NUTRITION IN ORGANISM

Digestion in Humans The food components pass through a continuous canal

and get digested in each compartment. This is called an alimentary canal, it is
‘the tract or canal running from mouth to anus of human being where
digestion and absorption of food take place.’ The alimentary canal can be
divided into various compartments:
 NUTRITION IN ORGANISM

 The buccal cavity

 Food pipe or oesophagus

 Stomach

 Small intestine

 Large intestine ending in the rectum

 The anus
 NUTRITION IN ORGANISM

 The main digestive glands which secrete digestive juices are

 salivary gland

 liver

 pancreas
 NUTRITION IN ORGANISM

Various processes involved in utilisation of food in humans are:-

The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.

The process by which the food containing large insoluble substances is broken
down into small water-soluble substances is called digestion.

There are two methods of digesting food, i.e. physical method (including
chewing and grinding of food in mouth) and chemical method (addition of
digestive juices to the food by the body itself).
NUTRITION IN ORGANISM
 NUTRITION IN ORGANISM

 The process by which the digested food passes through the intestinal wall
into the bloodstream is called absorption.

 The process by which the absorbed food is taken in body cells and used for
energy, growth and repair is called assimilation.

 The process by which the undigested food is removed from the body is
called egestion
 Teeth

 The food is cut by the teeth inside the mouth. Teeth mechanically break the
food into small pieces. These teeth vary in appearance. Each tooth is rooted
in a separate socket in the gums.
 There are four types of teeth:

 Incisors These are four chisel-shaped incisors at centre of each jaw for
biting and cutting the food.

 Canines These are two large pointed teeth just behind incisors in each jaw,
for piercing and tearing the food.

 Premolars These are four (two on each side) large premolars with the flat
surface behind the canines in each jaw, for grinding and chewing.

 Molars In an adult, these are six (three on each side) large molars with the
flat surface behind the premolars in each jaw, for grinding.
There are four types of teeth:
VEGETARIVE PROPAGATION IN PLANTS
VEGETARIVE PROPAGATION IN PLANTS

This occurs when plants grow and develop naturally without any human
interference. Natural vegetative propagation can be enabled by the
development of adventitious roots. Thus, new plants may emerge from the
roots, stem and leaves of the parent plant. The vegetative plant structures
arising from the stem are known as rhizomes, bulbs, runners, tubers, etc. The
plants propagated vegetatively are given below:
 Stem
Runners grow horizontally above the ground. The buds are formed at the
nodes of the runners.
Roots
New plants emerge out of swollen, modified roots known as tubers. Buds are
formed at the base of the stem.
 Leaves
Leaves of a few plants get detached from the parent plant and develop into
new plants.
 Bulbs
Bulbs have an underground stem to which the leaves are attached. These leaves
are capable of storing food. The centre of the bulb contains an apical bud that
produces leaves and flowers. Shoots are developed from the lateral buds.
 Artificial Vegetative Propagation
This is a type of vegetative reproduction carried out by humans in the fields
and laboratories. The most common types of vegetative reproduction
occurring artificially include:
 Cutting
In this, a part of a plant, specifically a stem or leaf is cut and planted in the
soil. These cuttings are sometimes treated with hormones to induce root
development. The new plant is formed from the adventitious roots developing
from the cutting.
Grafting
In this, the cutting from some other plant is attached to the stem of a plant
rooted in the ground. The tissues of the graft become integrated with the
tissues of the rooted plant and develop as a single plant over time.
Layering
In this, the stem of the plant is bent to the ground and covered with soil.
Adventitious roots emerge from the plant parts covered with the soil. This
attached stem with developing roots is known as a layer.
 Tissue Culture
In this, the plant cells from different parts of a plant are cultured in the
laboratory to develop a new plant. This technique is helpful in increasing the
number of rare and endangered plant species that are unable to grow under
natural conditions.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Flowers are the reproductive parts of a plant. Male and female gametes are
produced in the flower. The flower consists of four main parts

Sepals:

They are the green leaf-like structures which protect the flower in the bud
stage.

Petals:

They are the coloured structures. They are the most beautiful part of the
flower that attracts the birds and insects for pollination
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Stamens:

They are the male reproductive parts. Stamens consist of two parts – anther
and filament. Anther is a swollen part of the stamen. The filament is a long,
slender stalk which attaches the stamen to the flower.

Pollen grains are formed inside the anther which produces the male gametes.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Pistil or Carpel: It is the female reproductive part of the flower. It consists of
three parts – stigma, style and the ovary. The stigma is at the top of the pistil.
It receives the pollen grains during pollination. The style is a long, tube-like
structure which passes the pollen grains to the ovary. The ovary is the swollen
part present at the basal part of the pistil. The ovary consists of the ovule
which bears the female gamete. Flowers can be of two types depending upon
whether both the sexual parts – male and female are present in the same
flower or different flower.
TYPES OF FLOWER:- Bisexual flowers:
Flowers which contain both the stamens and the pistil are known as bisexual
flowers. For example- Rose, Hibiscus, Gulmohar, Mustard etc.

