
question. From this certain recommendations were formulated and submitted. Malhotra and
Birks (2006:10), on the other hand, describe data analysis as the editing, coding,
transcription and verification of data. They further confirm that the same data analysis
techniques are used for both qualitative and quantitative techniques, as well as for both
primary and secondary data.

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (or SPSS) is a commercial computer
software package that has been used since the early 1960s, according to Bryman and Bell
(2007:376) and Rubin (2007:34). They mention that SPSS has undergone several upgrades
since then. It was used, together with the Statistica programme, to analyse the data once it
had been collected. The Statistical Consultation Services of the NWU assisted with the
analytical process and interpretation of the results.

The following statistical techniques were used in this study, as supported from the literature.

[Link].1 Frequency tables

According to Sarantakos (2007:40) frequency tables contain only the data of one variable,
summarize its data, as well as how regularly it occurs. McDaniel and Gates (2005:441)
describe it as a table showing the number of respondents choosing each answer to a survey
question. Greenfield (2002: 223) states that frequency tables can be used for measurements
on a continuous range by recording the number of results within a number of non-
overlapping randomly selected class-intervals. It is a descriptive tool intended to provide
more details about the demographic details of the target groups, as well as the basic results
of each question in the questionnaires.

Two-way frequency tables were applied to report on the specific results of two questions
compared results, e.g. each student group‘s response to a certain service encounter. Only
the questions with statistically significant results will be reported on.

Rubin (2007:36) proposes that the frequency distribution or table displays the number of
cases in each category of a variable, and in percentage of the total format. This approach
was also used in this study and the largest and second largest groups were shadowed in the
frequency tables and two-way frequency tables to highlight and identify it easier. It was then
reported on, while possible explanations were offered.

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[Link].2 Exploratory factor analysis

McDaniel and Gates (2005:540) explain that a factor is a linear combination of variables and
state that factor analysis procedures construct a number of different outputs. Factor analysis
is, according to Rubin (2007:315), a ―multivariate statistical technique‖ to determine which
items correlate stronger with each other than with other variables. Rubin (2007:263) defines
an exploratory factor analysis as a procedure to examine the way items are correlated with
one another and to identify the number of factors and what they have in common. Shui et al
(2009:730) as well as Malhotra and Birks (2006810) describe it as a type of statistical
procedures to reduce the data and help to summarise it more effectively. The factor scores
were calculated in all instances. Rubin (2007:263) explains that each row in the table
represents a variable, while each column represents a factor (that has been identified in the
factor analysis), and each cell indicates the factor loading for a particular variable on a
particular factor. This approach was also used for this study to determine the factors
underlying customer service levels in ther NWU-Perf model.

[Link].3 Reliability tests

Shui et al (2009:739) claim it is necessary to determine whether the test instruments were
consistent and whether the same results are likely to be found should the test be repeated.
Hair et al. (2007:424) consider a test as reliable when its scale or question consistently
measures a concept.

Bryman and Bell (2007:164) and Hair et al. (2000:652) describe the Cronbach-alpha test as
a commonly used test to determine internal reliability. Blumberg et al. (2005:458) consider it
as very useful for multi-item scales at the interval level of measurements. It was used in this
study to determine the internal consistency of the sample groups‘ results Cronbach alpha
ranges and a value of 0,7 or more was considered as an indication of reliability.

[Link].4 The descriptives of the different factors

According to Welman and Kruger (2001:213) t-tests are used as a data analysis tool to
establish whether two groups have comparable or different mean scores.

Rubin (2007:158) describes the t-test as a parametric test which is used to judge the mean
differences between two groups in an ratio-level dependent variable. Gaur and Gaur
(2006:52) distinguish between the following three types of t-tests:

 One sample t-test is used when comparing the mean of a single sample with the
populations‘ mean.

 Independent sample t-test is used when a researcher wants to detect differences

between the means of two independent groups, as was used in this study. Rubin

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 (2007:158) confirms that the term independent in this context confirms that the two
groups being compared are not related or connected.

