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MT 1023 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
Atom is the smallest portion of matter and it consists of a nucleus (which contains protons and neutrons)
whilst electrons revolve around the nucleus in an orbital.
Particle Mass (kg) Charge (C)
Proton 1.67 X 10-27 +1.6 x 10-19
Neutron 1.67 X 10-27 Neutral
Electron 9.11 X 10-31 -1.6 x 10-19
• Atomic number = number of protons
• Atomic mass is measured in unified atomic mass unit (u)
ATOMIC THEORIES
Bohr Theory
Neil Bohr made some postulations regarding the structure of the atom. They are:
1. Electrons of an atom can have only very distinct energy values. Therefore, the electrons are
restricted to specific “energy levels” or “stationary states”.
2. Electrons in these energy levels rotate about the nucleus in fixed orbits, without radiating or
absorbing any energy.
3. When an electron receives energy, it moves from a lower to a higher energy level.
4. Emission of radiant energy (electromagnetic radiation) is due to the movement of the electrons
from the higher level to the former lower level of energy.
Electrons surrounding the atomic nucleus are not all at the same energy level and it was found that the
Bohr Theory could not be used to describe the energy characteristics of atoms containing many
electrons. Consequently, in the Modern Atomic Theory, four quantum numbers were introduced to
describe the energy levels.
The four quantum numbers are:
Principal Quantum Number (n)
The number given in Bohr’s original stationary states corresponds to the principal quantum number (n).
This number relates to the distance between the nucleus and the principal energy levels.
Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2n2
Orbital(shell) K L M N
n 1 2 3 4
Max. no. of electrons 2 8 18 32
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Secondary Quantum Number (l)
This represents the various secondary sub-levels within the main energy level and it relates to the shape
of the electron cloud.
If, l=0 → the shape is spherical.
l=1 → the shape is dumbbell.
Number of sub shells in an orbital (a shell) = n
Orbital K L M N
No. of Sub shells (n) 1 2 3 4
l 0 0, 1 0, 1, 2 0, 1, 2, 3
Sub shells s s, p s, p, d s, p, d, f
Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
The magnetic quantum number represents the direction of maximum extension in space of the electron
cloud in the sub shells p, d, and f. which has the dumb - bell shape. The magnetic quantum number (m)
has (2l + 1) different values.
When l = 0, m has 1 value, i.e. m = 0
When l= 1, m has 3 values, i.e. m = −1, 0, +1
Spin Quantum Number (s)
This represents the electron spin, which can be clockwise or counterclockwise. The values for the
clockwise and counterclockwise spins are +1/2 and –1/2.
The quantum numbers (energy levels) and the corresponding number of electrons can be summarized as
follows:
n l m No. of ens Total no. of ens
1 (K) 0 (s) 0 2 2
0 (s) 0 2
2 (L) 8
1 (p) -1, 0, +1 6
0 (s) 0 2
3 (M) 1 (p) -1, 0, +1 6 18
2 (d) -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 10
0 (s) 0 2
1 (p) -1, 0, +1 6
4 (N) 32
2 (d) -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 10
3 (f) -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 14
In addition to the quantum number relations, the rules that govern how the electron levels are formed are
as follows:
Pauli Exclusion Principle:
No two electrons in a single atom can have all four-quantum numbers the same.
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Aufbau Principle:
Sub-levels with the lowest energy are filled before those with higher energy.
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d Sequence of filling is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s…………….
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f 5g
Hund’s Rule:
The sublevels p, d, and f are occupied by single electrons before any pairing of electrons with opposed
spins take place.
