Chapter 2: Biological Approach

OUTCOMES OF THIS LESSON

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 1
 INTRODUCTION
●​ Main assumptions of the biological ●​ Background
approach:
○​ Aserinsky and Kleitman’s (1955)
○​ Behaviour, cognition, and emotions study observed periods of rapid,
can be explained in terms of the conjugate eye movements during
workings of the brain and the effects sleep and found a high incidence of
of hormones, genetics, and evolution. dream recall in awakening
○​ Similarities and differences between participants and a low incidence
people can be understood regarding when awakened at other times.
biological factors and their ○​ Sleep and dreaming are hard to
interaction with other factors. investigate because the participant is
necessarily asleep, and so cannot
DEMENT AND KLEITMAN (Sleep and communicate with the researcher.
Even when awake, only self-report
Dreams)
data can be obtained about dream
content, which alone may be invalid
●​ Title: The Relation of Eye Movements
as it is subjective.
During Sleep to Dream Activity: An Objective
Method for the Study of Dreaming ○​ The electroencephalograph (EEG)
monitors the electrical activity of the
●​ Year: 1957
brain.
●​ Psychology being investigated:
○​ The electrooculogram (EOG) allowed
○​ Our body follows two types of sleep:
the electrical recording of eye
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
movement patterns, their presence
and nREM (non-rapid eye
or absence, and their size and
movement) sleep.
direction (vertical or horizontal).
○​ nREM can be divided into 4 sleep
○​ The EEG detects and records tiny
stages.
electrical charges associated with
○​ In REM sleep, our eyes move rapidly nerve and muscle activity.
under the lids.
○​ In REM sleep, EEG is relatively low
○​ REM sleep is known as paradoxical voltage/amplitude and high
sleep. It resembles wakefulness as frequency.
our eyes move; we often experience
○​ In nREM sleep, EEG has either high
vivid (bizarre) thoughts in dreams,
voltage/amplitude and slow (low
and our brains are active. However, it
frequency) waves or frequent ‘sleep
is different from wakefulness as it is
spindles’, short-lived high voltage,
difficult to wake up; we are relatively
high-frequency waves.
insensitive to stimuli and paralyzed.
●​ Aims
○​ Ultradian rhythms- Basic
○​ Overall aim: To investigate dreaming
Rest-Activity cycles that occur
objectively by looking for the
almost every 90 minutes and are
relationship between eye
responsible for the different stages
movements in sleep and the
of sleep we experience.
dreamer’s recall.
○​ Dreams- Vivid and generally visual
sequences of imagery that occur
during sleep in the REM stage.
Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 2
 ○​ Participants reported to the lab a
Specific aims: little before their usual bedtime.
■​ To test whether dream recall ○​ They were instructed to eat normally
differs between REM and but to abstain from alcoholic or
nREM sleep. caffeine-containing beverages on
the day of the experiment.
■​ To investigate whether there is
a positive correlation between ○​ Participants were fitted with
subjective estimates of dream electrodes on their scalps and
duration and the length of around their eyes.
REM period. ○​ Once they were in bed in a quiet,
■​ To test whether eye dark room, the wires were gathered
movement patterns are into a “ponytail” to allow freedom of
related to dream content. movement.
(Whether these patterns ○​ The EEG ran continuously to monitor
represent the visual the participant's sleep stages and to
experience of dream content inform the researchers when they
or whether they are simply should be woken up.
random movements arising ○​ Participants were woken by a
from the activation of the doorbell that was loud enough to
CNS) rouse them from any sleep stage.
●​ Procedure ○​ The doorbell rang at various times
○​ Research Method: Laboratory during the night, and the participants
Experiment, Observations, indicated whether they had been
Self-reports and correlation dreaming and described their
○​ Experimental design: Repeated dreams in a voice recorder.
Measures Design ○​ Analysis of dream narrative: This was
○​ Three approaches were used to test only considered a dream if a
the three specific aims. (scroll above coherent, fairly detailed description
to find the three aims) of the content existed. Vague,
fragmentary impressions were not
○​ Sample: seven adult males and two
scored as dreams.
adult females. Five of them were
studied intensively, while the data
gathered from the other four were METHOD DESIGN
minimal to confirm the results.
○​ Sampling technique: Opportunity
sampling Aim:1 Participants were A natural
○​ Participants studied in detail spent woken either from experiment in a
between 6-17 nights with 50-77 REM or nREM laboratory setting
awakenings. The four others spent sleep but were not
only one or two nights with 4-10 told which stage
awakenings. they were in.
○​ Participants were identified by their
initials to maintain confidentiality.

