CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviewed related existing and relevant literature under the following sub headings.

1. Historical overview of Social Studies in Ghana.

2. The concept of Participation.

3. The causes of Low-Participation Students.

4. Methods used in teaching and learning of Social Studies.

5. Positive effects of Participation for Student Learning

Historical Overview of Social Studies in Ghana

The field of Social Studies was developed in the early years of the 20th century in the United

States of America (U.S.A). It was built on the foundations of history which was recognized as the

central study of Social Studies. The change from the traditional subjects of History to Social Studies

occurred in the Jones Report (Ravitch, 2020) on Social Studies, incorporated into the famous

Cardinal Principle Report of the National Education Association in 2018 which suggested that the

goal of Social Studies was good citizenship and that historical studies that did not contribute to

social change had no value. This report gave a strong boost to Social Studies teaching. The study

of History was considered too academic and far removed from students’ immediate needs and that

they need no contributions to social efficiency. It was in the field of social efficiency that Social

Studies was born. The idea was to teach students facts and skills that were relevant to the institutions

of their own society and also to prepare them for the real world that would confront them when they

left school. By the 1930s, the Social Studies programme had displaced History with its expanding

environment concept that is, the home, neighborhood and community (Ravitch, 2020). Social

Studies is therefore, intended to provide an integrative education aimed at helping students develop
into informed, responsible, and active citizens who can effectively participate in the civic life of

their communities, countries and the world at large.

On the Ghanaian scene, Bruce (2021) reported that, there had been attempts at integration of a

sort in the Social Sciences. According to him, between 2019 and 2020, some form of integration

appeared in the syllabus of teacher training colleges notably, Wesley College at Kumasi,

Government Teacher Training College at Accra and Presbyterian Training College at Akropong

Akuapem. However, by 2010 the programme had collapsed due to lack of personnel to teach the

integrated subject. Tamakloe (2018) also points out that before 2010, there existed an area of study

termed ‘centers of interest’ in the primary school curriculum which appeared to be an integration

of subjects like; History, Geography, and Civics which was only undertaken at the lower primary

level (primary one to three). He further observed that, this programme consisted of just topics which

had been jumbled up in the name of integration, the topics however lacked cohesion. The

development of the Social Studies programme in Ghana began in 2004 with the setting up of the

Curriculum Research and Development Division (CRDD). Between August and September 2004,

a conference was held at the Advanced Teacher Training College at Winneba under the auspices of

the British Council. From there, a pilot programme on Social Studies teaching was started in four

selected centers namely; Saltpond and Assin Fosu in the Central Region, and Ho and Hohoe in the

Volta Region. According to Tamakloe (2018), there was a great controversy on the choice of name

for the new programme being developed.

While one group felt it should be called Social Studies, one group contended it should be called

Environmental Studies. The programme in its fourth year of pilot testing saw the inauguration of

the National Association of Curriculum and Courses (NACC). All primary syllabuses were
reviewed and improved with the sub-committee on Social Studies agreeing that the new programme

should be officially called Environmental Studies.

In 2002, when the Free Compulsory and Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) was introduced,

the term ‘Social Studies’ was still used for the subject at both the primary and the then Junior

Secondary school but in the syllabus that was introduced in the primary schools in 1988, the term

‘Environmental Studies’ was once again used at the primary school level. Since 2000 the subject

has been referred to as ‘Environmental Studies’ at the primary school while at the Junior and Senior

High Schools, the term Social Studies is used. At the College of Education, the term Environmental

Studies is used and at the University level such as the University of Cape Coast and the University

of Education, Winneba, the term ‘Social Studies’ is used as a programme.

The Concept of Participation

No one can deny that active classroom participation played an important role in the success

of subject learning. A study by Liu (2020) finds that learners who participate actively tend to have

better academic achievement compared to learners who do not participate. Learners’ oral

participation can help learners fill the gap between what they want to say and whether they are

able to say it.

Furthermore, it is a common belief that “participation in verbal interaction offers subject learning

learners the opportunity to follow up on new words and structures to which they have been exposed

during subject lessons and to practice them in context” (Liu, 2020).

According to Davis (in Nagori, 2021), participation can be defined as a mental and emotional

involvement of an individual in a group situation which encourages them to contribute and feel

the responsibility to achieving their goal. With this definition, it seems that it would still be possible
to be passively engaged in the classroom experience. The intent however, is to somehow force or

preferably motivate learners to become actively engaged in what is occurring in the classroom.

Participation is defined in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2019) as the act

of taking part in an activity or even in other words, participation that researcher means is the

involvement of learners actively in the teaching learning process in classroom which include

learners’ emotional aspects so that it will encourage them to give contribution and will be

responsible for their achievement.

