R.

4 Web Supplement: Calculus I Review Section 4,

Limits and Continuity

Author’s notes: Web supplements have not been edited or typeset by

Oxford University Press. Calculus I Review sections are designed for stu-
dents that have taken Calculus I but are not familiar with the infinitesimal
methods of Calculus Set Free.

In this section we review the ideas and calculations of limits using

infinitesimals. We assume that the reader has studied limits before
but might not have used infinitesimals to calculate limits. We also
assume that the reader has now gained familiarity with the EAR
procedure as developed in sections R.1–R.3. For a more complete
development of the ideas in this section, consult sections 1.4–1.7, 3.6,
5.1, and 5.4 of Calculus Set Free.

Limits: basic idea

You may recall that a limit is often used when a function cannot be
evaluated at a point, such as when division by zero is encountered.
The result of a limit can tell us what is happening on the graph of
a function, potentially indicating a removable discontinuity (hole in
the graph), a jump discontinuity, or an infinite discontinuity (vertical
asymptote on the graph), among other possibilities.
To illustrate the idea of finding a limit using infinitesimals, con-
x2 + 2x − 15
sider the function f ( x ) = . This function is not defined
x−3
when x = 3, because x = 3 would cause us to divide by 0. As a re-
sult, there is no point on the graph of y = f ( x ) at x = 3. However,
if we evaluate the function not at x = 3 but at a hyperreal number
infinitely close to x = 3, such as x = 3 + α where α is an arbitrary
2 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

infinitesimal, we can avoid division by 0:

(3 + α)2 + 2(3 + α) − 15
f (3 + α ) = To evaluate the function at the hyper-
(3 + α ) − 3 real number 3 + α we use the EAR
9 + 6α + α2 + 6 + 2α − 15 8α + α2 procedure that was explained in the
= = previous section.
α α
8α
≈ = 8.
α
The calculation shows that if the input to our function is infinitely
close to 3, then the output from our function is infinitely close to 8.
We then call 8 the limit of the function at x = 3.

Definition 1 LIMIT Let f be a function and let b be a real number. If

f (b + α) is defined and renders the same real result L for every
infinitesimal α, then we write Ways of reading lim f ( x ) = L include
x →b
“the limit of f ( x ) as x approaches b is
lim f ( x ) = L. equal to L” and “the limit as x goes to b
x →b
of f ( x ) is L.”
When L is a real number (i.e., not ∞ or −∞), then we say that the
limit exists.

For the purposes of calculation we write The limit definitions and calculations
used in this textbook differ significantly
lim f ( x ) = f (b + α), in form from those of other calculus
x →b textbooks, but they are equivalent
to those now-traditional epsilon-
with the understanding that α is an arbitrary infinitesimal (and there- delta definitions. The definitions and
fore may be either positive or negative) and that we must render the calculations used here are introduced in
the article Dawson, C. Bryan, “Calculus
same real result for every such α or the limit does not exist. Limits Unified and Simplified,” College
The earlier example could be rewritten as follows: Mathematics Journal 50 No. 5 (November
2019), 331–342.
x2 + 2x − 15
Example 1 Find lim . In the instructions to a problem,“find”
x →3 x−3 is synonymous with “determine the
value of.”
Solution We evaluate the expression at x = 3 + α and use the EAR
procedure:
Comparing the example to the defi-
x2 + 2x − 15 (3 + α)2 + 2(3 + α) − 15 nition, b = 3, f ( x ) = x2 +2x −15
, and
lim = x −3
x →3 x−3 (3 + α ) − 3 L = 8.

9 + 6α + α2 + 6 + 2α − 15 8α + α2
= =
α α
8α
≈ = 8.
α
The limit exists since 8 is a real number. The value of the limit is 8.

The graphical meaning of limit is pictured in figure 1. If

limx→b f ( x ) = L exists, then the graph of f will appear to contain
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 3
f (x)

the point (b, L). Whether or not the point (b, L) is actually on the y = f (x)

graph is another matter; it might or might not be there. But it will

appear to be there, because when the values of x are infinitely close L—
to b, the values of f ( x ) are infinitely close to L.

x2 − 1
Reading Exercise 1 Find lim .
x →1 x−1
| x
b
Limits: holes in a graph (removable discontinu- Figure 1: A picture of limx→b f ( x ) = L.
There may or may not actually be a
ities) point on the graph at (b, L).

Let’s look at another example of calculating a limit and then interpret

the answer graphically.
x−4
Example 2 Find lim .
x →4 x2 + x − 20
Solution Evaluate the expression at x = 4 + α: Comparing to the definition of limit,
f ( x ) = x2 +x−x−
4
20
and b = 4. We calculate
x−4 4+α−4 f (b + α) = f (4 + α) for an arbitrary
lim =
x →4 x2 + x − 20 (4 + α)2 + (4 + α) − 20 infinitesimal α and see if it renders the
α α same real result every time. Because
= = it renders 19 for any such α, the limit
16 + 8α + α2 + 4 + α − 20 9α + α2 exists.
α 1
≈ = .
9α 9
The limit is 19 .

A graphical interpretation of the limit is that the point (4, 19 ) ap-

pears to be on the graph of f ( x ) = x2 +x− 4
x −20
. But is that point really
on the graph? Try evaluating the function at x = 4:
4−4 0
f (4) = = (undefined).
42 + 4 − 20 0
There is no point on the graph with x = 4 because the function is
undefined there due to division by zero; x = 4 is not in the domain of
f.
Putting all that information together, we see that there must be a
“hole” in the graph of f at (4, 91 ). There is no point there, but on a
graph produced by a calculator or computer it will appear that there
f (x)
is. Because points have no width, the hole is too small to show up in
the graph, so we must make it show up. We will denote the hole by
1
an unfilled circle (an “open circle”) on the graph, and you should do 9 —

the same when drawing the graph. The “hole in the graph” is also
called a removable discontinuity. | x
To summarize, a removable discontinuity appears in a graph at 4
Figure 2: the hole in the graph of
(b, L) when f (b) is undefined and limx→b f ( x ) = L. A rough sketch
f ( x ) = x2 +x−x−
4
20
at x = 4
of the hole can be given even without knowledge of the rest of the
4 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

f (x)
function by drawing a small circle at the point (b, L) and drawing a
very short snippet of curve on both sides of the hole, as in figure 3.
Once more is known about the function, the general direction of the L—
curve near the hole can be fixed.
| x
x2 − 1
Reading Exercise 2 For lim = 2, make a rough sketch of the b
x →1 x − 1
Figure 3: sketching the hole in the
“hole” in the graph corresponding to the limit. graph of f when f is undefined at x = b
and limx→b f ( x ) = L

Limit example with a square root

The next example involves the limit of a square root expression.
√
x+7−3
Example 3 Find lim .
x →2 x−2

Solution We begin by evaluating the expression at x = 2 + α:

√ √ √ As in examples 1 and 2, the limit nota-
x+7−3 2+α+7−3 9+α−3
lim = = . tion is dropped when the expression is
x →2 x−2 2+α−2 α evaluated at x = b + α.

