Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   55

Chapter 3

Preliminary Treatment
of Wastewater
The purpose of preliminary treatment is to remove, reduce, or modify wastewater constituents in the
raw influent that can cause operational problems with downstream processes or increase maintenance of
downstream equipment. These constituents primarily consist of large solids and rags (screenings); abrasive
inert material (grit); floating debris; and fats, oils, and grease (FOG). This chapter presents descriptions
of, and operational considerations for, preliminary treatment processes. This chapter includes a separate
section addressing the handling of hauled-in septic tank waste (septage).

Learning Objectives
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to
„„ Describe the purpose of trash racks, bar screens, comminutors and grinders, and grit basins;
„„ Compare and contrast different screen types;
„„ Select a screen category given downstream equipment requirements;
„„ Place a screen or grit basin into service or take one out of service;
„„ Compare and contrast different types of grit basins;
„„ Calculate flow velocity for an open channel or full pipe;
„„ Determine the optimum number of grit basins to place into service to maintain a desired
flow velocity;
„„ Troubleshoot common screening and grit removal process control and mechanical
problems; and
„„ Describe potential effects of septage receiving on facility operations.

Introduction
Preliminary treatment typically uses bar racks, screens, comminutors, and/or grit chambers. Preliminary
treatment takes place at the water resource recovery facility (WRRF) headworks. Headworks may also
include flow measurement, flow equalization, pumping, and/or odor control and septage receiving. Flow Septage is domestic wastewater from
measurement was discussed in Chapter 2. cesspools, individual home septic
systems, pit toilets, portable toilets,
An example WRRF headworks is shown in Figure 3.1. A particular WRRF headworks may have all, some, and campgrounds that is delivered
or none of the unit processes shown in Figure 3.1. The individual unit processes may be arranged in a to the WRRF by truck. Septage does
different order, with, for example, flow measurement coming before screening and grit removal. In the not include grease trap waste or
example headworks shown in Figure 3.1, the first unit process is a screen. Screens remove larger debris and any other type of commercial or
may have openings as small as a few millimeters or as wide apart as 5 cm (2 in.). Figure 3.2 shows a manual industrial waste.

Grinder Flow Flow Equalization

Measurement
Influent

Screenings Grit

Figure 3.1 Typical WRRF Headworks (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
 56  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.2 Manual Bar Screen (Reprinted with permission by Keith Radick)

bar screen with openings that are 2.5-cm (1-in.) apart. Screens must be cleaned or raked either
automatically or by an operator or maintenance person several times during the day. A bar screen with
wide openings will stop large debris from entering the WRRF, but rags and stringy material may still
pass through. A manual screen with large openings is sometimes called a trash rack. Many different types
of screens are used in wastewater treatment and will be discussed in this chapter. The headworks may
Grinders and comminutors reduce also include a comminutor or grinder. A comminutor, or grinder, reduces the size of any debris that
the size of debris entering the passed through the screen. Comminutors and grinders are being phased out of many facilities in favor
treatment facility, but they do not of screening. The goal is to reduce the chance of damage to downstream equipment or processes and
remove it from the wastewater. clogging of pipes.
Shredded debris can still damage
downstream equipment, clog pipes Screens are typically followed by grit basins, which are channels or small tanks where the wastewater
and pumps, and take up valuable velocity, or speed, is decreased to about 0.3 m/sec (1 ft/sec). Here, heavier particles such as sand, grit,
treatment space in tanks. eggshells, and heavier organic particles settle to the bottom of the tank where they can then be removed,
while lighter organic particles remain suspended in the wastewater and pass on to the next process.
Figure 3.3 shows two parallel grit basins at the headworks of a WRRF that treats up to 6057 m3/d (1.6 mgd)
A slide gate is placed within a channel of flow. A slide gate is directing flow to one grit basin. Accumulated grit can be seen in the bottom of the
to direct flow. At smaller WRRFs, dry grit basin. Several different types of grit basins are used in wastewater treatment and will be discussed
slide gates may be as simple as in this chapter. Screenings and grit are typically sent to a landfill for disposal.
metal or fiberglass plates that are
slid manually in and out of grooves
mounted on the channel wall. At
larger WRRFs, slide gates may be
raised and lowered using hand
wheels to move the gate up and
down a threaded shaft. Proportional
gates incorporate a weir that allows
the operator to control the velocity
of the water moving through the
upstream process.