By considering the quantum numbers and the above given rules, the electronic configuration of elements
can be written as follows:
Atomic
Element No. Shell 1
(Z) 1s
H 1 Shell 2
He 2 2s 2p
Li 3 2
Be 4 2
B 5 2 2
C 6 2 2
N 7 2 2
O 8 2 2
Shell 3
F 9 2 2
Ne 10 2 2 3s 3p 3d
Na 11 2 2 6
Mg 12 2 2 6
Al 13 2 2 6 2 1
Si 14 2 2 6 2 2
P 15 2 2 6 2 3
S 16 2 2 6 2 4
Cl 17 2 2 6 5 Shell 4
2
Ar 18 2 2 6 6 4s 4p 4d 4f
2
K 19 2 2 6 2 6
Ca 20 2 2 6 2 6
Sc 21 2 2 6 2 6 2
Ti 22 2 2 6 2 6 2
V 23 2 2 6 2 6 2
Cr 24 2 2 6 2 6 1
Mn 25 2 2 6 2 6 2
Fe 26 2 2 6 2 6 2
Co 27 2 2 6 2 6 2
Ni 28 2 2 6 2 6 2
Cu 29 2 2 6 2 6 1
Zn 30 2 2 6 2 6 10 2
Ga 31 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 1
Ge 32 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 2
As 33 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 3
Se 34 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 4
Br 35 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 5
Kr 36 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6
The arrangement of electrons in Cr-24 (4s1 3d5) and Cu-29 (4s1 3d10) represents a more stable state
(having a lower energy) than the expected arrangement of 4s 2 3d4 and 4s2 3d9 respectively.
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Periodic Table
Periodic table is arranged in the order of the atomic number. Rows are called periods. Columns are
called groups.
1. The elements in a row have the same number of main energy levels.
2. All the elements in the periodic table can be divided into three categories:
✓ Metals
✓ Non – metals
✓ Metalloids (elements that exhibit the properties of both metals and non – metals) – B, Si,
Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po.
3. About 80 % of the elements are metals, because the outer most shells of these elements are not
fully occupied and the electrons move freely from one atom to another giving high electrical and
thermal conductivity, chemical reactivity etc., which are properties of metals.
4. All the metals except (mercury) Hg are solid at room temperature.
5. The light metals (s block elements – IA & IIA) are soft and chemically reactive because they have
only 1 or 2 electrons in the outer shell and give away these electrons very easily. Hence, the
ionization energy is very low.
6. The noble gases (group VIIIA - He, Ne, Ar, etc.,) have the last orbital fully filled and they are
chemically inert or inactive.
7. The p-block elements (groups IIIA - VIIA) have atoms in which the outermost p-orbital is filling.
These elements need only a few electrons to complete their outer shell which they try to get from (or
share with) the other atoms. Hence, the ionization energy of these elements is high and is mostly
non-metallic.
8. Most non-metals are gaseous but bromine (Br) is a liquid.
9. The d-block elements (groups IB - VIIIB) are the elements in which the d-orbit is filling. From these,
the elements in which the d-orbit is not fully occupied are called the “transition metals” (groups IIIB –
VIIIB). They are stronger and harder than the other metals..
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ATOMIC BONDING
• Primary bonds form when valence electrons are present (outer shell not completely filled)
• Secondary bonds form when there are no valence electrons (outer shell filled completely)
Ionic bond:
• Ionic bond forms between highly electropositive elements (metals) and highly electronegative
elements (non-metals). E.g.: NaCl
• Electron transfer occurs from the electropositive element to the electronegative element, resulting
in the formation of cations and anions
• Electrostatic attraction between these ions makes the bond
Covalent Bond:
• Covalent bond forms within electronegative elements that are close to each other in the periodic
table
• Bond forms by the mutual sharing of the valence electrons
Covalent bonding can be found in the following groups of elements.
1. In pure non-metallic elements and hydrogen:
A pure element must have at least four electrons in the outer s and p orbital (valence electrons) to
exhibit covalent bonding.
Example:
• Fluorine (F) - 1s2 2s2 2p5 is a group VII element, it has 7 valence electrons, and it needs
one electron to fill its outer shell and to achieve stability.
• H - 1s1 is an exceptional case. It also needs one electron to achieve stability.