Our first thought when approximating a square root expression

should be to approximate under the square root, so we will try that: Ans. to Reading Exercise 1
2
√
9−3 0
≈ = ,
α α

but then we have violated the approximation principle since the

result of the approximation in the numerator is 0. We must there-
fore try something different, and as we learned before, multiplying Additional algebraic explanation of the
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the square root ex- steps here can be found in example 17
of section 1.2 of Calculus Set Free.
pression can help:
√ √ √
9+α−3 9+α−3 9+α+3
= ·√ Notice in line 2 that we did not multi-
α α 9+α+3 ply the expressions
√ in the denominator,
9+α−9 leaving it as α( 9 + α + 3). The pur-
= √ pose is to facilitate the cancellation of
α ( 9 + α + 3)
α from numerator and denominator in
α 1 the next step.
= √ = √
α ( 9 + α + 3) 9+α+3
1 1
≈ √ = .
9+3 6

The limit is 16 .
f (x)
Since the expression is undefined at x = 2 (division by zero), the
1
graphical interpretation is that there is a removable discontinuity in 6 —
√
x +7−3 1
the graph of f ( x ) = x −2 at the point (2, 6 ). | x
2
Figure 4: the removable
√
discontinuity in
x +7−3
the graph of f ( x ) = x −2 at x = 2
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 5

Limit examples with trig

The approximation formulas sin α ≈ α and cos α ≈ 1, valid for any
infinitesimal α, are sometimes useful in evaluating limits.

sin 3x
Example 4 Find lim .
x →0 7x

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = 0 + α, which is the same

as x = α:
sin 3x sin 3α 3α 3
lim = ≈ = . The next-to-last step used the sine
x →0 7x 7α 7α 7
approximation formula for sin 3α ≈ 3α.

1
Example 5 Find lim x sin .
x →0 x

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = 0 + α, which is the same

as x = α:
1 1
lim x sin = α sin = α sin A.
x →0 x α
Ans. to Reading Exercise 2
At this point perhaps we are stuck, because we do not know how f (x)
to evaluate trigonometric functions at infinite hyperreal numbers. But
the transfer principle does tell us something about the trig functions;
2—
since −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for any real number x, the same is true for any
hyperreal number x. Therefore −1 ≤ sin A ≤ 1, which means that it
is on the real number level. Since α is infinitesimal and a real number | x
1
times an infinitesimal is infinitesimal, the expression α sin A must
Figure 5: answer to reading exercise
also be infinitesimal and will therefore render the real result 0. The
entire calculation can be written as follows:
1 1 .
lim x sin = α sin = α · sin
| {zA} = 0.
x →0 x α
between
1 and −1
| {z }
infinitesimal

The limit is 0. 0.10

0.05

Since the expression is undefined at x = 0 (division by zero), the -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3

graphical interpretation is that there is a removable discontinuity in -0.05

-0.10
the graph of f ( x ) = x sin 1x at the point (0, 0).
-0.15

-0.20

Limit example with compound fraction Figure 6: the graph of f ( x ) = x sin 1x ,

generated by Mathematica. The hole in
1
the graph is not visible.
x−1
Example 6 Evaluate lim .
x →1 x−1
6 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = 1 + α: Approximating at this point would give

1
1 1 1 −1 0
−1 −1 −1 ≈ 1
= ,
lim x
= 1+ α = 1+ α
. α α
x →1 x − 1 1+α−1 α violating the approximation principle.
More algebra must be done before
The compound fraction (fraction within a fraction) can be made into approximating.
a simple fraction (non-compound fraction) by multiplying numerator
and denominator of the “big fraction” by the denominators appear- Recall that multiplying a number
ing in the “little fractions.” We therefore multiply by 11+ α
+α to simplify: by 1 does not change its value, so
multiplying a form of 1 such as 11+ α
+α is
1
−1 1
−1 1+α legal.
1+ α 1+ α
= ·
α α 1+α
1
1+
 (1
α
+ α ) − 1(1 + α )
 
= 
α (1 + α )
1−1−α −α
−1
= = =
α (1 + α )
(1 + α )
α 1+α
−1
≈ = −1.
1
The limit is −1.

One-sided limits
The definition of limit requires that we render the same real result for
every infinitesimal α. In our previous examples that has happened.
But sometimes it does not happen.

| x − 3|
Example 7 Find lim .
x →3 x−3
Solution We evaluate the expression at x = 3 + α:

| x − 3| |3 + α − 3| |α|
lim = = .
x →3 x−3 3+α−3 α
At this point we are stuck! In order to evaluate |α| we need to know
whether α is positive or negative, but because α is an arbitrary in-
finitesimal it could be either. If α > 0, we continue with  definition of | x |:
Recall the
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
|α| α −x if x < 0
= = 1.
α α
If α < 0, we continue with

|α| −α
= = −1.
α α
For some values of α the result is 1, while for other values of α the
| x − 3|
result is −1. Because we do not render the same real result for every We may write lim DNE or
x →3 x−3
infinitesimal α, the limit does not exist. | x − 3|
lim d.n.e. as abbreviated ways
x →3 x−3
to express that the limit does not exist.
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 7