 Paired or dependent sample t-test is used when the mean values of the same sample
needs to be analysed at two different times, or if the groups are related or connected
in some way.

Wagner (2007:81) describes the analysis of variance (ANOVA) as a statistical test for
significance of the differences between the mean scores of more than two groups. This
produces the statistic called the F-ratio, which is, according to Rubin (2007:176) a reflection
of the variation between the means of several groups in relation to the variation within the
groups. Gaur and Gaur (2006:67), Malhotra and Birks (2006:493) and Sarantakos (2007:83)
confirm that ANOVA is used when comparing the means of more than two populations, as
was the case in this study. They recommend that ANOVA should be used to study trends in
consumer behaviour, marketing management and social sciences.

Rubin (2007:177) recommends that a post-hoc test should be used to determine whether
groups differed statistically significant from each other. This study followed this approach to
establish and identify these differences with Tukey‘s HSD tests.

Welman and Kruger (2001:213) further describe the chi-square analysis as a method to
determine the probability that the relationships association observed between nominal-level
variables in the cross-tabulation tables.

[Link].5 Correlations/associations

A correlation between values is the degree to which the values of two variables differ
collectively in a consistent manner, according to Rubin (2007:314). Wagner (2007:57) states
that information about correlations provide more details on how variables are related to each
other. Kerr et al. (2002:182) explain that the correlation between any two variables may be
due to their common dependence on a third variable, which is called a partial correlation.
The influence of such a third variable can also be partialled out to determine the semi-partial
correlation between the two original variables. This semi-partial correlation technique is used
in multiple regression analysis to provide a measure of the strength between the variables.

The correlations between the different factors or components were also done in detail, as it
helped to show a predictive relationship that can be utilised and developed in practice.
Rubin (2007:321) describes the Spearman’s rho as a popular nonparametric formula used to
calculate correlation coefficients with variables that are at the ordinal level of measurement
or that have a non-normal distribution. The calculated correlation coefficient ranges from -
1.0 to 1.0. In this study values equal or bigger than 0.03 was considered to be a visible or
medium correlation, while a value of 0.05 or higher indicated a large and meaningful

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correlation. This range of values have the same meaning as Pearson’s r, a commonly used
parametric formula to calculate correlation coefficients, according to Hair et al. (2000:660).

Rubin (2007:210) also refers to the phi coefficient, another regularly method used to
measure associations, which was also used in this study. It was used when nominal
variables were compared. A value of 1,0 would indicate a perfect relationship between the
variables. In this study values between 0.03 and 0.04 was considered to be indicative of a
small association; 0,04 to 0,05 as a medium to high association, and values of 0,05 and
larger as being of a high association.

[Link].6 Statistical significance

Sarantakos (2007:63) defines statistical significance as the probability that a test result has
occurred by chance. It is then expressed in terms of the level of significance and the
researchers work within these levels by computing the p-value. The test value is considered
to be significant if a p-value smaller than 0,05 is determined. This was applied in this study.
For this study a p-value smaller than 0.05 was considered to be of significance.

[Link] Stage six: Reporting of results

The last, and arguably one of the most challenging, but also rewarding stage of the research
process is the actual writing of the research project report. According to Brynard and
Hanekom (2006:69) a research report is ―the account of the execution of the research project
and of the results obtained‖. Bryman and Bell (2007:693) argue that it must be done in a
structured and convincing manner by being persuasive and constantly referring to the
literature study, as well as the research question.

According to Kerr et al. (2002:7) one of the most important issues in the report is that
conclusions should be drawn up by relating the results back to the literature and the research
questions, so that a clear explanation can be offered, as well as recommendations to
contribute to the relevant field of discipline.

Iacobucci and Churchill (2005:557) also claim that the research report is one of the most
important parts of the entire research project, and the standard by which the entire research
project is judged. They further state that the steps in the research process are interrelated
and warn that decisions made in one phase can cause implications for other phases. They
recommend the following criteria:

 It must be complete, in other words, it must supply all the information required to
entirely understand it.

