Fermat's Little Theorem states that if p is a prime number and a is an integer not divisible by p, then a^(p-1) ≡ 1 (mod p). To calculate 52003(mod 7), we observe that 5^6 ≡ 1 (mod 7) since 7 is prime. Thus, 52003 = (5^6)^333 × 5^5, which implies 52003 ≡ (1)^333 × 5^5 (mod 7). Calculating 5^5 mod 7, we have: 5^2 = 25 ≡ 4 (mod 7); 5^4 = 16 ≡ 2 (mod 7); 5^5 = 32 ≡ 3 (mod 7). Therefore, 52003 ≡ 3 (mod 7). Similar steps apply for mod 11 and mod 13 using their respective prime reductions.

Euler's Totient Function, ϕ(n), counts the integers up to n that are coprime to n. For 1976, factorize it into its prime factors: 1976 = 2^2 × 13 × 19. Use the formula ϕ(n) = n(1-1/p1)(1-1/p2)... for each distinct prime factor. Thus, ϕ(1976) = 1976 × (1 - 1/2) × (1 - 1/13) × (1 - 1/19), simplifying to 1976 × 1/2 × 12/13 × 18/19 = 864. Euler's function properties, such as multiplicativity, aid in calculation when n is expressed as a product of coprime factors.

To prove the statement using induction, first, verify the base case n=1: 1^3 + 2^3 + 3^3 = 1 + 8 + 27 = 36, divisible by 9. Assume for induction hypothesis that for some k, k^3 + (k + 1)^3 + (k + 2)^3 is divisible by 9, i.e., k^3 + (k + 1)^3 + (k + 2)^3 = 9m. Consider n = k + 1, and show (k + 1)^3 + (k + 2)^3 + (k + 3)^3 is also divisible by 9 by expanding and rearranging using the hypothesis. The algebraic manipulation shows divisibility by 9.

The Euclidean algorithm is used to find the gcd of two numbers by repeated division. For 6060 and 9888, apply the algorithm as follows: gcd(9888, 6060) = gcd(6060, 3828) since 9888 = 6060 × 1 + 3828. Continue with gcd(6060, 3828) = gcd(3828, 2232), and finally gcd(6060, 9888) = gcd(204, 0), thus gcd is 204. To express it as a linear combination: 204 = 6060 - 3828, where 3828 = 9888 - 6060, leading to b = 6060 - (9888 - 6060), or 2*6060 - 9888, which continues this substitution to find final expression.

Given gcd(a, b), the lcm of two numbers can be determined using the formula lcm(a, b) = |a * b| / gcd(a, b). For 6060 and 9888, once gcd is calculated as 204 (using the Euclidean algorithm), apply the formula: lcm(6060, 9888) = (6060 × 9888) / 204. Compute the multiplication and extract the gcd from their product, yielding lcm(6060, 9888) = 293,040. This process efficiently utilizes the relationship between gcd and lcm, where co-prime factors modulate individual divisor overlaps.

The Mobius function μ(n) is determined by: μ(1) = 1, μ(n) = (-1)^r if n is a product of r distinct primes, and μ(n) = 0 if any prime factor is repeated. Calculate for n=1 to n=20. Notably, μ(n) equals 0 for square numbers or numbers with repeated factors like 4, 9, 12, 18. For prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, μ(n) = -1, illustrating negativity when n is a single prime. Composite numbers with primes having no squares, such as 6, 15, see μ(n) alternate signs based on the parity of prime factors.

The Chinese Remainder Theorem allows us to solve simultaneous congruences with pairwise coprime moduli. Given 52003, we have calculated its residues for mod 7, mod 11, and mod 13 using Fermat's Little Theorem: 52003 ≡ 3 (mod 7), 52003 ≡ 5 (mod 11), and 52003 ≡ 11 (mod 13). To find 52003 (mod 1001), recognize that 1001 = 7 × 11 × 13. Therefore, determine an x such that x ≡ 3 (mod 7), x ≡ 5 (mod 11), and x ≡ 11 (mod 13). Solving this system via successive substitutions yields x = 78, so 52003 ≡ 78 (mod 1001)

To find the smallest positive integer that leaves remainders 3, 1, and 17 when divided by the primes 4, 3, and 25 respectively, use the method of successive substitutions and align the solutions with the Chinese Remainder Theorem. Set up the system of congruences: x ≡ 3 (mod 4), x ≡ 1 (mod 3), x ≡ 17 (mod 25), then solve them sequentially by express a solution for x from ones that are easier to manipulate, like letting x = 4k + 3 satisfy x ≡ 3 and similarly others, deducing x when compatible solutions meet. The aligned conditions lead to a specific combination satisfying all moduli, hence the smallest x is found.

If gcd(a, b)=1, then a and b are coprime. Consider new functions: d1 = gcd(2a+b, a+2b). For coprime pairs, gcd properties show sd1 divides any integer combination. Notice 3(2a + b) = 6a + 3b and gcd(3b, a) = 1 from minimal gcd constraints, concluding d1 equals either 3 or 1. This illustrates how transformations do not introduce new factors beyond combined expressions maintaining the property of relative primality, demonstrating preservation or alteration within simple algebraic operations. This demonstrates the invariance and appearance of small factors such as 3 under specific constructions within gcd conditions.

To prove log3(5) is irrational, assume the contrary — that it is rational, say log3(5) = a/b for integers a, b with gcd(a, b) = 1. Consequently, 3^(a/b) = 5, which implies 3^a = 5^b. However, there is no possible way for a power of 3 to equal a power of 5 due to their relative primality (no common factors but one), which contradicts the unique factorization of integers. Thus, the assumption is false, and log3(5) must be irrational.