A peek at the graph (figure 7) reveals why the limit of example 7 f (x)
does not exist. If x is close to 3 but larger than 3 (to the right of 3),
1—
then the values of the expression are close to 1. If x is close to 3 but
smaller than 3 (to the left of 3), the values of the expression are close
| x
to −1. 3
Instead of a hole in the graph, we have a jump in the graph (a
−1 —
jump discontinuity). It appears that there are limits from each side,
but they are different. We will call them one-sided limits. In order to Figure 7: the jump in the graph of
| x −3|
distinguish these one-sided limits from the regular (two-sided) limit, f ( x ) = x−3 at x = 3
we will denote the limit from the right by lim f ( x ) and we will
x →b+
denote the limit from the left by lim f ( x ).
x →b−
How can these one-sided limits be calculated? If we want to see
what happens infinitely close to x = 3 but only to the right of
x = 3, that means we are adding a positive infinitesimal amount
to 3. Instead of calculating f (3 + α) for an arbitrary infinitesimal,
which checks both sides, we could calculate f (3 + ω ) for an arbitrary
positive infinitesimal ω, which would only check to the right of 3.
Similarly, if we check f (3 − ω ), still with ω positive, we would be
checking values just smaller than 3, that is, to the left of 3. The defini-
tion of one-sided limit is like that of limit but with the modifications
just discussed.

Definition 2 ONE-SIDED LIMIT Let f be a function and let b be a real

number.
(a) If f (b + ω ) is defined and renders the same real result L for every
positive infinitesimal ω, then we write

lim f ( x ) = L.
x →b+

When L is a real number (i.e., not ∞ or −∞), then we say that the
limit exists.
(b) If f (b − ω ) is defined and renders the same real result L for every The phrase limx→b+ f ( x ) = L can
positive infinitesimal ω, then we write be read “the limit of f ( x ) as x goes
to b from the right is L,” while
limx→b− f ( x ) = L can be read “the
lim f ( x ) = L. limit of f ( x ) as x goes to b from the left
x →b−
is L.”
When L is a real number (i.e., not ∞ or −∞), then we say that the
limit exists.

For the purposes of calculation, we write

Notice that the notation is suggestive of
lim f ( x ) = f (b + ω ) the formula for calculation: for x → b+
x →b+ we use x = b + ω while for x → b− we
use x = b − ω.
lim f ( x ) = f (b − ω )
x →b−
8 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

with the understanding that ω is an arbitrary positive infinitesimal

and that we must render the same real result for every such ω or the
limit does not exist.
We can revisit the previous example to illustrate the calculation of
one-sided limits.
| x − 3| | x − 3|
Example 8 Find lim and lim .
x →3+ x−3 x →3 − x−3
Solution For the limit from the right we evaluate at x = 3 + ω:
| x − 3| |3 + ω − 3| |ω | ω
lim = = = = 1.
x →3+ x−3 3+ω−3 ω ω
The limit from the right is 1. On this calculation we were not stuck,
because we know that ω is positive.
For the limit from the left we evaluate at x = 3 − ω:
| x − 3| |3 − ω − 3| | − ω| ω
lim = = = = −1.
x →3− x−3 3−ω−3 −ω −ω
The limit from the left is −1. We were not stuck on this calculation
either, because we know that ω is positive.

Note that the only way for the two-sided limit to exist is for both
one-sided limits to exist and have the same value.

EFFECT OF ONE-SIDED LIMITS ON TWO-SIDED LIMITS

• If either lim f ( x ) or lim f ( x ) does not exist then lim f ( x )

x →b+ x →b− x →b
does not exist.

• If lim f ( x ) = L and lim f ( x ) = M with L ̸= M, then

x →b+ x →b−
lim f ( x ) DNE.
x →b

• If lim f ( x ) = L and lim f ( x ) = L, then lim f ( x ) = L.

x →b+ x →b− x →b

| x − 2|
Reading Exercise 3 Determine lim .
x →2− x−2
To summarize, a jump discontinuity appears in a graph at x = b
when limx→b+ f ( x ) = L and limx→b− f ( x ) = M each exist but have
f (x)
different values. This is true regardless of whether f (b) exists. A
rough sketch of the jump can be given even without knowledge of L—
the rest of the function by drawing small circles at the points (b, L) M—
and (b, M ) and drawing a very short snippet of curve to the right of
(b, L) and to the left of (b, M), as in figure 8. Once more is known | x
about the function, the general direction of the curve near the jump b
Figure 8: sketching the jump in the
can be fixed and the point f (b) can be placed in the diagram if it
graph of f when limx→b+ f ( x ) = L and
exists. limx→b− f ( x ) = M. No point is shown
at x = b, but such a point may be added
if it exists.
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 9

Vertical asymptotes
One way for a limit to not exist is if it renders the real result ∞ or
−∞.
x+3
Example 9 Determine lim .
x →4 ( x − 4 )2

Solution This is not a one-sided limit (we have x → 4, not x → 4+ or

x → 4− ). We therefore use x = 4 + α:

x+3 4+α+3 7+α

lim = =
x →4 ( x − 4)2 (4 + α − 4)2 α2
7
≈ 2 = 7A2
α Although writing limx→4 ( xx−+43)2 DNE
.
= ∞. is mathematically correct, writing
limx→4 ( xx−+43)2 = ∞ gives more infor-
We are not stuck because squared values cannot be negative; we mation; it says in what manner the
limit does not exist. For that reason,
know that 7A2 is positive. Because the limit is infinite, the limit does limx→4 ( xx−+43)2 = ∞ is the preferred
not exist. expression of the answer.

What is the graphical interpretation of this limit? Since the limit’s

value is ∞, we know that near x = 4 the values of the expres-
sion must become infinite. Therefore the graph must rise above a
y-coordinate of 100, above 1 000, above 1 000 000, above any real num-
ber! The function’s values must therefore rise above the top of our
f (x)
picture. We express that idea by saying that the function has a vertical
asymptote at x = 4 (we also say that the function has an infinite discon-
tinuity at x = 4). We denote the vertical asymptote in the graph by a
dotted line (the vertical asymptote is not part of the graph itself). The
graph of this function is in figure 9.
In example 2 division by zero resulted in a removable discontinu- | x
ity. In example 9 division by zero resulted in an infinite discontinuity. 4
Merely knowing that we are dividing by zero does not tell us what is Figure 9: the graph of f ( x ) = ( xx−+43)2 ,
with vertical asymptote at x = 4
happening on the graph; we can only tell by determining the limit. marked by a dotted line

DIVISION BY ZERO, TWO-SIDED LIMIT

• If the two-sided limit exists and is a real number, then there is Ans. to Reading Exercise 3
−1
a removable discontinuity.

