Chapter 2: Seepage in soils

Professor K.T. Chau

•Darcy’s law
•Permeability tests
•Theory of Seepage
•Flownet technique
•Flownet technique for anisotropic soils
Aquifer and underground water

Artesian well= A well drilled

through impermeable strata to reach
water capable of rising to the surface
by internal hydrostatic pressure.

ETYMOLOGY:
French artésien, from Old French
artesien, of Artois, from Arteis Artois,
France
 Artesian Aquifer
An aquifer that has pressure built up inside. This pressure is the result
of the recharge area of the aquifer being at a higher level than the rest
of the aquifer region. The force of gravity pulls the higher water
down which creates extra pressure inside the aquifer. This is why
artesian wells flow by themselves; the pressure forces the water out
of the well.
 Example of Artesian Aquifer
in China (JINAN)

baotuquan
 Darcy’s law
Darcy established the law experimentally (fitting data)

dh
v = ki = k
ds Energy difference to drive the flow

Henry Darcy
(1803-1858)
French

i = hydraulic gradient (total head loss/flow

path)
v = flow velocity s
k = coefficient of permeability (a function
of soil)

Key concept: energy is lost when water flows across soil!

 Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)
Darcy’s law
Bernoulli equation in u 1 2
+ V + gz = constant
fluid mechanics ρ 2
Total u Dropping the V2
hT = z + = he + h p ≈0
head(hT): γw kinetic energy 2g

Total head (hT) is Pressure head (hp)

a normalized u
he = z; h p =
measure of energy γw
Elevation
head (he) hA
hB
flow
head loss = Δh = hA − hB uA / γ w uB / γ w

Hydraulic Δh dh Δs B zB
i = − lim = zA A
gradient Δs →0 Δs ds
Mt Everest
Kowloon Park
Datum at Swimming Pool
sea level

he = 8848m Pressure head

At bottom of pool
h p = 2m

Elevation head
Piezometer, standpipe
Ground water table

Pressure
head
Total head within a continuous water mass is always constant

hT = hT = hT
A B C Concept: no head loss from Points
A to B (i.e. no seepage in soil)

Total head change ⇒ energy loss (when

water flow across soil, it loses energy)
Summary: hp

hT = h p + he
he
Datum
total head = pressure head + elevation head
hT = h p + he
u water pressure hp=Height of water
hp = =
γw unit weight of water rises in standpipe

he = distance measured from datum

( + ve = above datum; - ve = below datum)

Key concept: energy is lost when water flows across soil!

 Darcy’s law v = ki q = Av = Aki
Experimental based
i=hydraulic gradient (total head loss/flow path)
v= flow velocity
Henry Darcy
k=coefficient of permeability (a function of soil)
(1803-1858)

Hazen formula for sand k = 10 −2 D102 (m/s) D10 in mm

Allen Hazen
(1868-1930)
 Laboratory Permeability tests
Constant head Falling head
method method Note: h = h(t)

Note: h = constant
q = Aki
Applying dh h
Darcy’s law −a = Ak
dt l
q h
= v = ki = k h1
dh Ak
t1
A l − a∫ = ∫ dt
h0
h l 0
ql
k= h1 Akt1
Ah − a ln( ) =
h0 l

al h0
k= ln( )
At1 h1
Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils
 Typical constant head permeameter system

Correction
to 20°C

ηt
k 20 = kt
η 20
Total, pressure and
elevation heads variations
in different situation
Variation of k with void ratio
 Field Permeability tests A = 2πrh
Arsene Dupuit dh h
(1804-1866) i=
dr

dh
A=2pi rh

q = Aki = 2πrhk
dr
dh
q = 2πrhk
dr
r2 h2
dr
q∫ = 2πk ∫ hdh
r1
r h1

q ln(r2 / r1 )
k=
π (h22 − h12 )
 2
Borehole tests d 2L h1
Reference: Craig (1997), GEO guide
k= ln( ) ln( )
8 Lt d h2

πd h1
k= ln( )
11t h2
q
k=
2.75dh v′n
k=
i
 Theory of seepage Philip
Forchheimer
(Potential flows) (1885-1933)

∂v z
vz + dz Net inflow: v x dydz + v z dxdy
∂z Net outflow:
z ∂v x ∂v z
dx (v x + dx)dydz + (v z + dz )dxdy
∂x ∂z

vx dz ∂v x
vx + dx
∂x
Allow changes in velocity along both
vertical and horizontal directions
vz x
 Continuity of flow requires ∇•v = 0