Figure 3.3 Parallel Grit Basins (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   57

Test Your Knowledge

1. All WRRF headworks include screening, grit removal, and 4. A bar screen may not prevent this type of material from
flow measurement. entering the WRRF.
True a. Sticks
False b. Large rocks
c. Rags
2. Screening and grit removal must be completed before flow
measurement. d. Pallets
True 5. Grit basins typically remove sand, gravel, eggshells, and
False coffee grounds by
a. Placing wire mesh in the flow path as a strainer
3. This device may be used to direct flow to or around a screen
or grit basin. b. Scooping the surface of the water
a. Cogwheel c. Introducing microorganisms to consume them
b. Slide gate d. Decreasing water velocity and allowing them to settle
c. Weir block
d. Fraser valve

Screening
Purpose and Function
As a WRRF’s first treatment unit, screens protect facility equipment against damage such as clogging
of pipes and pumps. The debris captured on the screen depends on the opening spacing and the size,
configuration, and amount of debris. The type of screen selected will depend on which treatment
processes are downstream and how much protection they require. Membranes, which are one type of
downstream process, are easily damaged by debris and, therefore, require screens with very small openings
upstream. Ponds, on the other hand, are much more tolerant of debris and grit and tend to have screens
with much larger openings at their headworks. If the screen openings are too large, some debris will not
be captured and may cause downstream difficulties. The passage of rags and debris into downstream
processes is one of the biggest causes of equipment maintenance and failure because of jammed pump
impellers, clogged sludge and scum pipelines, and imbalanced operation of rotating equipment. Floating
material in downstream processes is unsightly and can be a safety hazard to operators attempting removal. Some bacteria in the treatment
As wastewater processes continue to advance, preventing damage from screeneable material becomes process are capable of converting
increasingly important. For these reasons, there is a trend toward installing screens with smaller openings. nitrate, a pollutant, into nitrogen
As screen openings become smaller, greater amounts of organic material are removed and it becomes gas under certain conditions. This is
important to wash and compact the screened material and return organic material to the wastewater flow. called denitrification. The nitrogen
Screened material that is not washed sufficiently can putrefy and generate odors and hazardous gases. gas is returned to the atmosphere,
Removal of too much organic material with the screenings can also impede the ability of some biological which is approximately 78% nitrogen.
treatment systems to remove nitrate. These bacteria require an organic
food source to make the conversion.
Debris accumulated on the screens is removed at appropriate intervals by the use of either manual or When too much organic material is
automatic control methods. The cleaning rate depends on many variables including the type of collection removed with screenings and grit,
system (separate or combined), demographics, diurnal flow patterns, condition of the collection system, denitrification can be impeded.
and seasonal factors such as leaves during the fall. Debris removed from screens with wide openings Biological treatment fundamentals
typically consists of wood, tree limbs, rocks, and other large items. Debris removed from screens with are discussed in Chapter 5.
smaller openings typically includes rags, food particles, bones, bottle caps, small plastic objects, leaves,
paper, plastics, personal wipes, personal hygiene products, and other small objects. Screenings may be
deposited directly into containers, washed and compressed before placement in containers, or loaded onto
conveyors for transport elsewhere in the facility. Ultimately, the screenings are transported to a landfill or
incinerator for final disposal. Increasingly, screening wash presses and vacuum containers are being used at
WRRFs to remove the liquid from the screenings before transport, which reduces the volume and weight of
the screenings.
 58  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Design Parameters and Expected Performance

The quantity of screenings removed can vary significantly depending on the screen opening size and
the activities in the service area. In 2008, Water Environment Federation (WEF) surveyed 328 WRRFs
across the United States. Extreme variations in screening quantities were reported from less than 0.75 to
150 L/1000 m3 (0.1 to 20 cu ft/mil. gal) (WEF et al., 2018). For screen openings between 25 and 50 mm
(1 and 2 in.), for each 13-mm (0.5-in.) reduction of clear opening size, the volume of screenings will
approximately double. In other words, a screen with 38-mm (1.5-in.) openings will remove about twice
the amount of material as a screen with 50-mm (2-in.) openings. For screen openings smaller than 25 mm
(1 in.), the volume of screenings removed increases rapidly as the opening size decreases (WEF et al., 2018).