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 3
 for longer than a
They confirmed IV: REM or nREM minute.
whether they had sleep stage
a dream and if so,
reported the
This was IV: eye-movement
content into a
measured using pattern type (mainly
recorder.
electrodes and an horizontal, mainly
EOG. vertical, vertical &
horizontal, little or
DV: whether the none) This could not
participants be manipulated.
reported a dream,
and if so, the details

The dream content DV: report of dream

was recorded. content
Aim 2 Participants were The data was used
woken following 5 in both experimental
●​ Results
or 15 minutes of and correlational
General Results
REM sleep. designs.

●​ Uninterrupted dream stages lasted for a

range of 3 to 50 minutes with an estimate
They were asked if Experimental average of 20 minutes.
they thought they analysis: IV - waking
●​ Dream Stages are usually longer later in the
had been after 5 or 15 minutes
night.
dreaming for 5 or of REM sleep. DV -
15 minutes. participant’s choice ●​ Dream stages had irregular bursts of 2-100
rapid eye movements.
Results for Question 1: Does dream recall differ

Their dream Correlational in REM and nREM stages of sleep?

narrative was analysis: two
recorded, and the variables were the ●​ Yes, dream recall significantly differs. In
number of words participant’s time 79.6% of the REM awakenings (152/191)
was counted. estimate and participants could recall a dream, whereas
number of words in in only 6.9% of nREM awakenings (11/160),
the dream narrative participants could recall their dreams.
●​ Therefore, participants are likelier to
describe dreams when woken from REM
Aim 3 Participants were A natural than nREM frequently.
woken after experiment in a Results for Question 2: Is there a positive
exhibiting a laboratory setting.
single-eye correlation between subjective dream duration
movement pattern
estimate and the length of the REM period

before waking?
Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 4
 ●​ Participants had 88% accuracy in estimating ●​ Low generalisability: only 9 participants
they were woken up after 5 minutes of may not represent the dream frequency of
dreaming. the general population.
●​ Participants had 78% accuracy in estimating ●​ Low ecological validity: People used to
they were woken up after 15 minutes of caffeinated drinks could experience
dreaming. changes in sleep and dream patterns due to
●​ The correlation between the two variables lack of those drinks; sleeping in a laboratory
was positive, within the range of 0.4 to 0.71, connected to electrodes could be
as the r values showed a significant uncomfortable.
correlation. Ethics
Results for Question 3: Are eye movement
●​ Deception: Participant WD was misled
patterns related to dream content? about whether he was woken in the NREM
or REM stage.
●​ Eye movements, as recorded on EEG, were Issues and Debates
related to dreams' visual content.
●​ With only vertical (climbing up a ladder and ●​ Application: EEG, which is used to detect
looking down) or only horizontal (watching dreaming, has useful applications for
two people throwing tomatoes at each assessing people with sleep and dream
other) eye movements were rare, with only issues (for example- insomnia and
3 dreams and 1 dream, respectively. nightmares)​
●​ 10 dreams were reported to have little to no The EEG can be used to monitor the
eye movement (watching something in the different stages of sleep individuals with
distance) insomnia (trouble falling asleep or not
sleeping enough) face and see patterns in
●​ 21 dreams had mixed movements (talking to
their dream stages (for example- shorted
a group of people)
REM sleep stages)- this helps get a better
Conclusions
understanding of the problem they are
facing and according come up with a
●​ Dreams are experienced in REM but not
solution.​
NREM sleep.
Parasomnias is a sleeping disorder involving
●​ Dreaming is more likely at night's end, as unusual behavior and dreams. EEG
the REM stages are longer. monitoring can be used to observe REM
Strengths sleep stages for this disorder as well to
understand how the unusaul dreams are
●​ High internal validity - definition of dream related to sleep stages and dream sleep.
clearly operationalized, demand
●​ Nature versus Nurture: Mainly focuses on
characteristics minimized by not telling
nature, making obtaining evidence through
participants about their EEG patterns,
EEG possible.
laboratory experiment with limited effect of
Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy Preferences)
uncontrolled variables.
●​ High reliability - EEG shows quantitative ●​ Title: Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy
data and is not affected by the preferences parallel those of children
experimenter’s subjective view; quantitative
●​ Year: 2008
and qualitative data are collected.
●​ Psychology being investigated:
Weakness’s
Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 5
 ○​ There is a difference in male and ○​ Research method: A field experiment
female brain structure and ○​ Experimental design: Independent
hormones,, resulting in sex Measures Design
differences.
○​ Independent Variable (IV): Gender,
○​ Socialization is the method of Monkey’s rank on social hierarchy
learning behaviours that are socially
○​ Dependent Variable (DV): Frequency
accepted. These behaviours differ for
and duration of play with each toy
the two genders.
type
○​ It has been difficult to determine if
○​ Sample: 21 males and 61 female
differences in behaviour between
rhesus monkeys living in natal
females and males are more due to
groups at the Yerkes primate
biological factors or social
research station in the USA.
differences due to socialization.
○​ Sampling technique: Opportunity
○​ Gender stereotype- bias of assigning
sampling
particular traits to a particular
○​ The natal group was housed in a
gender, for example- assigning
25*25-meter outdoor area with
aggression as a male-typed trait.
admission into a
○​ Play- Childhood behaviours are
temperature-controlled indoor area.
usually done for fun, which may or
Procedure
may not involve social interaction
and objects called ‘toys’. ●​ toys were divided into two categories based
Background on their properties: 'wheeled toys', which
matched with toys typically for boys, and
●​ Infants are exposed to hormones during the
'plush toys' to match girl toys.
prenatal stages of gestation, which impacts
●​ Six-wheeled toys- wagon, truck, car,
top preferences in children.
shopping cart
●​ A few females have experienced a genetic
●​ Seven Plush toys- teddy bear, Koala hand
condition which increases male hormones
puppet
during foetal development- these girls are
seen to prefer more ‘male’ '-type toys in ●​ For every group formed from the natal
comparison to other girls. group, 7 trials occurred, all lasting for 25
minutes.
●​ Primates are similar to humans genetically
and, therefore, can be used as a model to ●​ The rhesus monkeys were observed using
show if gender differences in behaviour are two video cameras.
due to biological or social factors. ●​ For each of the 7 trials, all monkeys were
●​ Female and male primates have differences initially indoors while one plush toy and one
in hormones, just like humans. wheeled toy were placed 10 metres apart in
Aims the outdoor area.
●​ Each video camera was focused on one of
●​ To investigate whether toy preference in the toys, with the positions of wheeled and
monkeys is similar to those in children to plush toys being counterbalanced between
test for a biological explanation for sex right and left locations.
differences in toy choice. ●​ After the 25-minute trial, the toys were
●​ Procedure removed, and two observers analyzed the