Net inflow−net outflow = 0

⇒ ∂v x ∂v z
+ =0
∂x ∂z
Potential function φ:
∂h ∂φ ∂h ∂φ
v x = k x ix = − k x = v z = k z iz = − k z =
∂x ∂x ∂z ∂z
By integrating
∂ 2h ∂ 2h
φ ( x, z ) = − kh( x, z ) + C kx 2 + kz 2 = 0
∂x ∂z Pierre-Simon

z φ = φ3 For isotropic flow: ( i.e. kx = kz) Laplace

φ = φ1 Laplace equation

Equi-potential ∂ 2h ∂ 2h ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
lines + 2 =0 + 2 =0 French
x ∂x 2
∂z ∂x 2
∂z
1749 -1827
 Stream function ψ :
∂h ∂ψ ∂h ∂ψ
v x = k x ix = − k x = v z = k z iz = − k z =−
∂x ∂z ∂z ∂x
Definition of total differential
ψ = constant ∂ψ ∂ψ
dψ = dx +
⇒
or dψ = 0 dz dz v z
∂x ∂z =
ψ2 dx v x
Δq = ∫ (−v z dx + v x dz ) = −v z dx + v x dz = 0
ψ1
ψ2
= ∫(
∂ψ
dx +
∂ψ
dz )
vz
ψ 1 ∂x ∂z
z
ψ2
= ∫ dψ vx ψ ( x, z ) = ψ 1
ψ1

= ψ 2 −ψ 1
x
Difference between flow lines is the flow rate
 ∂φ ∂φ
Along equipotentials: dφ = dx + dz
∂x ∂z
= v x dx + v z dz = 0

⇒ dz
dx
=−
vx
vz tan ϑ =
m2 − m1
ϑ
m1
1 + m1m2
m2

ϑ = π / 2 ⇒ m2 = −1 / m1

dz vx dz
( )φ =φ1 = − = −1 /( )ψ =ψ 1
dx vz dx

Streamlines perpendicular to equipotential lines

 Relation between streamline
and equi-potentials

v z = vs sin α v x = vs cos α
∂φ ∂φ ∂x ∂φ ∂z
= +
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂z ∂s
= vs cos 2 α + vs sin 2 α = vs

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂x ∂ψ ∂z − dx
= + dz
ds
∂n ∂x ∂n ∂z ∂n dn
dz
= −vs sin α (− sin α ) + vs cos 2 α = vs α dx

∂ψ ∂φ Δψ Δφ
We will use this in = or =
deriving flownet formula ∂n ∂s Δn Δs
 Summary:
1. Seepage can be approximated by potential
flow. ∂ 2h ∂ 2h
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂z 2
2. Stream functions are for flow lines and
equipotential functions are for equi-energy
lines.
3. Streamline and equipotential lines are
perpendicular.
4. Difference between streamlines give us the flow
rate. Δq = ψ 2 −ψ 1

5. For square grids, change in Δφ≡Δψ. Δψ Δφ

=
( Δn = Δs ) Δ n Δs
 Flownet technique

Philip Forchheimer A. Casagrande

(1985-1933)

Steps of construction
square
perpendicular
Trial and error
 φ ( x, z ) = − kh( x, z ) + C
Curvilinear squares Δφ = kΔh
∂ψ ∂φ
=
∂n ∂s Δψ = Δφ Δq = kΔh
Δψ = Δq Δq = ψ 2 −ψ 1

N f ≈ 4 .3 N d = equipotential drops
h N d = 12 N f = flow channels

Δq q = N f Δq h
1 Nd
Δh =
2 1 Nd
3
4 Nf unit is m2/s

q = kh
per unit width

0.3
Nd
More examples
N d = 12 .5 Nf
q = kh
Nf = 4 Nd
Typical mistakes

Equi-potential lines cannot cut

each other (e.g. water surface)