There are four types of screening media that are typically used: bars, wedge wire, perforated plate, and
mesh. Historically, bars have been the most commonly used because they are preferred for coarse screens
and trash racks (Figure 3.2). Long, vertical or horizontal gaps between bars can allow the passage of
long, thin objects like rags, sticks, and hair. Screens with large openings may pass larger objects, including
construction debris and wood beams. If material is not removed from the screen regularly, the buildup of
material and water behind the screen can force larger pieces of debris between the openings. Wedge wire
is similar to bars, but is thinner and has smaller openings. The individual wires have a trapezoidal shape,
with the smaller openings facing into flow, as shown in Figure 3.4. The trapezoidal shape helps prevent
clogging because any object that is able to pass through the smaller initial opening should be able to move
easily through the wider opening behind. Wedge wire allows the passage of long, thin material such as hair.
Perforated plate media have round or oblong holes as small as 1 mm in diameter (Figure 3.5). Perforated
plate improves capture of hair and other fine material that can pass through bar screens and wedge wire.
“Blinding off” means that an excess Perforated plate is more likely to become clogged or “blind off”, and will require more frequent cleaning.
of material has accumulated on The last type of media is mesh. Mesh media are similar in appearance to a window screen, but are made
the screen and that water is no from thicker, tougher wire.
longer able to move easily through
the openings. Screens are grouped into several categories based on the size of their openings. Coarse screens or trash
racks have the largest openings, followed by bar screens, fine screens, and microscreens. Different
publications use slightly different ranges for opening sizes when classifying screens.

The typical overall widths for a screen channel vary from 0.6 to 4.2 m (2 to 14 ft). The straining efficiency
(screenings removal) of a screen and the hydraulic flow through the screen depend on the clear spacing
between the bars. The smaller the spacing, the more debris is captured, with greater head loss developing
across the screen. Head loss is the difference in water level between the upstream side of the screen and
the downstream side of the screen, also known as differential (Figure 3.6). As material accumulates on the
screen, it becomes more difficult for water to pass through the screen. As a result, water builds up behind
the screen and can overflow the channel if the screen is not cleaned often enough. Screens with smaller
openings require wider channels for a given flow to enable flow to pass through the screens. Screens are
available in different widths, but each type of screen is limited by its mechanical components and has
a maximum size available. To accommodate higher flowrates, most WRRFs will have multiple screens.

Figure 3.4 Wedge Wire Screen Material (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   59

Figure 3.5 Perforated Plate Media (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)

­ ngineers typically assume screens will be approximately 50% blinded at any given time. This helps ensure
E
the WRRF will have plenty of screening capacity under different operating conditions.

A WRRF headworks may have one or more screening channels and grit basins depending on the size and
complexity of the facility. Thus, if one unit malfunctions, the other unit and channel may remain in service
during repairs. A typical layout for a smaller WRRF is shown in Figure 3.7. The path of the influent during
normal operation is shown in darker blue. The bypass channel is shown in lighter blue. Note that there is a
bypass channel for both the screen and the grit basin. Slide gates are located upstream and downstream of
each piece of equipment. The gates may be used to divert flow and allow a particular piece of equipment to
be taken out of service for inspection, cleaning, and maintenance while leaving other pieces of equipment
in service. In the example shown in Figure 3.7, it is possible to take either the mechanical screen or the grit
basin out of service while leaving the other piece of equipment in service.