• If the two-sided limit is ∞ or −∞, then there is an infinite

discontinuity.

• If the two-sided limit cannot be rendered, check the one-sided

limits to see what is happening.
 f (x)
10 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

If limx→b f ( x ) = ∞, a rough sketch of the vertical asymptote | x

can be given even without knowledge of the rest of the function by b

drawing a dotted line at x = b and drawing very short snippets of

curve at the top of the picture near x = b, as in figure 10. Once more Figure 10: sketching the vertical
is known about the function, these snippets can be connected to the asymptote in the graph of f when
limx→b f ( x ) = ∞
rest of the curve. A very similar sketch can be made if the limit is
−∞ instead; see figure 11. f (x)

−3
Reading Exercise 4 Determine lim .
x →1 ( x − 1 )2
| x
b
Remember that if we are stuck on a two-sided limit we can check
the one-sided limits.
5
Example 10 Determine lim . Check one-sided limits if necessary. Figure 11: sketching the vertical
x →3 x−3 asymptote in the graph of f when
limx→b f ( x ) = −∞
Solution The limit is two-sided, so we begin by using x = 3 + α:
Even though we are stuck at 5A we
5 5 5 do know that the result is infinite, so
lim = = = 5A, DNE.
x →3 x−3 3+α−3 α we may safely conclude that there is a
vertical asymptote on the graph of the
Because A could be either positive or negative we are stuck. Since the function at x = 3.
two-sided limit could not be rendered, we check the one-sided limits
instead. First we check the limit from the right using x = 3 + ω: We may check the limit from the left
first if we wish. The order does not
5 5 5 . matter.
lim = = = 5Ω = ∞.
x →3+ x−3 3+ω−3 ω

We are not stuck because we know that Ω is positive. Now try the
limit from the left using x = 3 − ω:
Even though the two-sided limit is
5
5 5 5 . infinite we must write limx→3 x− 3 DNE
lim = = = −5Ω = −∞. because we cannot render either ∞ or
x →3 − x − 3 3 − ω − 3 − ω −∞. We can render ∞ and −∞ for the
right- and left-hand limits, respectively,
The one-sided limits exist and are different. This also means that the so we do so and write the results
two-sided limit does not exist. accordingly.

In example 10 the limits are infinite, but from the right the limit is
f (x)
positive infinite and from the left the limit is negative infinite. This
means that the graph exits the top of the picture just to the right of
x = 3 and the graph exits the bottom of the picture just to the left of | x
x = 3. See figure 12. 3
If limx→b+ f ( x ) = ∞ and limx→b− f ( x ) = −∞, a rough sketch
5
of the vertical asymptote can be given even without knowledge of Figure 12: the graph of f ( x ) = x− 3,
the rest of the function by drawing a dotted line at x = b, drawing a with vertical asymptote at x = 3
marked by a dotted line
very short snippet of curve at the top of the picture just to the right
of x = b, and drawing a very short snippet of curve at the bottom
of the picture just to the left of x = b, as in figure 13. Once more is
known about the function, these snippets can be connected to the rest
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 11

f (x)
of the curve. A very similar sketch can be made if the ∞ and the −∞
are swapped; see figure 14.
In example 7 division by zero resulted in a jump discontinuity. | x
In example 10 division by zero resulted in an infinite discontinuity. b
Even when the one-sided limits are different, there is more than one
possible graphical outcome. Figure 13: sketching the vertical asymp-
tote when limx→b+ f ( x ) = ∞ and
limx→b− f ( x ) = −∞
DIVISION BY ZERO, ONE-SIDED LIMITS

• If the one-sided limits exist and are different real numbers, f (x)
then there is a jump discontinuity.

• If one of the one-sided limits is ∞ and the other is −∞, then

| x
there is a vertical asymptote on the graph (an infinite disconti- b
nuity).

• If the one-sided limits are identical then the two-sided limit can Figure 14: sketching the vertical asymp-
tote when limx→b+ f ( x ) = −∞ and
be rendered; check the box “division by zero, two-sided limit” limx→b− f ( x ) = ∞
for graphical interpretations.

Continuity
There is nothing in the definition of limit that requires us to only find
limits at places where we are dividing by zero. The procedure is the Ans. to Reading Exercise 4
same, whether it is at a place where we are dividing by zero or not. −∞

Example 11 Find lim ( x2 + 7x − 3).

x →2

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = 2 + α:

lim ( x2 + 7x − 3) = (2 + α)2 + 7(2 + α) − 3

x →2
= 4 + 4α + α2 + 14 + 7α − 3 = 15 + 11α + α2 f (x)
≈ 15.
15 —
The limit is 15.

In this example, the function is defined at x = 2. In fact, f (2) = | x

2
22 + 7(2) − 3 = 15, and the value of the function matches the limit.
In that case there is no hole in the graph; the point (2, 15) is on the
graph. The function is continuous at x = 2. A function is continuous
Figure 15: the graph of f ( x ) = x2 +
at a real number in its domain if the function’s two-sided limit at that 7x − 3, including the point with x = 2.
number agrees with the function’s value at that number. There is no hole in the graph. The
function is continuous at x = 2.
12 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

Definition 3 CONTINUITY (VERSION 1) Let f be a function and let

b be a real number in the domain of f . Then f is continuous at x = b
if limx→b f ( x ) = f (b).

Alternate definition of continuity

The definition of continuity can be rephrased to give additional in-
sight into the meaning of continuity. We know that limx→b f ( x ) = L
means that f (b + α) renders L for every infinitesimal α. The definition
of continuity simply puts f (b) in the place of L. Except for the use of the rendering
terminology and the use of the letter b,
this is identical to Cauchy’s definition
Definition 4 CONTINUITY (VERSION 2) Let f be a function and let of continuity.
Augustin Louis Cauchy, 1789–1857
b be a real number in the domain of f . Then f is continuous at x = b [Link]
if f (b + α) renders the real result f (b) for every infinitesimal α. [Link]/Biographies/[Link]

This means that a small change in the value of x (from x = b to

x = b + α) produces only a small change in the value of y = f ( x )
(because f (b + α) renders f (b) and therefore must differ from f (b)
by at most an infinitesimal amount). In other words, small changes
in the x-coordinate on the graph produce small changes in the y-
coordinate on the graph. That’s what keeps the points close together
and prevents the graph from jumping or heading off to infinity. Small
changes in x producing small changes in y, rather than the ability
to draw a graph in one piece, is the traditional intuitive concept of
continuity.