Flow lines cannot enter permeable

boundary

Flow lines and equip-potentials not

perpendicular

Good flownets
 back

front

Total head at front(level 4)

ht(4) = 0+ change of h = h/ Nd =
1.2/12= 0.21m
hr(4) = 2.5-11change of h= 0.21m
Total head at back (level4)
hr(4)=0+8.8change of h = 8.8h/Nd=
back front

front back

1
21
3
4
5
7

Different levels
 Example 2.2

pressure head
total head elevation
head

1m

change of h
4/15=0.27
4/15×2=0.53
4/15×3=0.8
Nf 4.7 −5
q = kh = 2.5 ×10 × 4 ×
Nd 15
= 3.1× 10 −5 m 3 / s (per m)
 Example 2.3

q = 0.25m 3 /h per m

N d = 10 Nf =6

h = 4 .5 m

Nf
k = q /( h )
Nd EXIT GRADIENT
Δh 4.5 / 10
=
0.25
= 2 . 6 × 10 −5
m/s ie = = = 0 .5
4.5 × 6 / 10 × 60 2 Δs 0 .9
Flow through earth dams GC=0.3HC

x = x0 −
z2 q = 2kx0
4x0 Fit point G to find x0
Only 1 unknown in one equation

Conformal mapping
Equipotential BC: φ = − kh
Equipotential AD: φ =0
Flow line CD: ψ =q
Flow line BA: ψ =0

r = w2
x + iz = (φ + iψ ) 2 = φ 2 + 2iφψ −ψ 2
x = φ 2 −ψ 2 z = 2φψ
ψ =n φ=
z z2
2n x= − n2
4n 2
φ =m z z2
ψ = x=m − 2
2m
4m 2
Application earth dam or embankment dam
Kozeny’s basic parabola
r = Cw2 x = C (φ 2 −ψ 2 ) P.71

z = 2Cφψ
On top flow line: ψ =q φ = −kz
1
z = −2Ckzq C=−
2kq
1
x=− (k 2 z 2 − q 2 )
2kq
1 q k
x = ( − z2 )
2 k q
q
For z =0: x0 = q = 2kx0 z2
2k x = x0 −
4 x0
Filter design:
( D15 ) f Prevent erosion
<5
( D85 ) s

D15 ≤ 0.5mm

( D15 ) f
>5 To allow drainage
( D15 ) s
 High Island reservoir in
Failure of Teton dam in USA Hong Kong

Dam model in laboratory

Parabola
 Flownet technique for anisotropic soils

∂ 2h ∂ 2h ∂ 2h ∂ 2h
kx 2 + kz 2 = 0 + 2 =0
∂x ∂z (k z / k x )∂x 2
∂z
Change of variables
kz ∂ 2h ∂ 2h This is a Laplace
xt = x + 2 =0 equation in the
kx ∂xt
2
∂z transformed space

Isotropic soil in xt-z plane (flow net technique can be applied to the transformed space)
∂h ∂h
vx = −k ' = −k x
∂xt ∂x
∂h ∂h
k' = kx
k z / k x ∂x ∂x

k ' = kx kz / kx
= kxkz
 Flownet technique for anisotropic soils
Steps: kx
xt = x
1. Scale all horizontal distances by a factor kz
2. Plot flownet on the transformed space
3. Find the flow rate by using transformed formula

Nf
q = k'h
Nd
9m
k ' = kxkz
Step 1
Step 3
kx 1 .6
= = 0 .6 Step 2
kz 4 .5
 Example 2.4

kx 1 .6
= = 0 .6
kz 4 .5

GC=0.3HC=0.3×27=8.1m

k ' = k x k z = 2.7 × 10 −8 m/s

N f = 4 N d = 17.6

zG = +18m xG = −40.8m ⇒ x0 = 1.9m

Nf
q = k ′H = 2.7 × 10−8 × 18 × 4 / 17.6
Nd Answer
= 1.1× 10−7 m 3 / s (per m)
 All vertical scale remains the same, while all
horizontal distance scaled by

G y1 = 20 × 1.5 − 15.5 × 0.6 = 20.7 m

y2 = 15 × 0.6 = 9m
y3 = (20 − 18) × 1.5 = 3m
1.5
1 y4 = 18 × 1.5 × 0.3 = 8.1m
xG = −( y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 )
= −(20.7 + 9 + 3 + 8.1) = −40.8m
x
y4 y3 y2 y1 y0 zG = +18m xG = −40.8m
kx 1.6
= = 0.6
kz 4.5 y0 = 15.5 × 0.6 = 9.3m

GC=0.3HC=0.3×27=8.1m
z2 182 −b ± b 2 − 4ac
x = x0 − −40.8 = x0 − x= 4 x02 + 163.2 x0 − 324 = 0
4 x0 2a
4x0