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 6
 videotape to achieve a consensus that rhesus monkeys were compared; the
resulted in high inter-observer reliability. toys offered were chosen for object
●​ Specific behavioural categories were formed properties rather than female or
after watching the animal interact with toys. male-typed toys, and children were
assessed using different toys and
●​ The exact time of each activity was also
only measuring the duration of play,
recorded, along with the frequency of each
not frequency.
behaviour.
●​ Issues and Debates
●​ A few behavioural categories include
extended touch, sitting on the toy, dragging, ○​ Application: Help cause awareness
carrying in hand, turning the entire toy, and regarding gender-neutral
sniffing. socialization. This would minimize the
divide between males and females
●​ For data analysis, each monkey's behaviour
early in childhood.
was converted into an average frequency
and duration. ○​ Individual versus Situational:
Results illustrates a role of biology that
supports the individual side of the
●​ Females did not have a preference for plush debate; however, exposure to gender
toys over wheeled toys. stereotyping in society counts for a
●​ Females interacted with plush toys more situational explanation.
than males did. ○​ Nature versus Nurture: sex
●​ Male monkeys prefer 'masculine' wheeled differences due to biological aspects
toys for 'feminine' plush toys. of brain structure and hormones
count for nature, but socialization in
●​ Rank on social hierarchy was positively
society is mainly due to nurture.
correlated to the total frequency of
interactions.
Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain Scans)