 It must be accurate and cautious when attempting to offer explanations for the data
findings.

 Use clear and logical thinking by following an understandable outline.

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  Attempt to be concise by making maximum use of every phrase or word.

5.3 Research methodology

There were some references made to elements of the research methodology applied for this
study, but in this section more emphasis will be placed on the detail of the methodology itself.

5.3.1 Theoretical background for the construction of the questionnaires

The content of the questionnaires for the students and administrative staff, as well as the
contents of the structured interviews (for the registrars) was designed to attempt to answer
the research questions by collecting sufficient data from all the groups. Therefore it had to
contain all the elements identified in the literature review.

According to Gilbert et al. (2006:304) customer satisfaction and loyalty measurement

instruments are more frequently used by organizations and have become crucial in the
competitive business milieu. Hair et al. (2007:13) support this notion and emphasize the
importance of mutually beneficial long term relationships in the business environment,
including customers and own employees.

Frow et al. (2007:90) recommend that a consistent score of five out of five on a customer
satisfaction survey can be considered as related to the achievement of a superior customer
experience. This was used as a guideline when drawing up the questionnaire (by using a
five point Likert scale), and also when the results were analysed and conclusions drawn up.

As indicated in previous chapters, this study also focused on the service quality levels
provided by administrative staff of the NWU, and how undergraduate students on the
different campuses and modes of delivery experienced it. It was therefore important to
summarize the different service quality measuring instruments available in the literature and
determines which one will be the most appropriate in the higher education environment.

Gerber (2008:38) motivates the need for service quality measuring when he argues that
every decision made by the service provider will lead to a subsequent behaviour by the
customer and that the economic and resource implications of their behaviour should be
monitored. Trask (2008:43) recommends that it is important to continuously measure the
actual experience of the customer in order to determine the company‘s ability to meet and
exceed their real needs. She recommends that multiple sources, including satisfaction
surveys and real-time feedback, should be used.

According to Gilbert et al. (2006:299) there is no agreed and universally-accepted

measurement tool to determine customer satisfaction and loyalty levels, and that cannot be
considered as an exact science, but rather an investigative and analytic process. They
suggest that three approaches can be followed:

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  The confirmation-disconfirmation approach judges the actual customer experience
against what the customer expected to experience and is a very popular approach.

 Performance-only measurement is used directly after the service has been provided
and focuses on functional and technical features directly related to the specific
service interaction.

 Overall satisfaction focuses on a more generalized evaluation of the service provider

and its services in a broader context.

A combination of the confirmation-disconfirmation and the overall satisfaction approaches

were used in this study.

The different SQ models were discussed in section 4.6.1 by referring to several studies and
its findings. As reported before, Brochado (2009:181) found that the HedPERF model
presents a high level of internal consistency and that its overall score offers a high correlation
extent with:

 Overall satisfaction

 Intentions to further studies

 Word-of-mouth referrals.

Earlier, Abdullah (2005:317) found that the HedPERF scale was more suitable for the HEI
service settings, as is showed a better reliability, greater criterion and construct validity, as
well as greater explained variance than the other SQ models he evaluated.

It was therefore decided that HedPERF would be the most appropriate service quality-model
to be used as basis for this study. Given the demarcations of the study, only its
administrative factors were used and extended to include more related statements to form a
newly proposed service quality model, NWU-PERF.

Gilbert et al. (2006:299) observed that the assessment should be as close as possible to the
―actual service encounter‖, as it should lead to a more accurate evaluation of the service
quality experienced. This advice seems to be a good indication of the types of questions that
should form part of the different questionnaires. It was therefore decided, after consultation
with experienced administrative staff to construct questions in such a way that it will not
merely measure perceptions, but as close as possible to real measurable experiences. This
included:

 Actual waiting times at a customer service desk, office, or on the phone.

 Observations about administrative staffs‘ conduct during lunch times, tea breaks,
peak times and long queues when customers show up.

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  Time and number of attempts to get an administrative problem resolved after it has
been reported.

