Write up of Speaking PPT
Frames
in Artificial Intelligence
The Frame Problem
The frame problem was initially formulated as the problem of expressing a dynamical domain in logic without explicitly specifying which conditions are not affected by an action.
In the confined world of a robot, surroundings are not static. Many varying forces or actions can cause changes or modifications to it. The problem of forcing a robot to adapt to these changes is the basis of the frame problem in artificial intelligence. Information in the knowledge base and the robot's conclusions combine to form the input for what the robot's subsequent action should be. A good selection from its facts can be made by discarding or ignoring irrelevant facts and ridding of results that could have negative side effects. A robot must introduce facts that are relevant to a particular moment. That is, a robot will examine its current situation, and then look up the facts that will be beneficial to choosing its subsequent action. The robot should also search for any changeable facts. It then examines these facts to determine if any of them have been changed during a previous examination. There are two basic types of change: 1. Relevant Change 2. Irrelevant Change
Relevant Change: Inspect the changes made by an action Irrelevant Change: do not inspect facts that are not related to the task at hand
Facts may be examined utilizing two levels:
Semantic Level: This level interprets what kind of information is being examined. Solutions should become obvious by the assumptions of how an object should behave. There are believers in a purely semantic approach who believe that correct information can be reached via meaning. However, this hypothesis has yet to be proven. Syntactic Level: This level simply decides in which format the information should be inspected. That is, it forms solutions based on the structure and patterns of facts. When inspecting the facts, various problems can occur: Sometimes an implication can be missed. Considering all facts and all their subsequent side effects is time-consuming. Some facts are unnecessarily examined when they are unneeded.
Problems Related to the Frame Problem
The Qualification Problem
The Qualification Problem was introduced by John McCarthy. It suggests that one is never completely positive if a specific rule will work. It also suggests that the robot does not necessarily know which rules to ignore in a given situation. Modifications in the environment can "confuse" the robot as certain rules will become obsolete and new rules will be necessary before they exist.
The Representational Problem
The Representational Problem is the difficulty of generating truths about the current environment. For example, how can one program the notions of up and down? These are relative to each other, and can not be simply described by direction. To partially rectify this problem, successor-state axioms are used. These axioms show all the true and false possibilities of a rule.
The Inferential Problem
Difficulty with examining the methods by which the world is judged is the Inferential Problem. There are two kinds of purposes. The General Purpose is to inspect the entire world of things that are changeable. The Special Purpose is to only inspect actions that can modify over a small area of surroundings.
\The Ramification Problem
This problem describes how an action can cause deviations within its environment. For example, a robotic arm has been given the task of picking up a brick and placing it on its side in a different location. If the brick has been knocked over, what can the robot do to rectify the problem? Will it still know which side should be facing up without the ability of human sight? Should these deviations be examined individually each time an action has taken place?
The Predictive Problem
The Predictive Problem deals with the benefits of predictions. That is, it is uncertain if a given prediction will cause a positive change in the environment. If the change will not be positive, "either the laws or description of the given situation must be imperfect.
Approaches to a Frame Problem Solution
The Non-Deductive Approach
This approach deals with making decisions that imitate human thought processes. However, the task of programming human cognition has yet to be successful.
The Deductive Approach
This approach differs from the Non-Deductive Approach because it is free from psychological views. All Knowledge can be expressed as axioms and use predicate calculus to arrive at conclusions where: S describes the task to be performed. A describes all actions in an environment. This is the frame part of the problem. Action A occurs and provides a conclusion for what A does in S. This will only work in simple instances. Problems: There is an action that is not defined in A leading to an inaccurate conclusion. There is an argument that humans do not think in this fashion (comparing A to S and if human behavior can be mimicked.
Frames & Scripts Approch:
Minsky and Schank's Frames approach deals with separating the world into individual categories and aspects. Minsky suggests implementing the scenarios in frames, while Schank suggests implementing them in scripts. If a robot uses frames or scripts, then habits can be formed regarding specific situations where it deducts how it should react. Problems: It is hard to recover from a mistake. The robot could get stuck in a block that might not apply to all situations. It is uncertain how large each category should be.
FRAME in Artificial Intelligence
Frames were proposed by Marvin Minsky in his 1974 article "A Framework for Representing Knowledge."