Continuity of functions
The definitions above define continuity of a function at one number
in its domain. The next definition applies the term to a function as a
whole.

Definition 5 A function f is continuous if it is continuous at x = k for

every real number k in its domain.

As stated before, every one of the common functions in calculus is

continuous at every number in its domain.

Theorem 6 CONTINUITY OF VARIOUS FUNCTIONS Poly-

nomial, rational, root, trigonometric, logarithmic, and exponential
functions, as well as combinations and compositions thereof, are con-
tinuous.
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 13

Various portions of this theorem are proven separately in multiple

locations in Calculus Set Free.

Using continuity to evaluate limits

One very useful consequence of knowing the continuity of certain
types of functions lies in the evaluation of limits. Suppose that f is a
continuous function. If k is in the domain of f then f is continuous at
x = k, and by definition of continuity limx→k f ( x ) = f (k). This gives
us a simpler, alternate way of calculating many limits.

EVALUATING LIMITS USING CONTINUITY

If f is a continuous function and k is a real number in the domain

of f , then limx→k f ( x ) = f (k); that is, we can evaluate limx→k f ( x )
by finding f (k).
If k is not in the domain of f then con-
Let’s illustrate by comparing two methods for finding lim ( x2 + 7): tinuity is of no help and we must use
x →3 other methods to determine the limit.

using the definition of limit, we using continuity, we “plug

“plug in” x = 3 + α: in” x = 3:

lim ( x2 + 7) = (3 + α)2 + 7 lim ( x2 + 7) = 32 + 7

x →3 x →3
= 9 + 6α + α2 + 7 = 9+7
≈ 16 = 16

Because f ( x ) = x2 + 7 is continuous at x = 3, the two answers

must be the same — the limit limx→3 f ( x ) (calculated on the left)
must equal the value of the function f (3) (calculated on the right).
This means that when finding limits of continuous functions we can Continuous functions include any
try to evaluate the function first. If the function is defined then we function type studied in calculus with
the possible exception of piecewise-
have found the limit. Otherwise we must try other methods. defined functions where the evaluation
rules change.
x2 − 1
Example 12 Find lim .
x →5 x+4
Solution Rational functions are continuous, so we start by trying to
evaluate using continuity:

x2 − 1 52 − 1 24
lim = = .
x →5 x+4 5+4 9
Because the expression is defined at x = 5 (the answer is a real Because we evaluated the limit by
number, 24 substituting 5 for x, this method of
9 ), evaluating using continuity was successful and the limit calculating limits is sometimes called
is 24
9 . the “direct substitution property.”
14 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

x+1
Reading Exercise 5 Use continuity to evaluate lim .
x →2 x2 + 3
x2 − 4
Example 13 Find lim .
x →2 x−2
Solution We start by trying to evaluate using continuity:

x2 − 4 22 − 4 0
lim = = ,
x →2 x−2 2−2 0
which is undefined. Then x = 2 is not in the domain of the expres- Any time we evaluate the function at
sion and we cannot evaluate the limit using continuity; we must use the given value of x and the result is
undefined (such as division by zero)
other methods. we are not finished. We must use other
Returning to our previous methods, we use x = 2 + α: methods to determine the limit.

x2 − 4 (2 + α )2 − 4 4 + 4α + α2 − 4
lim = =
x →2 x−2 2+α−2 α
4α This is the type of situation for which
≈ = 4. infinitesimal methods are designed.
α The function is undefined, but using
hyperreals helps us because we can
The value of the limit is 4. divide by an infinitesimal instead of
dividing by zero.
From now on, our first thought when evaluating the limit of a
continuous function should be to try to evaluate using continuity.
When that fails, we use other methods.
Because trigonometric functions are continuous and so are com-
binations and compositions of continuous functions, we can use
continuity to evaluate limits in a wide variety of situations. Again,
our first step is to try evaluating using continuity.

( x − 7) cos( x2 + 3 sin x )
Example 14 Find lim .
x →0 x+1
Solution Polynomial and trigonometric functions are continuous,
so this function is a combination and composition of continuous
functions. We therefore start by trying to evaluate using continuity:

( x − 7) cos( x2 + 3 sin x ) −7 cos(0 + 3 sin 0) −7 cos 0

lim = = = −7.
x →0 x+1 1 1
Because the value of the expression at x = 0 is a real number, evaluat-
ing by continuity succeeds. The value of the limit is −7.

Reading Exercise 6 Find lim sin( x2 − 1 + cos x ).

x →0

Horizontal asymptotes and limits at infinity

Limits at infinity can also be determined using hyperreals—we just
need to evaluate the function at infinite numbers. For instance, if we
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 15

evaluate f ( x ) = 4 + 1
x for a positive infinite hyperreal Ω, the result is

1
f (Ω) = 4 + = 4 + ω ≈ 4.
Ω Ans. to Reading Exercise 5
3
7
If the input into f is infinite, then the output of the function is in-
f (x)
finitely close to 4; in other words, as x gets “large,” y gets “close” to
4. On the graph of f that plays out as a horizontal asymptote on the
right-hand side of the graph (figure 16).
Similarly, evaluating f at a negative infinite hyperreal reveals the
horizontal asymptote on the left side, also y = 4:

1
f (−Ω) = 4 + = 4 − ω ≈ 4.
−Ω x

Sometimes the calculation can reveal the direction from which the Figure 16: the graph of y = 4 + 1x , with
horizontal asymptote y = 4
horizontal asymptote is approached; notice that before approximat-
ing f (Ω) is a little larger than 4 while f (−Ω) is a little less than 4.

Definition 7 LIMITS AT INFINITY

(a) If f (Ω) is defined and renders the same real result L for every positive
infinite hyperreal Ω, then we write

lim f ( x ) = L.
x →∞

When L is a real number (i.e., not ∞ or −∞), then we say that the
limit exists and that f has a horizontal asymptote of y = L (on the
right).
(b) If f (−Ω) is defined and renders the same real result L for every
positive infinite hyperreal Ω, then we write

lim f ( x ) = L. Notice that if Ω is positive then −Ω

x →−∞
is negative, so that in part (b) we are
evaluating f at a negative infinite
When L is a real number (i.e., not ∞ or −∞), then we say that the hyperreal.
limit exists and that f has a horizontal asymptote of y = L (on the
left).