In this example, the flow path used for normal operation contains a mechanically cleaned bar screen
followed by a vortex grit basin. If the mechanical bar screen must be taken offline for any reason (e.g., to
remove stuck debris), the slide gates on either side of the mechanical bar screen can be closed and the slide
gates on either side of the manual bar screen can be opened. Opening and closing gates will direct flow
to the bypass channel. Slide gates fit into sleeves that are embedded in the channel. The top of the gate
generally extends above the highest expected water level. If the gates are dropped to block off the bypass
channel and the flow backs up in the channel because of a clogged mechanical bar screen, or because the
operator is unavailable, the flow can exit over the top of the gate into the bypass channel. Larger facilities

Screenings

Head Loss

Figure 3.6 Head Loss across a Screen (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
60  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

A - Slide Gate D - Bypass Channel G - Grit Classifier

B - Mechanical Bar Screen E - Manual Bar Screen H - Water Recycle
C - Screenings Wash Press F - Vortex Grit Basin I - Flume
J - Flow Measurement
Figure 3.7 Headworks Layout (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)

with multiple mechanical bar screens and grit basins may not have bypass channels because redundant
equipment is available.

When multiple screens are available, influent flows should be equally distributed among all of the channels
used for normal operation to ensure uniform loading among the screens. Uneven loading will require
more frequent cleaning of some screens than others.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Removal of grit, rags, and other debris is often necessary to 6. A WRRF currently has a bar screen with 50-mm (2-in.)
protect downstream equipment from harm. openings. Operators of the WRRF are considering replacing
True the screen with one that has 25-mm (1 in.) openings. How
False much should they expect the volume of screenings removed
to change?
2. If too much organic material is removed at the WRRF
a. Volume will remain about the same
headworks, the downstream biological process can
b. Screening volume will double
be affected.
c. Screening volume will increase by a factor of 4
True
d. Screening volume will decrease by 50%
False
7. What is the most likely effect of receiving large quantities of
3. Head loss is the difference in water level between the
grease on a perforated plate-type screen?
upstream and downstream sides of a screen.
a. Blinding of the screen
True
b. Decreased cleaning frequency
False
c. Passage of hair and rags into the WRRF
4. One consequence of allowing excess organic material to be d. Improved cog lubrication
removed along with rags and other inert debris is
8. Place the following screen types in order from the smallest
a. Oxygen generation
opening size to the largest.
b. Reduced capture of rags
a. Fine screen
c. Generation of odors
b. Trash rack
d. Reduced disposal costs
c. Bar screen
5. This type of screen has the widest openings and only stops d. Micro screen
the largest debris.
a. Trash rack
b. Manual bar screen
c. Mechanical bar screen
d. Step screen
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   61

Equipment

Coarse Screens

Trash/Bar Racks
Coarse screens are classified as either trash racks or bar screens, depending on the spacing between
the bars. Trash racks, also called bar racks, are constructed of heavy, parallel rectangular or round steel
bars with wide spacing set in a channel. They are intended to remove only the largest debris. Bars are
sloped at an angle ranging from 30 to 45 deg from the vertical (Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.8). Bar racks may
be cleaned manually or mechanically with robust steel rakes. The rake teeth fit between the bars and
scrape accumulated debris to the top of the screen. The platform at the top of the screen in Figure 3.8 is
perforated to allow water to drain from the screened material. Trash racks are mainly used in WRRFs that
see high amounts of large debris, but may also be installed in a bypass channel (Figure 3.7). Bypass screens
are used for emergency screening events such as when a mechanically cleaned screen must be taken out
of service.

Bar Screens
Bar screens resemble bar racks except that they have smaller clear spacing between the bars (Figure 3.9).
Bar racks and screens are designed as stationary structures built into concrete channels. Some mechanical
units are designed with chains or cables and cogwheels attached to the submerged end of the screen and
a pivot arrangement at the upper end to permit lifting of the submerged end for easy inspection and
maintenance. Mechanical bar screens are typically positioned at a 65- to 70-deg angle for ease of operation
of the raking mechanism (Figure 3.10). Mechanical cleaning reduces labor cost, improves flow conditions
and screening capture, and reduces nuisances. For WRRFs with combined sewers, mechanically cleaned
screens are better for handling large quantities of stormwater debris than manually cleaned screens. Many
mechanically cleaned bar screen designs are currently used in WRRFs. These designs include chain/cable-
driven, single rake, multiple rake, catenary, and continuous self-cleaning.