5.3.2 Qualitative, structured interviews with Registrars

Structured interviews were conducted with the Institutional registrar of the NWU, as well as
with the three Campus registrars to elicit their opinions about the NWU‘s CEM approach and
how their staff applies it in practice, as well as on the existence and application of any
policies in this regard. They were also asked to rate certain statements that were adapted
from the HedPERF service quality model. These statements were the same as in the
questionnaire for administrative staff members and undergraduate students.

The interviews were then transcribed, analysed and the results reported in the next chapter.
The full transcriptions are shown in the list of appendices at the end of this document.

5.3.3 Quantitative questionnaires for administrative staff members

Organigrams of all campuses, faculties and academic administration departments were

obtained, either by telephonic or e-mail request, or by downloading it from the NWU Intranet.
Telephonic enquiries with administrative managers were conducted to determine and identify
all administrative staff that was directly involved with undergraduate students‘ day-to-day
administrative issues. It became clear that there were primarily three groups of
administrative staff on all three campuses that had to be selected to form part of this study:

[Link] Academic Administrative Department staff

Administrative staff, ranging from administrative assistants to senior administrative officers at

different departments, including temporary, contract and permanent staff, were identified.
Temporary staff had a minimum term of 12 months and were not merely staff members
helping out on a day-to-day basis. Administrative staff not dealing directly with students (e.g.
the filing or archives staff), or only dealing with post-graduate students or alumni, were not
included in this study.

The three different offices in these departments were as follows:

 Admissions office

 Student records and registrations office

 Examinations office

[Link] Administrative staff at faculties

Most of the 15 faculties of the NWU had a faculty administrative manager, as well as some
administrative assistants and officials. They were all identified and selected to participate in
this study. They were the most senior administrative staff members that formed part of this

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study, but the nature of their jobs implied that they were ―hands-on‖ involved in the rendering
of administrative services to students.

There were also several administrative assistants employed by the different faculties and
they also formed part of this study. The number of administrative assistants varied according
to the number of students they has to serve, as well as the type of learning model they
applied, as some learning models were more labour intensive than others.

[Link] Administrative staff on school level

Most schools within the faculties had their own component of administrative staff. In virtually
all cases it included the school director‘s secretary, who was responsible for certain
administrative duties, including uploading of results (assignments, tests and examinations)
onto the university‘s Varsité student data management system, and dealing with student
enquiries. Certain schools that were responsible for off-campus programmes had a larger
administrative staff complement. They were all identified and included in this study.

[Link] Questionnaire for administrative staff

The theories discussed in section 5.1 were used as a basis to draw up the questionnaire that
was used to establish the administrative staff‘s opinions about the NWU‘s CEM approach
and how they and their colleagues applied it in practice, as well as their satisfaction and
loyalty levels. They were also asked to rate certain statements that were adapted from the
HedPERF service quality model. These statements will also be used in the interview with the
Registrars. A copy of the questionnaire is shown as Appendix 2 at the end of this thesis.

The questionnaire was also uploaded onto the electronic learning platform, e-Fundi, and the
selected staff members were given access rights to this site. They also received an e-mail to
inform them about their selection and requested to participate in the study. They were
informed that a hard copy version of the questionnaire was available on request. The staff
numbers of participants were used to control that they could not complete both electronic and
hard copy. The preferred option of participation is reported in the next chapter.

5.3.4 Quantitative questionnaires for undergraduate students

Undergraduate students from all three campuses and involved with all the different modes of
delivery were identified to form part of this study. Data from the NWU Management
Information was used, as well as 2008 annual report of the North-West University (2009c:31)
to determine the student numbers per campus and mode of delivery. It was also compared
with the student numbers provided by the faculties‘ administrative managers.

[Link] Contents of the students’ questionnaire

A questionnaire was drawn up (shown as Appendix 1 at the end of this document) to

establish the student‘s demographic details, including their campus, mode of delivery and
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academic status; their communication channel preferences; opinions about the NWU‘s CEM-
approach and how they experience it in practice, as well as their satisfaction and loyalty
levels. The theories reported in section 5.1 were also used in the construction of the
questionnaire.