In general, learner participation in the classroom is through two communication behaviors,

that is verbal and nonverbal (Lee, 2020). Verbal or oral participation refers to behaviors of

speaking or giving opinions in the classroom, answering and asking questions or comments and

taking part in the classroom discussions. Learners who do not take the initiative to actively involve

are usually considered as passive. In contrast, nonverbal participation is associated with behavioral

responses during the class, including node their head, raise their hands, body movements and eye

contact.

From the theories above, it can be concluded participation is the act of taking part in an

activity or even that can be seen from learners’ questions or answers and learners’ response to the

teacher or fellow learners’ questions which is sorted into five categories that are preparation,

contribution to discussion, group skills, communication skills, and attendance and also include

learners’ emotional aspects so that it will encourage them to give contribution and be responsible

for their achievement.

According to Hamouda (2021), there are several factors that causes learners’ reluctant to

participate in class during social studies lessons:

Speaking in Front of the Whole Class. Different activities in the classroom procedure,

particularly ones that demand learners to speak in front of the whole class like a social studies

class, have been found to be the most anxiety provoking. To speak in front of the whole class is a

potentially risky business in many learners' eyes. However, learners feel a lot better when they are

not required to face the whole class.

Lack of Preparation. Learners with lack of preparation towards social lessons will be afraid

when they appear unintelligent to their classmates or the teacher, and because of feeling

intimidated, it makes learners become less inclined to participate. Learners feel less anxious and

more confident to speak with preparation during the delivering of lesson.

Calling on learners. Learners’ anxiety in participating rise from teacher’s procedure of

calling on learners. Learners get more anxious when called upon to respond individually, rather

than if they are given choice to respond voluntary.

Shyness. Shyness is another influencing factor which could affect learners’ participation.

Shyness itself is a behavior that could be as a result of anyone or a combination of the following

factors: social introversion, unfamiliarity with academic discourse, lacking confidence in subject

matter, and/or communication apprehension. Learners prefer to talk less because they feel shy.

Fear of Negative Teacher Traits. Learners prefer to remain silent rather than to orally

participate in the classroom so as to avoid teacher’s criticism and any embarrassing situation.

Another negative teacher trait that discourages participation is teacher’s harshness and strictness

during teaching and learning process.

However, learners who sit in front of the class tend to contribute in the class activity whereas for

those who usually act as observant will prefer to sit at the back. In addition, it is more comfortable

for them to join a small class rather than the large one.

Lack of Confidence. Many learners do not feel confident speaking in front of the class.

Lacking confidence makes them believe their language skills to the subject is weaker than those

of others in class.

Strategies Used In Teaching Social Studies

As teachers of Social Studies, we have to deal with a variety of content from different

disciplines associated to Social Studies to a group of pupils at the Junior High school according to

their ability and different intellectual and personality background. Before dealing with the subject,

there are some predetermined aims and objectives which the teacher must know in other to achieve

his or her objectives at the end of the teaching period. It is rightly said that the best of curriculum

and the most perfect syllabus remain dead in the absence of right method of teaching because

method is the means of reaching predetermined ends. Some various methods used in teaching Social

Studies includes;
 Story telling / Narration. No one can deny that children are found of stories. Fisher (2022)

provides his understanding of what narration is. He refers to narration as “a theory of symbolic

actions, words and/or deeds that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create, or interpret

them” (p. 2). The power of stories has been recognized for centuries, and even today. Stories are a

natural mode of thinking and before formal education begun, we were already learning from fables,

fairy tales, and family history. Indeed, some researchers have even claimed that all knowledge

comes in the form of stories (Schank & Abelson, 2021). Although this strong claim has been

questioned, it is generally agreed that stories are a powerful structure for organizing and

transmitting information, and for creating meaning in our lives and environment.

In Bruner's (2020) words, "narrative deals in human or human-like intention and action and the

vicissitudes and consequences that mark their course. It strives to put its timeless miracles into the

particulars of experience and to locate the experience in time and place." Stories can bring abstract

principles to life by giving them concrete form. We cannot always give students direct experience

with psychological concepts but stories might help bring them close.

Stories engage our thinking, our emotions, and can even lead to the creation of mental imagery

(Green & Brock, 2020). Individuals listening to stories react to them almost automatically,

participating, in a sense, in the action of the (Polichak & Gerrig, 2021). Bringing all of these systems

to bear helps in student learning. Students stay awake, follow along, and wanting to find out what

happens next and how the story ends.

fair idea about the past and the present society. It is an activity willingly undertaken by students

towards the development of some special qualities under the guidance of a teacher.

In drama, children draw on their knowledge and experience of the real world in order to create a

make-believe world’ (O'Neill and Lambert 2019 p.11). Richard Courtney (2020), a professional in

the area of drama in education defines drama as, “the human process whereby imaginative thought

becomes action, drama is based on internal empathy and identification, and leads to external

impersonation”. Courtney believes also that “life is a drama.”

Role play encourages the type of learning which Adams (2022) described as ‘accommodation’

which according to him, tends to be the kind of learning that is almost impossible to forget. Studies

(for example, Osuafor, 2021) have shown that role-play sustains children’s interest more than

lecture method and interest in itself promotes learning.