A frame is an artificial intelligence data structure used to divide knowledge into substructures by representing "stereotyped situations." Frames are connected together to form a complete idea.
Frames are also an extensive part of knowledge representation and reasoning schemes.
Frames were originally derived from semantic networks and are therefore part of structure based knowledge representations. The frame contains information on how to use the frame, what to expect next, and what to do when these expectations are not met. Some information in the frame is generally unchanged while other information, stored in "terminals, usually change. Different frames may share the same terminals. Each piece of information about a particular frame is held in a slot. The information can contain:
Facts or Data
- Values (called facets)
Procedures (also called procedural attachments)
- IF-NEEDED : deferred evaluation - IF-ADDED : updates linked information
Default Values
- For Data - For Procedures
A frame structure is used to analyze new situations from scratch and then build new knowledge structures to describe those situations. Typically , a frame describes a class of objects, such as CHAIR or ROOM . it consists of a collection of slots that describe aspects of the objects. Associated with each slot may be a set of conditions that must be met by any filler for it. Each slot may also be filled with a default value, so that in the absence of specific information, things can be associated to be as they usually are. Procedural information may also be associated with particular slots. The AI systems exploit not one but many frames. Related frames can be grouped together to form a frame system.
Frames represent an object as a group of attributes. Each attributes in a particular frame is stored in a separate slot. For example, when a furniture salesman says I have a nice chair, that I want you to see, the word chair would immediately trigger in our minds a series of expectations. We would probably expect to see an object with four legs, a seat , a back and possibly (but not necessarily) two arms. We would expect it to have a particular size and serves a place to sit. In an AI system, a frame CHAIR might include knowledge organized as shown below:
Frame : CHAIR Parts : seat, back, legs, arms Number of legs : 4 Number of arms: 0 or 2 Default : 0
The default assignments are attached loosely to their terminals, so that they can be easily displaced by new items that fit better the current situation. They thus can serve also as "variables" or as special cases for "reasoning by example," or as "textbook cases," and often make the use of logical quantifiers unnecessary. The frame-systems are linked, in turn, by an information retrieval network. When a proposed frame cannot be made to fit realitywhen we cannot find terminal assignments that suitably match its terminal marker conditionsthis network provides a replacement frame. These inter-frame structures make possible other ways to represent knowledge about facts, analogies, and other information useful in understanding.
Once a frame is proposed to represent a situation, a matching process tries to assign values to each frame's terminals, consistent with the markers at each place. The matching
process is partly controlled by information associated with the frame (which includes information about how to deal with surprises) and partly by knowledge about the system's current goals. There are important uses for the information, obtained when a matching process fails. I will discuss how it can be used to select an alternative frame that better suits the situation. Dog { is a: mammal; no._of._legs: 4; types_of_teath: sharp; has_tail: yes; color_of_skin: ; owner: ; ; ;
Inference in Frame..
Look for candidate frames or instances. Look for available of values. If available -solved. Else go to the preceding level and so on. If solved at a higher level, try to have more specific answer going down the hierarchy through another branch.
Scripts
Scripts were developed in the early AI work by Roger Schank, Robert P. Abelson and their research group.
Scripts are a method of representing procedural knowledge. They are very much like frames, except the values that fill the slots must be ordered.
The classic example of a script involves the typical sequence of events that occur when a person dines in a restaurant: finding a seat, reading the menu, ordering drinks from the waitstaff... In the script form, these would be decomposed into conceptual transitions.
Record the normal sequence of events for a given type of occurrence.
Each event in a script can be expressed as conceptual primitives. A system with such a script will find it relatively easy to make sense of a narrative where a particular episode is described in only partial or fragmentary terms. Moreover, it will be relatively easy to describe unusual events, in terms of the expectations set up by the script.
Joe went to a restaurant. Joe ordered a hamburger. When the hamburger came, it was burnt to a crisp. Joe stormed out without paying.
The system was able to infer that Joe had not eaten the hamburger, even though no explicit mention was made of what he did and did not eat in the restaurant. Indeed, the system could explain its reasoning by referring to the ways in which the events described in the story failed to match up to the standard restaurant script.