The student participants were also asked to rate certain statements that were adapted from
the HedPERF service quality model. These statements were also used in the interview with
the Registrars and the questionnaires for the administrative staff, as indicated in Appendix 4,
where the alignment of the different questionnaires is shown..

Their perceived customer experience encounter levels were measured by:

 Their direct customer experience at the different administrative service departments

 Specific and practical measurable service encounters in different situations and

channels.

 Their loyalty levels, value for money perceptions, intentions to study further and
advocacy intentions

[Link] Distribution and collection of the students’ questionnaire

First, second and third year modules were randomly selected from all faculties, and then the
researcher obtained permission from the relevant lecturers (for the on campus programmes)
to visit the lecture room during a contact session to conduct the research. Every tenth
student (as they were seated in the lecture room) was then handed a questionnaire to
complete. The programme managers of the off campus programmes were requested to
provide a list of all the study centres, facilitators at those centres, as well as the time tables
for all the modules. Modules were randomly selected from all off campus programmes and
the facilitators were contacted. If they agreed to assist, a parcel with questionnaires, a list
with detailed instructions (including the details on how to select every tenth student, as well
as details on the completion of the questionnaires), together with a pre-paid return parcel
were courier to them. They then assisted with supervising the completion of the
questionnaires at these off campus study centres, while the researcher was available by
telephone to answer any questions or assist with any problems or uncertainties. Completed
questionnaires were then couriered back to the researcher, coded and then analysed
together with the questionnaires of the on campus participants. A systematic random sample
of every tenth student from the school-based education off-campus programme (who all had
internet access at their schools) were selected and they were requested by e-mail to
complete the online questionnaire. They also received instructions to assist them, and the
researcher was available via cellular phone or e-mail in case of any uncertainties.

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Because the questionnaire was available in the e-Fundi online environment for the school-
based education off-campus programme, it was also made available for undergraduate
students on the campuses and learning models where they had access to the internet, by
following the self-selecting sampling technique as previously discussed.

Students were made aware of the questionnaire by means of the following initiatives:

 A message was placed on the e-Fundi homepage to inform all users as they sign in
(see Appendix 10). Screen shots with directions were posted on the questionnaire
home page to instruct students step-by-step how to complete the questionnaire (see
Appendix 12).

 A poster was also printed (see Appendix 11) and placed on all strategic notice boards
on the campuses.

 A Nokia cellular phone was purchased and offered as a lucky draw prize to
encourage more participants. The winner was selected by entering all the student
and staff numbers (for both the hard copy and electronic questionnaires received) into
a random number selection generator program after all the results were analysed.

 The administrator page on the e-Fundi site was used to monitor the statistics of
unique visits, which was an indication of the number of students that have visited the
on-line questionnaire (although it did not indicate the number of completed
questionnaires). A sample of this page is shown in Appendix 13.

 The different faculties‘ academic associations‘ management were contacted by e-mail

and requested to inform their members about the availability of the questionnaire.

 The researcher arranged to be interviewed by the NWU student radio station, where
he informed listeners about the questionnaire, the purpose of the study, and how to
get access to the questionnaire in the e-Fundi environment.

5.3.5 Alignment of the different questionnaires

It was also necessary to ensure that specific questions were asked to all three broader
groups of the population, in able to measure the perception or experience from different
angles about the same issues or situations. There were however, specific questions for
specific populations. Furthermore, it was also necessary to ensure that the questions asked
in the hard copy questionnaires and in the e-Fundi online environment were aligned in order
to ensure that the analysis of the results would be true and accurate. The summary of this
alignment process is shown in Appendix 3 at the end of this study.

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5.4 Conclusion

In this chapter a literature overview was provided about the relevant research processes,
designs and methodologies, and how that was used to draw up the specific research plan for
this study. The functional structure of the North-West University (including more information
about the different campuses and learning models) was also discussed in detail in order to
motivate the specific research design and methodology, as well as the specific research
questions that were formulated and were tested, in order to report the results in the next
chapter.

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