Dialogue and Discussion. One of the most challenging teaching methods, leading

discussions can also be one of the most rewarding. As a teacher, using discussion as a primary

teaching method stimulates the critical thinking ability of the

students. As a teacher establishes a rapport with the students, he can demonstrate that he

appreciates the contributions of the students and at the same time, challenge them to think more

deeply and to articulate their ideas more clearly. Questions, whether

asked by the teacher or by the students, provides a means of measuring learning and exploring in-

depth the key concepts of the subject.

Using Teaching Works’ (2019b) and Shaughnessy & Forzani’s (2019) definition of classroom

discussion, discussion can be defined as a sustained exchange between and among a teacher and

his students with the purpose of developing the students’ capabilities or skills and/or expanding
students’ understanding, both shared and individual of a specific concept or instructional goal.

Classroom discussions are normally characterized by high quality and high quantities of student

talk. Teachers ensure that discussions are built upon and revolve around both students’

contributions and the topic being discussed. In a discussion, the teacher’s role is to question

students, take up, revoice, and press students’ ideas, structure and steer the conversation toward the

learning goal, enables students to respond to one another’s ideas by stepping back to listen,

moderate and facilitate students’ interactions, ensure that the content under discussion is

represented accurately, and bring the discussion to a meaningful close. Dialogue and discussion

play a very important role in the teaching and learning of Social Studies. Pupils can learn many

topics easily with the help of dialogue and discussion method. Teachers should encourage their

students to take active part in discussion and should make the points clear to the students thereby

making the class lively and interesting.

Use of Globe, Atlas, Charts and Maps. Globes, atlas, charts and maps are all visual aids

used in the teaching and learning of Social Studies. As geographic representation and

communication tools, maps are important in learning geography and related subject areas (Bednarz,

Acheson and Bednarz 2019). Learners can develop geographic and spatial thinking skills by

identifying, interpreting, and analyzing spatial information, such as spatial distribution,

relationships, and patterns on a map (Koç and Demir 2020). A collection of maps, atlases, globes,

and charts have been a useful and effective instructional resource particularly for geography

education. Atlases, maps and globes allow students to learn and understand various physical,

environmental, historical, and social topics in their immediate environment and the world at large.
A teacher can locate the places for the learners with the help of the globe, map, atlas or charts. For

instance, if learners learn to read maps, some topics under Social Studies becomes easier and more

interesting.

The above and many more strategies that can be used in teaching Social Studies at the Junior High

School.

Effects of Instructional Strategies on Learner’s Participation

Bean and Peterson (2021). stated that when students see that their participation is being

graded regularly and consistently, they adjust their study habits so as to be well prepared for active

class participation.

Storytelling is a powerful instructional strategy in social studies education. Research has

shown that storytelling can enhance students' engagement, motivation, and understanding of

historical events and concepts. By presenting information in a narrative format, storytelling helps

students connect with the content on an emotional level, making it more memorable and

meaningful. Studies have found that storytelling can improve students' critical thinking,

empathy, and ability to understand different perspectives. Additionally, storytelling can be an

effective way to introduce complex topics and encourage active participation, as students are

often eager to share their own stories and experiences.

Dramatization and role-play are effective instructional strategies that can foster active

learning and engagement in social studies. By assuming different roles and reenacting historical

events or scenarios, students can develop a deeper understanding of the perspectives and

experiences of various individuals and groups. This approach encourages students to think

critically, problem-solve, and communicate effectively. Research has shown that dramatization

and role-play can improve students' content knowledge, communication skills, and ability to
collaborate with their peers. These strategies also help students develop empathy and a greater

appreciation for diverse viewpoints.

Dialogue and discussion are essential instructional strategies in social studies education.

By engaging in open-ended discussions, students can explore complex issues, analyze multiple

perspectives, and develop critical thinking skills. Research has demonstrated that dialogue and

discussion can enhance students' understanding of social, political, and economic concepts, as

well as their ability to articulate their own ideas and engage in respectful discourse. These

strategies also promote active learning, as students are encouraged to ask questions, share their

opinions, and engage in collaborative problem-solving.

The use of TLMs, such as globes, atlases, charts, and maps, is an effective instructional

strategy in social studies education. These visual aids can help students develop spatial

awareness, understand geographical relationships, and visualize historical events and patterns.

Research has shown that the use of TLMs can improve students' map reading skills, geographic

knowledge, and ability to interpret and analyze data. Additionally, the integration of TLMs can

make social studies content more engaging and accessible, as students can actively interact with

these materials and apply their learning to real-world contexts.

Overall, the instructional strategies of storytelling, dramatization and role-play, dialogue

and discussion, and the use of TLMs have been found to be effective in enhancing learners'

participation and engagement in social studies. These strategies foster active learning, critical

thinking, and the development of essential skills and knowledge in the field of social studies.