Uni-sexual flowers: The flowers which contain either the stamens or the pistil
are known as unisexual flowers. For example- Maize, Papaya, Cucumber etc.
 SEX DETERMINATION
Human beings exhibit male heterogamy. In humans, males (XY) produce two
different types of gametes, X and Y. The human female (XX) produces only
one type of gametes containing X chromosomes. The sex of the baby is
determined by the type of male gamete that fuses with the female gamete. If
the fertilizing sperm contains X chromosome, then the baby produced will be a
girl and if the fertilizing sperm contains Y chromosome, then the baby
produced will be a boy. Hence, it is a matter of chance that determines the sex
of a baby. There is an equal probability of the fertilizing sperm haveup an X or
Y chromosome. Thus, it is the genetic make up of the sperm that determines
the sex of the baby.
MENDEL’S PEA EXPERIMENT
Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics. He conducted
hybridization experiments on garden peas for seven years (1856-1863) and
proposed the laws of inheritance. Mendel conducted artificial
pollination/cross pollination experiments using several true-breeding pea lines
(plants that show the stable trait inheritance and expression for several
generations).
MENDEL’S PEA EXPERIMENT
Reasons that Mendel chose the pea plant: The pea plant can be easily grown
and maintained. They are naturally self-pollinating but can also be cross-
pollinated. It is an annual plant, therefore, many generations can be studied
within a short period of time. It has several contrasting characters. Mendel’s
laws:
MENDEL’S PEA EXPERIMENT
Law of Dominance: According to this, hybrid offspring will only inherit the
dominant trait in the phenotype. The alleles that are suppressed are called the
recessive traits while the alleles that determine the trait are known as the
dominant traits.
MENDEL’S PEA EXPERIMENT
Law of Independent Assortment: It states that a pair of traits segregates
independently of another pair during gamete formation. As the individual
heredity factors assort independently, different traits get equal opportunity to
occur together.

Law of Segregation: It states that during the production of gametes, two

copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor
from each parent. In other words, allele (alternative form of the gene) pairs
segregate during the formation of gamete and re-unite randomly during
fertilization.
ECOSYSTEM
 ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is a biological community where the living and non-living
components interact with each other and their physical environment. It is the
functional unit of nature and varies greatly in size. Let us have a look at the
structure, function and components of an ecosystem. Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of the ecosystem comprises two different components: Biotic
(plants, animals and humans) Abiotic(light, air, soil etc)

Ecosystem Types

There are three main types of ecosystems.

 ECOSYSTEM
Terrestrial Ecosystem

These are the ecosystem found only on land. The terrestrial ecosystems
include, Forest ecosystem Grassland ecosystem Desert ecosystem Mountain
ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem

The aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem in the water body. It includes oceanic
ecosystem, pondwater ecosystem.
 OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone layer depletion is the thinning of the ozone layer present in the upper
atmosphere. This happens when the chlorine and bromine atoms in the
atmosphere come in contact with ozone and destroy the ozone molecules. One
chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozone. It is destroyed more quickly
than it is created. Some compounds release chlorine and bromine on exposure
to high ultraviolet light, which then contributes to ozone layer depletion. Such
compounds are known as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS).
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of
factors. The main causes responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer are
listed below:
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
 Chlorofluorocarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs are the main cause of ozone layer depletion.
These are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners,
etc. The molecules of chlorofluorocarbons in the stratosphere are broken
down by ultraviolet radiations and release chlorine atoms. These atoms react
with ozone and destroy it.

Unregulated Rocket Launches

Researches say that the unregulated launching of rockets results in much

more depletion of the ozone layer than the CFCs do. If not controlled, this
might result in a huge loss of the ozone layer by the year 2050.
Nitrogenous Compounds
The nitrogenous compounds such as NO2, NO, N2O are highly responsible for
the depletion of the ozone layer.
 Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes
such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds. But it does not cause more than 1-
2% of the ozone layer depletion.
BIOMAGNIFICATION
 BIOMAGNIFICATION
Biomagnification is any concentration of a toxin, such as pesticides, in the
tissues of tolerant species at increasingly higher levels in a food chain. The
buildup of the insecticide DDT in zooplankton is one instance of
biomagnification in action.
 Substances responsible for biomagnification:

 •Pesticides and chemicals like DDT and mercury that are dumped into lakes
and rivers are consumed by aquatic species. These build up in their body
tissues and are passed on to other creatures that feed on them.

 The mining operation releases a considerable amount of selenium and

sulfide into the environment, destroying the oceans and coastal regions.

 Heavy metals like mercury and arsenic as well as pesticides like

polychlorinated biphenyls and DDT are examples of possible contaminants