For the purposes of calculation we write

lim f ( x ) = f (Ω)
x →∞
lim f ( x ) = f (−Ω)
x →−∞

with the understanding that Ω is an arbitrary positive infinite hyper-

real and that we must render the same real result for every such Ω or Ans. to Reading Exercise 6
the limit does not exist. 0
16 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

Examples of limits at infinity

The evaluate-approximate-render (EAR) procedure is used for this
type of limit as well.
2x + 8
Example 15 Determine lim .
x →∞ x3 + 4x + 2
Solution We evaluate the expression at x = Ω:
2x + 8 2Ω + 8
lim = 3
x →∞ x3 + 4x + 2 Ω + 4Ω + 2
Recall that the larger the exponent on
2Ω 2
≈ 3 = 2 = 2ω 2 Ω, the higher the level of the number.
Ω Ω
.
= 0. Recall that an infinitesimal such as 2ω 2
renders the real result 0.
The limit is 0.

The graph of the function whose limit is taken in example 15 has a Since 2ω 2 > 0, on the right side the
horizontal asymptote of y = 0 (on the right). function approaches the horizontal
asymptote y = 0 from above.
x2 + 4
Example 16 Evaluate lim .
x →−∞ 3x2 + 5x − 9
Solution We evaluate the expression at x = −Ω:

x2 + 4 (−Ω)2 + 4 Ω2 + 4 CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID

lim = = Failure to use parentheses with −Ω
x →−∞ 3x2 + 5x − 9 3(−Ω) + 5(−Ω) − 9
2 2
3Ω − 5Ω − 9
often results in sign errors.
Ω2 1
≈ = .
3Ω2 3 In the limit calculation of example 16 it
is not immediately apparent whether
The limit is 13 . the exact value before approximation is
a little larger or a little smaller than 13 ,
so we would need additional reasoning
The graph of the function whose limit is taken in example 16 has a to determine whether the function
horizontal asymptote of y = 31 (on the left). approaches the horizontal asymptote
(on the left) from above or from below.
5x3 − 2x + 7
Example 17 Find the limit: lim .
x →∞ x2 + 7x − 1

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = Ω:

5x3 − 2x + 7 5Ω3 − 2Ω + 7
lim = 2
2
x →∞ x + 7x − 1 Ω + 7Ω − 1
5Ω3
≈ 2 = 5Ω
Ω
. Recall that if the result of an approx-
= ∞. imation is positive infinite then we
render the real result ∞.
The limit is ∞.

Because the limit in example 17 is ∞, the limit does not exist and There do exist functions, such as
f ( x ) = e x , that possess a horizontal
there is no horizontal asymptote on the right side of the graph of the asymptote on one side only; that
function. is, a function can have a horizontal
asymptote on the left side even if it
does not have one on the right side.
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 17

Some algebra textbooks give (without proof) a method for deter-

mining the horizontal asymptotes of a rational function by consider-
ing the degrees of the polynomials in the numerator and denomina-
tor and, if necessary, the leading coefficients. If you have studied that
method, then reconsider examples 15, 16, and 17 and see if you can
determine why that method works.

4x2 + 7x − 9
Reading Exercise 7 Find lim .
x →∞ 2x2 − 1

Example 18 Calculate lim (5x2 − 4x3 ).

x →∞

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = Ω:

lim (5x2 − 4x3 ) = 5Ω2 − 4Ω3 Recall that if the result of an approx-
x →∞ imation is negative infinite then we
≈ −4Ω3 render the real result −∞.
.
= −∞.
Polynomials do not have horizontal asymptotes.
The limit is −∞.
For the degree n polynomial
The calculation shows that there is no horizontal asymptote (on a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + · · · + a 1 x + a 0 ,
the right) on the graph of the polynomial y = 5x2 − 4x3 . In fact, it is
finding limits at infinity gives
not difficult to see that the same is true for any polynomial.
lim ( an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · )
Although there are no horizontal asymptotes for polynomials, lim- x →∞

its at infinity still describe end behavior. For instance, limx→∞ (5x2 − = a n Ω n + a n −1 Ω n −1 + · · ·

4x3 ) = −∞ means that on the far right side of the graph the polyno- ≈ an Ωn ,

mial’s values plunge downward toward −∞. which will render either ∞ or −∞
depending on the value of an . Similarly,
lim ( an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · ) ≈ an (−Ω)n ,
Examples of finding asymptotes x →−∞

which will render either ∞ or −∞

Determining whether or not a function has a horizontal asymptote depending on the values of n and an .

(or two) is accomplished by checking the limits at infinity. Since

limx→∞ f ( x ) may be different from limx→−∞ f ( x ), both limits should For a rational function if there is a
be checked. horizontal asymptote on one side (left
or right) then the function has the same
horizontal asymptote on the other side.
Example 19 Find all horizontal asymptotes on the graph of f ( x ) = Check with your instructor to see if
3x − 7 both limits must still be checked for
√
3
. rational functions.
4x + x3 + 5x
Solution We first check the right side by evaluating the limit as Since the function of example 19 in-
x → ∞: volves a cube root it is not a rational
function.
3x − 7 3Ω − 7
lim √ = √ CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID
x →∞ 3 3
4x + x + 5x 4Ω + Ω3 + 5Ω
3
Recall that we may approximate un-
3Ω 3Ω 3Ω 3 derneath (inside) roots. But that must
≈ √ = = = . take place entirely inside the root; the
3
4Ω + Ω 3 4Ω + Ω 5Ω 5
5Ω inside the root may be discarded,
but the 4Ω outside the root must be
kept. After the root is taken we may
approximate the (simplified) expression
again if necessary. The approximation
principle still applies.
18 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

The function has a horizontal asymptote on the right, y = 35 . We

also need to check the left side to see if the result is different. We
therefore evaluate the limit as x → −∞:
3x − 7 3(−Ω) − 7
lim √ =
x →−∞ 4(−Ω) + 3 (−Ω)3 + 5(−Ω)
3 3
p
4x + x + 5x
−3Ω − 7
= √
−4Ω + 3 −Ω3 − 5Ω
−3Ω −3Ω −3Ω 3
≈ √ = = = .
−4Ω + −Ω
3 3 − 4Ω − Ω − 5Ω 5
3
The function has a horizontal asymptote of y = 5 on the left side as
well.