●​ When compared to data from Berenbaum

●​ Title: Mindfulness practice to increase
and Hines (1992), it was seen that rhesus
regional brain grey matter density
monkeys and children both showed higher
●​ Year: 2011
preference marks in males than females.
●​ Psychology being investigated:​
●​ Strengths
Mindfulness- State achieved through
○​ High internal validity: use of animals
meditation that aims to increase awareness
to eliminate the effect of
of the present-moment experience.​
socialization and another
Localization of function- Particular brain
confounding variable, behavioural
areas are responsible for different activities.
categories were accurately defined,
●​ Background:
counterbalancing of wheeled toy and
plush toy position. 1.​ Mindfulness involves cognitive
processes and sensory experiences
○​ High standardisation: The
that impact brain function.
observation process was the same
for all monkeys, with a standard 2.​ Early studies used EEG, but now MRI
length of 25-minute sessions. provides more detailed information
by measuring brain structures and
●​ Weaknesses
changes in grey and white matter.
○​ Methodological differences:
Differences in the children and
Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 7
 3.​ Comparative studies suggest experimental group for admission
differences in brain grey matter into the mindfulness course.
between individuals practising ●​ Common points for both groups:
mindfulness meditation and those 1.​ Participants for this study were
who don’t. However, caution is recruited from individuals already
needed due to potential pre-existing enrolled in 4 MBSR courses at the
individual differences that could University of Massachusetts
affect results.
2.​ Overall Age Range- 25 to 55 years
●​ Aims:
3.​ All participants were physically and
1.​ Use the MBSR course to compare psychologically healthy
grey matter concentration in specific
4.​ All participants were not on any
brain areas and the whole brain
medication
before and after the course (pre and
post-stages)​ 5.​ All participants had limited
*MBSR- Meditation-Based Stress experience with meditation classes
Reduction 6.​ They all had the same educational
●​ Procedure: level

1.​ Research Method: Laboratory 7.​ Incentive of discounted MBRS course

Experient with longitudinal design fee was given to all

2.​ Experimental Design: Independent ●​ Sampling technique: Opportunity Sampling

Measures Design 1.​ Both groups completed the FFMQ
3.​ Independent Variable: Exposure to (Five Facet Mindfulness
an eight-week mindfulness-based Questionnaire) with 39 questions and
intervention, the MBSR course five subscales.

4.​ Dependent Variable: Change in the 2.​ The 5 subscales had statements that
grey matter assessed using MRI measured observing, describing,
scans and Response on acting with awareness, non-judging
questionnaires to measure five of inner experience, and
mindfulness scales (before and after non-reactivity to inner experience.
intervention) 3.​ Each statement had to be answered
5.​ Sample: on a five-point Likert-type scale, and
the scores were added.
6.​ Experimental Group​
16 participants- 6 Males and 10 4.​ Some questions were reverse scored,
Females​ and from each group, 14 participants
Mean age- 38 years​ gave usable data at both time points.
There were 18 participants in the 5.​ MRI brain scans of both group
experimental group, but 2 males participants were taken at two-time
withdrew due to discomfort. points.
7.​ Control Group​ ●​ For the experimental group: two weeks
17 participants- 7 Males and 10 before MBSR and two weeks after MBRS
Females​ course (average gap of 56 days)
Mean age- 39 years​ ●​ For the control group: The two scans were
The control group participants had taken with an average gap of 66 days
the same eligibility criteria as the between them.

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 8
 ●​ The data from MRI scans was utilized in two concentration for the control group
ways: relative to other brain area
1.​ To analyze the regions of interest- ●​ (The four clusters were Posterior cingulate
Hippocampus and Bilateral insulae cortex, left temporoparietal junction and
2.​ To analyze the whole brain to explore two parts of the cerebellum)
other areas affected by the ○​ No correlation between other parts
mindfulness course. of the brain and the amount of
●​ Lastly, participants reported the time they homework or changes in FFMQ
spent over 8 weeks’ time on formal scores
homework and the three assigned exercises ●​ Conclusions:​
(Body scans, yoga and sitting meditation)
●​ Results ○​ The concentration of grey matter
○​ No significant correlation between increases in regions in the
time spent on body scans, yoga and hippocampus, posterior cingulate
sitting meditation cortex (PPC), left temporoparietal
junction (TJP) and cerebellum in
○​ Participants in the MBSR group
those who practice an 8-week
significantly increased mindfulness
mindfulness-based stress reduction
scores on the 3 subscales (acting
course (MBSR)
with awareness, observing and
non-judging) between pre and ●​ Ethical Issues:​
post-testing Risk of not protecting participants from
harm by not assisting control group
●​ Specific areas of interest:
participants until at least eight weeks
○​ In the specific area of interest- Left
●​ Strengths:
Hippocampus there were positive
changes in grey area concentration ○​ The increased external validity of
for the MBSR group between the pre findings derived from longitudinal
and post-stages studies stems from the extended
duration, which helps stabilize
○​ In the specific area of interest- the
fluctuating participant variables such
Left Hippocampus, there were no
as mood, attentiveness, and health,
changes in a grey area
among others, that could influence
concentration for the control group
mindfulness.
between pre and post-stages.
○​ High amounts of standardisation:
○​ No correlation between grey matter
for instance, a fixed number of
in specific areas and the amount of
exercises to be performed and fixed
homework or changes in FFMQ
total duration- make the study highly
scores
replicable, raising reliability.
●​ Whole-brain analysis:
●​ Weaknesses:
○​ Four clusters of the brain showed a
○​ Lack of generalisability of the
significant increase in grey matter
sample as they were all similar due
concentration for the MBSR group
to already being enrolled in MBSR
between the pre and post-stages
courses and having the same level of
○​ These four clusters showed a education.
significant increase in grey matter

