Introduction to

Developmental
Biology
Lecture by: Mr. Stefan Paolo Jesalva
 Introduction
• Developmental biology is the study of how biological
forms change over time, focusing on processes such as:
– Embryonic development, where a fertilized egg
transforms into a complex organism.
– Regeneration, where missing body parts are restored.
– Metamorphosis, the transition from larval to adult
stages in certain species.
– Stem cell differentiation, where stem cells
continuously produce new functional cells.
 Introduction
• Developmental biology integrates multiple biological
disciplines, including:
– Molecular and Cell Biology: Involves studying genes,
proteins, and signal transduction pathways that
regulate cell differentiation.
– Genetics: Focuses on how genes contribute to
development and interact in regulatory networks.
– Morphology (Anatomy): Describes how anatomical
structures form and interact during different
developmental stages.
 Historical Foundations
• Before 1980, little was known about the molecular basis
of development. However, the fusion of three scientific
traditions transformed the field:
1. Experimental Embryology
– Originated in the early 20th century with microsurgical
experiments on frog and sea urchin embryos.
– Demonstrated embryonic induction, where chemical
signals control the developmental pathways of cells.
– Although researchers could observe these signals in
action, they lacked the molecular tools to identify their
exact nature.
Historical Foundations
2. Developmental Genetics
– Became prominent in the late 1970s with large-scale
genetic screens in Drosophila (fruit flies).
– Scientists induced mutations and studied their effects
on embryonic development.
– These studies identified key developmental genes
that control development in all animals, not just fruit
flies.
Historical Foundations
3. Molecular Biology
– Began with the discovery of DNA’s structure in 1953
and progressed to techniques like gene cloning,
nucleic acid hybridization, and DNA sequencing in the
1970s.
– Allowed researchers to study developmental genes in
detail.
– Enabled scientists to alter development
experimentally by adding, removing, or modifying
genes.
 Impact
1. Assisted Reproductive Technologies
• In vitro fertilization (IVF), developed from
embryological research, has helped millions of couples
conceive.
• Techniques such as artificial insemination, egg
donation, and embryo freezing are widely used in
human medicine and agriculture.
 Impact
2. Understanding Birth Defects
• Research has revealed that human embryos are highly
sensitive to environmental factors during organogenesis
(when organs are formed).
• The field of teratology studies how chemicals,
infections, and radiation affect development.
• Example: Statin drugs, used to lower cholesterol, can
interfere with the Sonic hedgehog signaling pathway,
potentially leading to congenital defects.
 Impact
3. Advances in Medicine
• Discovery of growth factors (e.g., erythropoietin,
granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor) has led
to therapies for blood disorders.
• Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are used to aid wound
healing.
4. Disease Research and Genetic Engineering
• Genetically modified mice are used to model human
diseases, allowing scientists to study pathology and develop
new treatments.
• Developmental biology has significantly influenced stem cell
research, which has applications in regenerative medicine.
 Impact
5. Evolutionary Biology
• Developmental biology provides insights into how
organisms evolved by comparing developmental
pathways across species.
• The discovery of highly conserved genes, such as Hox
genes, shows how small genetic changes can result in
major evolutionary shifts.
 Future Impact
1. New Drug Development
• Understanding developmental pathways helps
pharmaceutical companies design new drugs for cancer,
diabetes, arthritis, and neurodegenerative diseases.
2. Expanded Prenatal Genetic Screening
• Advanced DNA analysis allows screening for single-
gene disorders.
• However, this raises ethical concerns, such as genetic
discrimination and privacy.
 Future Impact
3. Regenerative Medicine
• Scientists are working on stimulating the body’s natural
regenerative processes to repair tissues and whole
organs using stem cells (e.g., pancreatic β-cells for
diabetes or neurons for Parkinson’s disease).
4. Tissue and Organ Engineering
• Developmental biology informs tissue engineering,
which aims to create lab-grown organs for
transplantation.
• Stem cell technology may allow the growth of
“personalized” cell lines, eliminating organ rejection
risks.
 Future Impact
5. Agricultural Applications
• Genetically modified farm animals could produce
pharmaceuticals in milk or resist diseases.
• Ethical and public concerns may limit the extent of
genetic modifications in livestock.
How Development
Works
 How Development Works
1. Regional Specification – How different parts of an initially
uniform embryo become distinct body regions.
2. Cell Differentiation – The process by which cells acquire
specific identities.
3. Morphogenesis – How cells and tissues move and
organize into functional structures.
4. Growth – The controlled increase in size of tissues and
organs.
5. Timing and Coordination – The mechanisms that ensure
developmental processes occur in the correct sequence.
 Gametogenesis
• Meiosis
– Meiosis is a specialized type of cell division that
reduces chromosome numbers by half, ensuring
genetic diversity.
– It consists of two consecutive divisions:
• Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate.
• Meiosis II: Sister chromatids separate.
– Genetic variation is introduced through crossing over
during Meiosis I.
– The result is four genetically unique haploid cells.
 Gametogenesis
• Oogenesis
– The process of egg (oocyte) development in females.