Reading Exercise 8 Find any horizontal asymptotes on the graph of

4x − 1
y= .
x+3
√
4x2 + 2
Example 20 Find any horizontal asymptotes on the graph of y = .
3x − 1
Ans. to Reading Exercise 7
Solution Determining horizontal asymptotes requires that we find 2
the limits as x → ∞ and as x → −∞. We start with the right-hand
side, evaluating at x = Ω:
√ √
4x2 + 2 4Ω2 + 2
lim =
x →∞ 3x − 1 3Ω − 1 √
√ Although x2 = | x |, since Ω is positive
4Ω2 2Ω 2 we can ignore the absolute values:
≈ = = .
3Ω 3Ω 3 √ √
4Ω2 = 2 Ω2 = 2|Ω| = 2Ω.
The function has the horizontal asymptote y = 23 on the right.
Next we check the left side, evaluating at x = −Ω:
CAUTION: MISTAKE TO AVOID
√ √ Recall that
4(−Ω)2 + 2
p
4x2 + 2 4Ω2 + 2
lim = = q
x →−∞ 3x − 1 3(−Ω) − 1 −3Ω − 1 (−4)2 ̸= −4.
√
4Ω2 2Ω 2 Similarly,
≈ = =− .
−3Ω −3Ω 3 q
(−Ω)2 ̸= −Ω.
The function has the horizontal asymptote y = − 32 on the left. p √
Just as (−4)2 = 16 = 4, we square
first and then take the square root:
When a function exhibits two different horizontal asymptotes, the q √
(−Ω)2 = Ω2 = Ω.
dotted lines indicating the asymptotes should not be drawn all the
way across the picture; the dotted line for the asymptote on the right
is drawn on the right side only and the one for the asymptote on the
left is drawn on the left side only, as in figure 17.
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 19

Figure 17: (at left) the graph of the

f (x) function in example 20, with dotted
lines indicating the vertical and hor-
izontal asymptotes. Notice that on
the left side of the graph, the graph
crosses the horizontal asymptote and
2/3 —
approaches that asymptote from above,
x not from below.
−2/3 —

f (x)
The reason that a continuous function (continuous where defined)
may not cross a vertical asymptote is that it is not defined at that
value of x. The infinite discontinuity prevents us from connecting the — −2/3

pieces on either side of the asymptote. But there is no corresponding

restriction on horizontal asymptotes; the y-coordinate of a horizontal
asymptote does not arise from division by 0 or any similar hole in
the function’s domain. Therefore a function might cross a horizontal
asymptote, as in figure 17. Because the scale makes that crossing
Figure 18: a portion the graph of the
difficult to see, a close-up view of the crossing is given in figure 18. function in example 20, showing the
  crossing of the horizontal asymptote.
x+1 The curve then approaches the asymp-
Example 21 Find lim ln . tote from above.
x →∞ x2 − 7

Solution We evaluate the expression at x = Ω:

Ω+1
   
x+1
lim ln = ln
x →∞ x2 − 7 Ω2 − 7
Ω
   
1
≈ ln = ln = ln ω
Ω 2 Ω
.
= −∞.

The limit in example 21 shows that there is no horizontal asymp-

tote (on the right) on the graph of the function. Ans. to Reading Exercise 8
y = 4 (on both sides)

Approximating inside a continuous function

Consider again the second version of the definition of continuity. If
f is a continuous function and b is a real number in the domain of
.
f , then f (b + α) = f (b) for every infinitesimal α. By the definition
.
of rendering, if the real number f (b) is not 0 then we can replace =
with ≈, that is,
f ( b + α ) ≈ f ( b ).
20 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

Therefore as long as the result is not 0 (which would violate the ap-
proximation principle) and what is inside approximates to a real
number, then we can safely approximate inside any continuous func-
tion.

Theorem 8 APPROXIMATING INSIDE A CONTINUOUS FUNC- This theorem does not say anything
about what happens when the quantity
TION If f is a continuous function, b is a real number in the domain inside the continuous function is
of f , k ≈ b, and f (b) ̸= 0, then f (k) ≈ f (b). infinitesimal or infinite.

x2 − 4
 
Example 22 Find lim sin .
x →2 x−2
Solution Evaluating using continuity fails since we would be divid-
ing by zero. Using x = 2 + α,
 2
x −4 (2 + α )2 − 4
  
lim sin = sin
x →2 x−2 2+α−2
4 + 4α + α2 − 4 4α + α2
   
= sin = sin
α α
4α
≈ sin = sin 4.
α
Since the sine function is continuous, the approximation on the inside
resulted in a real number (4), and the result wasn’t 0 (sin 4 ̸= 0), the
use of approximation is justified as written.

If the approximation principle is violated (that is, if f (b) = 0), if

the quantity inside the continuous function is an infinitesimal (that is,
if b is infinitesimal), or if the quantity inside the continuous function
is infinite (that is, if b is infinite), then theorem 8 does not apply.
For some continuous functions we can only approximate “inside”
under the circumstances of theorem 8. For others, we may always
approximate inside—for instance, we may always approximate under
a square root or inside a logarithm, even when that inside quantity is The proof that we may always approx-
infinite or infinitesimal. imate under a square root is given in
section 2.6 of Calculus Set Free.
Knowing when we may or may not approximate inside a contin-
uous function is important for maintaining correct notation, but it
is sometimes the case that when the conditions of theorem 8 are not
.
met then we may resort to the use of = instead of ≈ in order to save
the calculation. Examples are given in section 10.2 of Calculus Set
Free.

Exercises R.4

1–4. Sketch the removable discontinuity (the hole in the graph)

indicated by the limit.
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 21

The notation limx→3 f ( x ) = −2 and the

1. limx→3 f ( x ) = −2 3. limx→5 f ( x ) = 7 notation lim f ( x ) = −2 mean the same
x →3
2. limx→−4 f ( x ) = 3 4. limx→−2 f ( x ) = 0 thing.