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 9
 ○​ The unknowns regarding the Main Assumptions of the Biological Approach:
accuracy of the MRI and the lack of
objectivity in the interpretations of ●​ Behaviour, thoughts, and emotions can be
the data produced decrease the explained by the brain's function, hormones,
internal validity. genetics, and evolution.
○​ The lack of correlation between grey ●​ Similarities and differences between
matter and time spent on people can be understood through
mindfulness exercise homework biological factors and how they interact with
shows that the exercises did not other influences.
directly cause brain changes, which
also decreases internal validity. Overview of the Biological Approach:
●​ Issues and Debates:
The biological approach looks at human behaviour
○​ Application to everyday life:
by studying the brain, nervous system, hormones,
Provides a method to help people
and genetics. It shows how our body systems affect
with temporoparietal junction (TPJ)
the way we think, feel, and act. This approach also
impairment, and the two areas of the
considers evolution, explaining behaviour as
cerebellum where grey matter
adaptations to help humans survive and reproduce.
changes were observed can be used
It focuses on both normal and abnormal
for emotion regulation and healthy
behaviours to better understand them and find
psychological functioning.
treatments.
○​ Nature versus Nurture: The
biological aspects are highly
Key Features of the Biological Approach:
determined by the processes of
nature. However, the study showed ●​ Studies how the brain and neurotransmitters
that nurture through MBRS can work.
affect those structures and
●​ Explores genetic influences and traits
processes.
passed down in families.
●​ Looks at the role of hormones in behaviour.
●​ Uses experiments, correlations, and
long-term studies to collect data.

Experimental Designs in Biological Psychology:

1.​ Laboratory Experiments​

○​ Done in controlled settings to study

cause and effect by changing
variables.
○​ Example: Hassett et al. (2008)
studied monkey toy preferences in a
lab to see their interaction with
specific toys.
2.​ Longitudinal Studies​
Overall Summary Biological Approach

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 10
 ○​ Observe or measure participants Hassett et al. studied sex differences in toy
over a long time to find changes and preferences among monkeys, assuming their
effects. behaviour is less influenced by culture than
○​ Example: Hölzel et al. (2011) used this humans. They observed monkeys interacting with
design to study how mindfulness toys and compared their behaviour to data on
practice changes brain structure with children’s toy preferences.
MRI scans.
Key Topics Investigated:
3.​ Correlational Studies​

●​ Sex differences
○​ Find relationships between two or
●​ Socialisation
more factors without changing them.
●​ Play
○​ Example: Dement and Kleitman
(1957) studied the link between REM ●​ Hormones
sleep and dreaming using EEG
recordings and interviews. Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain Scans)

Dement and Kleitman (Sleep and Dreams) Reference: Hölzel, B K, Carmody, J, Vangel, M,
Congleton, C, Yerramsetti, S M, Gard, T, and Lazar, S
Reference: Dement, W and Kleitman, N (1957). The W (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in
relation of eye movements during sleep to dream regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry
activity: An objective method for the study of Research, 191(1): 36–43.
dreaming. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
Hölzel et al. studied how mindfulness changes brain
53(5): 339–46.
structure over time using MRI scans. The study
The study by Dement and Kleitman explored the combined experimental and correlational methods
connection between rapid eye movements (REM) to examine the effects of mindfulness on brain
and dreaming. They used EEGs, interviews, and regions.
experiments to study REM and Non-REM sleep.
Key Topics Investigated:
Key Topics Investigated:
●​ Mindfulness
●​ Sleep ●​ Localisation of function
●​ Dreaming
●​ Ultradian rhythms

Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy Preferences)

Reference: Hassett, J M, Siebert, E R, and Wallen, K

(2008). Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy
preferences parallel those of children. Hormones
and Behaviour, 54(3): 359–64.

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
Page: 11
 Diagrams

Psychology Cambridge AS & A level (9990) Notes on: Chapter 2 Biological Approaches Compiled By:
Muhammad Mish'al Nawaz “‫‬‫محمد مشعل نواز‬‎” CHSE- Student Index: 21119 Teacher: Mrs Annie Alwin
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