– Begins before birth in many species and is arrested at
prophase I.
– Resumes at puberty in mammals.
– Produces one large egg and two small polar bodies.
– Egg contains nutrients and maternal mRNAs
necessary for early embryonic development.
– The final stage is completed only after fertilization.
 Gametogenesis
• Spermatogenesis
– Continuous process after puberty.
– One primary spermatocyte produces four sperm.
– Final stage (spermiogenesis) includes formation of:
• Acrosome (enzyme-containing cap for egg
penetration).
• Flagellum for motility.
• Condensation of nucleus.
 Early Development
• Fertilization
– Sperm binds to egg’s outer layer.
– Egg prevents polyspermy (entry of multiple sperm).
– The union of sperm and egg restores the diploid
chromosome number.
– Triggers the activation of the egg and the initiation of
embryonic development.
– Cytoplasmic rearrangements occur, which set up the
first developmental asymmetries.
– The sperm and egg pronuclei fuse, forming the diploid
zygote.
 Early Development
• Cleavage
– Rapid cell divisions without growth.
– The zygote is partitioned into smaller cells called
blastomeres.
– Forms a hollow ball of cells called a
blastula/blastoderm.
– Cleavage types vary among species:
• Holoblastic cleavage (complete division) – e.g.,
frogs, mammals.
• Meroblastic cleavage (partial division) – e.g., birds,
fish.
 Early Development
• Cleavage
– Cleavage types vary among species:
• Radial – echinoderms
• Spiral – annelid worms, molluscs, and flatworms
• Superficial – most insects and some crustaceans
 Early Development
• Gastrulation
– A critical stage where cells move to form the three
germ layers:
• Ectoderm (forms skin, nervous system)
• Mesoderm (forms muscles, connective tissue,
excretory organs, and gonads)
• Endoderm (forms digestive and respiratory
systems)
– Gastrulation also defines body axes (head-tail, dorsal-
ventral, left-right).
 Developmental Control
Genes
• Morphogen Gradients
– Morphogens are signaling molecules that guide tissue
differentiation/pattern tissues based on concentration
gradients.
• In a concentration gradient, morphogen is
continuously produced in one region (source) and
destroyed in another (sink)
• This produces a gradient of concentration with a
flux of material from the source to the sink
– Examples include Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) and
Bicoid in Drosophila.
 Developmental Control
Genes
• Morphogen Gradients
– A concentration gradient has two important
properties:
• Subdivide the competent zone of cells into several
states of commitment
• Automatically impart a polarity as well as a pattern
to the responding tissue.
– Examples include Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) and
Bicoid in Drosophila.
 Developmental Control
Genes
• Homeotic, Homeobox, and Hox Genes
– Homeotic genes control the identity of body
segments.
– Homeobox genes encode transcription factors with a
conserved DNA-binding domain.
– Hox genes, a subset of homeobox genes, determine
segmental identity along the anterior-posterior axis.
– Mutations in homeotic genes can lead to
transformations of body parts.
• Example: Antennapedia mutation in fruit flies
causes legs to develop where antennae should be.
Morphogenetic Processes
• Cell Movement
– Condensation: cells form an aggregate (often a
prelude to formation of structures)
– Involution – Sheets of cells roll inward (e.g.,
mesoderm formation).
– Invagination: Cells move inward, forming layers (e.g.,
formation of the gut).
– Cavitation: fluid filled space is hollowed out from a
solid mass of cells (e.g. blastulation)
Morphogenetic Processes
• Cell Movement
– Delamination (epithelial to mesenchymal transition):
cells leave an epithelium and move off as
individual/mesenchymal cells (e.g. formation of neural
crest from dorsal neural tube)
– Mesenchyme to epithelium transition (e.g. formation
of kidney tubules)
– Convergent Extension: Cells intercalate to elongate a
tissue.
– Epiboly: Expansion of epithelial sheets to cover the
embryo (e.g. Xenopus and zebrafish gastrulation)
Morphogenetic Processes
• Cell Adhesion
– Molecules like cadherins mediate the binding of cells
to each other, ensuring proper tissue formation.
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides structural
support.
• Classification of Morphogenetic Processes
– Different morphogenetic movements contribute to
forming structures such as limbs and the nervous
system.
 Growth and Cell Death
• Growth
– Growth occurs through cell division (proliferation) and
cell enlargement.
– Growth factors regulate size and shape/proportion.
• Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis)
– Selective elimination of cells that are no longer
needed, ensuring proper organ sculpting and
removing excess tissue.
– Essential for shaping structures, such as removing
webbing between developing fingers.
 Coordination and Timing
of Development
1. Developmental Timing
• Some species develop quickly (e.g., frogs), others slowly
(e.g., humans).
• Timing is regulated by:
– Gene expression timing (e.g., segmentation clock)
– Environmental cues (e.g., temperature, hormones)
2. Role of Master Regulators
• Transcription factors like Pax6 (eye development) control
key decisions.
• Mutations in these regulators lead to major defects.
Thank you for
listening!