−163.2 ± (163.2)2 + 4 × 4 × 324 −163.2 ± 178.38

x0 =
2× 4
=
2× 4
= 1.897 ≈ 1.9m x0 = 1.9m
 Idea: Replace n layers by 1 layer with an equivalent k

kx

kz

vertical flow
q = q1 = q2 = ... = qn continuity
A is arbitrary
Horizontal flow
Ak z i = Ak z1i1 = Ak z 2i2 = ... = Ak znin
q = q1 + q2 + ... + qn continuity
i1 = i (k z / k z1 ),..., in = i (k z / k zn )
Lk x i = L1k x1i1 + L2 k x 2i2 + ... + Ln k xnin
Δh = Δh1 + Δh2 + ... + Δhn Total head loss
i = i1 = i2 = ... = in (since no vertical flow)
iL = i1 L1 + i2 L2 + ... + in Ln
L1k x1 + L2 k x 2 + ... + Ln k xn
kx = L
L kz =
L1 / k z1 + L2 / k z 2 + " + Ln / k zn
 Transfer condition
Soil 1 Soil 2
φ1 = −k1h1 φ2 = −k2 h2
Total head at point B φ2 φ1
=
h1 = h2 k2 k1
Differentiate with respect to s
1 ∂φ2 1 ∂φ1 v2 s v1s
= =
k2 ∂s k1 ∂s k2 k1
Continuity on normal component
1 v1s 1 v2 s tan α1 k1 Snell’s law in optics
v1n = v2 n = =
k1 v1n k2 v2 n tan α 2 k2
Δn Δn
Δψ = Δφ Δψ = k Δh
Δs Δs
Ibn Sahl (940-1000)
Δq Δn Δn
= ( )k1 = ( )k2
Δh Δs Δs k1 1
=
k2 4
Δn Δn k
( ) =1 ( )2 = 1
Δs Δs k2 Willebrord Snellius
(1580-1626)
Chapter 2 Assignments: Problems 2.4 & 2.7 (Deadline next week)
Chapter 2 Assignments: Problems 2.4 & 2.7 (Deadline next week)
Example: Head loss concept
An apparatus similar to your constant head test in our laboratory is connected to Soils
1 and 2 of different coefficient of permeabilities (k1 and k2), cross section areas (a1 and
a2), and lengths (d1 and d2). Express your answers in terms of the given symbols.
(i) Find the total head at points A and C;
(ii) Find the total head at point B;

(i) hTA = heA + h pA = 0 + (d1 + d 2 + d 3 + d 4 )

hTC = heC + h Cp = (d1 + d 2 ) + d 3
(ii) By
q = q1 = q 2 = a1k1i1 = a 2 k 2 i2
continuity
a2 k 2
⇒ i1 = ( )( )i2
a1 k1

By definition of hTA − hTB hTB − hTC

i1 = i2 =
hydraulic gradient d1 d2

d1 a 2 k 2
By combining these hTA − hTB = ( )( )( )(hTA − hTB ) = α (hTA − hTB )
d 2 a1 k1
hTA + αhTC d a k
hTB = ; α = ( 1 )( 2 )( 2 )
(1 + α ) d 2 a1 k1
 ∂h ∂ψ hp
v z = k z iz = − k z =− Summary of seepage
∂z ∂x
∂h ∂ψ
v x = k x ix = − k x =
∂x ∂z Head
∂h ∂φ he
v z = k z iz = − k z =
∂z ∂z Datum
∂h ∂φ hT = h p + he
v x = k xix = −k x =
∂x ∂x Seepage Theory k determination
Δq = ψ 2 − ψ 1 k=
ql
k=
al h
ln( 0 )
Ah At1 h1
dz v dz
( )φ =φ1 = − x = −1 /( )ψ =ψ 1
dx vz dx
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ Darcy’s law
∂ h
2
∂ h
2 + =0
+ =0 ∂x 2 ∂z 2
∂x 2 ∂z 2
q = Aki v = ki
Flownet
Nonhomogeneous
Nf flow
q = kh
Transfer condition
Anisotropic flow
Nd kx
xt = x Nf
kz q = k'h
Nd

L1k x1 + L2 k x 2 + ... + Ln k xn
kx =
L

k ' = kxkz kz =
L
L1 / k z1 + L2 / k z 2 + " + Ln / k zn
Thank you
謝謝各位 !!