5–8. Sketch the jump discontinuity indicated by the limits.

5. limx→1+ f ( x ) = 2, limx→1− f ( x ) = 4
√
6. limx→0+ f ( x ) = −3, limx→0− f ( x ) = 2
7. limx→−1+ f ( x ) = −1, limx→−1− f ( x ) = 1
8. limx→3+ f ( x ) = 2, limx→3− f ( x ) = 2

9–14. Sketch the vertical asymptote in the graph indicated by the

limit(s).
9. limx→1 f ( x ) = ∞
10. limx→−1 f ( x ) = −∞
11. limx→−1+ f ( x ) = ∞, limx→−1− f ( x ) = −∞
12. limx→−2+ f ( x ) = −∞, limx→−2− f ( x ) = ∞
13. limx→0+ f ( x ) = −∞, limx→0− f ( x ) = −∞
14. limx→4+ f ( x ) = 2, limx→4− f ( x ) = ∞

15–22. Rapid response: state the equation of the horizontal asymp-

tote, if any, indicated by the limit.
x2 + 3x − 9 1
15. lim 2
= 19. lim ( x2 − 7) = ∞
x →∞ 4x − 7 4 x →∞

x2 − 8x + 6
16. lim =0 20. lim g( x ) = π
x →−∞ 4x3 − 7x2 + x x →∞

17. lim f ( x ) = 14 21. lim f ( x ) = 4

x →−∞ x →3

18. lim g( x ) = −∞ 22. lim g( x ) = ∞

x →∞ x →2+

23–68. Calculate the limit. “Calculate the limit” implies the use of
the EAR procedure as demonstrated in
x2 + 3x − 4 sin x the examples of this section.
23. lim 46. lim
x →1 2x − 2 x →π/2 x
4x − 8
24. lim 47. lim (4x2 − 5x + 12)
x →2 x 2 − 5x + 6 x →0

−4
25. lim 48. lim (4x2 − 5x + 12)
x →3− 3−x x →1

x+1
26. lim 49. lim e x/( x+1)
x →4− x−4 x →−1+

5x3 + 2x2 + 4
27. lim 50. lim e x+ln( x−4)
x →∞ x2 − 6x + 7 x →5

3x5 − 9x2
+1
28. lim 51. lim e x/( x+1)
x →∞ 8x5 − 7x3 + x2 x →0
 
x+2 x+1 x
29. lim √ 52. lim ln +e
x →−2 x+6−2 x →∞ x+2
22 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

√ 1
x−2−1 − 12
x
30. lim 53. lim
x →3 x−3 x →2 x − 2
1
x+1 −1
31. lim 54. lim x 2
x →2+ 2−x x →0+ x − 2

3x − 9 4x2 − 3x + 12
32. lim 55. lim
x →3 x 2 − 2x − 3 x →−∞ 7x2 − 11x
√
x+2 2x − 114
33. lim 56. lim
x →9 3x − 20 x →−∞ x2 + 9x
x2 + 5 6x cos x
34. lim 57. lim
x →1 x+4 x →−∞ 7x2 + 1
sin 4x 2x sin x
35. lim 58. lim
x →0 9x x →∞ 3x + 11
sin 3x
36. lim 59. lim x sin(2x2 + 1)
x →0 6x − sin 2x x →0

3x + 21
37. lim 60. lim x2 cos x
x →−7 x2 + 12x + 35 x →0

2−x 1 − x sin x
38. lim 61. lim
x →3−x2 − 9 x →0 3+x
√
x+4−3 1 − x sin 3
39. lim 62. lim
x →5 − x−5 x →1+ x−1
( x − 4)2
40. lim √ 63. lim ln(4x − 8)
x →4+ 2x + 1 − 3 x →2+

sin 4x + cos 2x √
41. lim 64. lim ln x
x →0 6x − 1 x →∞

sin 4x2
 
42. lim ln 65. lim ln(4x − 8)
x →0+ 5x x →∞

4|2x − 6| ln( x − 5)
43. lim 66. lim
x →3− 3−x x →5+ x
√
4| x − 2| x−4
44. lim 67. lim √
x →2−6 − 3x x →4+ 2x + 1 − 3
√
8x + 9 − 5
 
x+π
45. lim sin 68. lim √
x →0 x2 − 2 x →2 + x−2
69–74. Determine the limit. If the two-sided limit cannot be ren-
dered, check the one-sided limits.
| x + 2| −2
69. lim 72. lim
x →1 ( x − 1)2 x →3 ( x − 3)3
−2 x2 − 9
70. lim 73. lim
x →3 ( x − 3 )2 x →3 | x − 3 |

4 | x 2 − 1|
71. lim 74. lim
x →0 x x →1 x
75–78. Find all horizontal asymptotes on the graph of the given
 section r.4: web supplement: calculus i review section 4, limits and continuity 23

function. It is implied that limits should be used.

4x3 − 4x2 + 1 3x + 4
75. f ( x ) = 77. y = √
x3 − 5 x2 + 8x + 205
2
5x + 6x + 1 5x − 1
76. y = 78. f (x) = √
x−7 2
x + 12x + 927
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises

Section R.4 9
f (x)

1 | x
f (x) 1

11
| x f (x)
3
−2 —

3 | x
f (x) −1

7—
13
f (x)

x
| x
5
5
f (x)
15 y = 14
4— 17 y = 14
19 no horizontal asymptote
2— 21 no horizontal asymptote; the limit is not as
x → ∞ or as x → −∞
5
| x 23 2
1 25 −∞
7 27 ∞
f (x)
29 4
—1 31 −∞
5
33 7
4
| x 35 9
−3
−1 37 2
1
39
— −1 6
26 calculus i review consistent with calculus set free: infinitesimals to the rescue

41 −1 63 −∞
43 8 65 ∞
45 −1 67 ∞
47 12 69 ∞
49 0 71 limx→0 4
x DNE, limx→0+ 4
x = ∞, limx→0− 4
x =
51 1 −∞
x 2 −9 x 2 −9
53 − 14 73 limx→3 | x −3|
DNE, limx→3+ | x −3|
= 6,
4 x 2 −9
55 7 limx→3− = −6
| x −3|
57 0 75 y = 4 (on both sides)
59 0 77 y = 3 (on the right) and y = −3 (on the left)
1
61 3