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2. Atoms of different types of non - metallic elements (C-H compounds, H2O, NH3):
H
C H2O
H
H
H
3. Compounds formed between elements found symmetrically spaced on either side of the
Group IV elements:
II III IV V VI
III – V compounds – GaAs, GaP, InSb,
II – VI compounds – MgTe, ZnS
4. High melting point metals:
W
Mo Contains covalent/ metallic bonds
Ta
Note:
Covalent bond energies are generally high, indicating the formation of a strong bond. However, many
materials with covalent bonds do not have a high strength and a high melting temperature. This is due to
the weak secondary bonds that are present between molecules.
Example: CH4 (methane):
- Intra-molecular (Interatomic) bonds are covalent bonds, 396 kCal/mole
- Intermolecular bonds are Van der Waals bonds, 2.4 kCal/mole
Although the inter-atomic bonds are covalent, because of the low intermolecular bond energy, CH4
(methane) melts at −183C.
Metallic bond
• Metallic bond forms in metals
• It is an arrangement of positive ion cores in a ‘sea’ of electrons
• Electrons that form this electron sea are ‘free’ to move within the structure and thus known as
free electrons
• These free electrons make the metals good conductors of electricity and heat
“sea” of valence electrons
Atomic kernel (nucleus plus lower energy level electrons)
can vibrate about a fixed position
Random motion of valence electrons in a piece of metal
Metallic Bonding
Van der Waal’s bond
• Van der Waal’s bond forms between inert gas atoms as well as between symmetric molecules
• In atoms, the center of positive charge (the nucleus) coincides with the center of negative charge
(the surrounding electrons). Such atoms are neutral.
• If the electron cloud deforms, then the centers of positive and negative charge no longer coincide.
This results in a dipole.
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• Two such dipoles can be attracted by electrostatic forces, causing a weak but stable bond
between the two atoms. This bond is called a van der Waals bond.
Graphite has a layered structure. Within a layer
strong covalent bonds are present, but between
layers weak Van der Waals’ forces are observed.
Layers of graphite
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds are formed between polar covalently bonded molecules containing H. E.g.: HF, H2O,
NH3, and HCl. The polarity is due to the asymmetry of the molecule.
H+ F- H+ F-
H + (or proton) acts as a bridge
between strongly electronegative F
F- H+ F- H+
atoms.
Summary on Primary Bonds
IONIC COVALENT METALLIC
Between metals/non– Share electrons between In all the metallic elements.
metals. Metals give up elements of Groups IV, V, VI, & Electrons move freely from atom
one or more electrons to VII, H, C–H compounds, III–V and to atom.
Type of Bond
the non-metals. Forms a II–VI compounds, and transition
bond due to the strong metals of high melting point
electrostatic forces.
Directionality Non-directional Highly directional Non – directional
Electrical
Low (no free electrons) Low (no free electrons) High
Conductivity
Transparent
Optical Opaque
(no free electrons to Transparent
Properties (does not transmit light)
absorb the light energy)
Mechanical Hard, brittle, Very hard, brittle, Low strength/hardness, easily
Properties high elastic modulus. high elastic modulus. deformable, low elastic modulus
High melting temperature,
Thermal High melting temperature, low Low melting temperature, high
low thermal expansion
Properties thermal expansion coefficient. thermal expansion coefficient.
coefficient.
Silica ceramics, glasses, cement,
General
Ceramics, Cement high melting point metals, All metals
Materials
diamond, Si, Ge
Summary on Secondary Bonds
VAN DER WAALS HYDROGEN
Due to a temporary dipolar attraction H acts as a bridge between strongly
Bond
between uncharged atoms electronegative atoms
Directionality Non–directional Directional
Melting/Boiling Point Low Higher than Van der Waals bonds
Noble gases and
Polar covalently bonded molecules
Elements/Compounds Non-polar covalently bonded molecules
(HF, H2O, NH3)
(Halogens, CH4, graphite, and liquid N2)
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