Figure 3.8 Manual Bar Screen with Slide Gate: (1) Manual Bar Screen and (2) Slide Gate (Reprinted
with permission by Indigo Water Group)
 62  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.9 Mechanical Bar Screen Openings (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)

Chain-Driven Screens
A common type of mechanically cleaned bar screen is the front-cleaning, chain-driven unit with the rake
mechanism on the upstream side of the bar screen (Figure 3.11). These screens have two points of tension
A sprocket is a wheel with teeth that is at the upper and lower sprockets that keep the chain taut. The typical front-cleaning unit includes a toothed
used to drive a chain or belt. hopper (rake) that swings out from the bar screen as it travels down to the bottom of the channel. After
reaching the bottom of the channel, cables, chains, or cogwheels draw the toothed hopper toward the bar
screen. The teeth of the hopper (rake) then slide between the bars and, during the upward movement, drag
the screenings out of the wastewater. Think of dragging a fork across a barbecue grill. The tines of the fork

Figure 3.10 Three Mechanical Bar Screens Installed in Parallel (Reprinted with permission by Indigo
Water Group)
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   63

Figure 3.11 Front-Cleaning Screen (Courtesy of Huber Technology, Inc.)

slide easily into the openings between the grill bars and will remove captured debris from the surface
of the bars. A variation of this type of screen is the rear-cleaning unit with the rake mechanism on the
downstream side of the bar screen, the rake teeth of which protrude through the bars to the upstream side.

Single Rake Screens

A single rake or reciprocating rake bar screen simulates the movement of a person raking the screen
(InfoBarScreens, 2009). A reciprocating rake bar screen consists of stationary components (frame, bar rack, Reciprocating refers to something that
dead plate, and pin rack) along which the rake assembly travels (Figure 3.12). The reciprocating rake bar moves backward and forward in a
straight line.

Figure 3.12 Reciprocating Rake Screen (Courtesy of Vulcan Industries, Inc.)

 64  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

screen typically goes through a single operation cycle (from top rest position, to downward stroke with
rake in open position, to upward cleaning stroke with rake engaged in bar screen, to screenings discharge
operation, and returning to top rest position) when initiated by timer or differential water-level signal. The
rake assembly consists of a drive assembly, rake arms, rake, and cam followers, the latter controlling rake
The drive mechanism is the pieces of position. Although many drive mechanisms are available (chain and cable, hydraulic, and screw operated),
the screen that physically move the the most popular design is the cogwheel. For these designs, the entire cleaning rake assembly, including the
rake across the screen. gear motor, is carriage-mounted on cogwheels that travel on a fixed pin or gear rack. The drive mechanism
is typically designed to allow the rake to ride over obstructions during the cleaning stroke. In the unlikely
event that the rake becomes jammed, a limit switch is activated to turn off the drive motor.
A cogwheel is a wheel with teeth along
its edge that are designed to interlock Catenary Screens
with another toothed mechanism. It Catenary bar screens are similar to chain-driven screens. An example of a hybrid multiple rake and
is essentially a large gear. catenary screen is shown in Figure 3.13. Instead of having a flexible chain, a catenary screen uses rigid
metal links or bars with joints that interlock with one another. Once locked into place, the links behave
as a single, unbending unit along the full length of the screen. At the top and bottom of the screen, the
links pivot at the joints, allowing them to bend around the top and bottom of the screen, as shown in
Figure 3.13. One difference between a catenary screen and a chain-driven screen is that the catenary
screen only has one point of tension: the sprocket at the top. The cleaning mechanism of a catenary
screen consists of heavy tooth rakes held against the screen by the weight of its chain, rake, and rake
counterweights. The term, ­catenary, comes from the catenary loop formed by the operating chain ahead of
the screen. A curved transition piece at the base of the screen allows for efficient removal of solids captured
at the bottom. Like reciprocating rake screens, all sprockets, shafts, and bearings are located out of the flow
stream to reduce wear and corrosion and ease required maintenance. The submerged articulating chain
joint surfaces, however, are subject to abrasive wear and fatigue failure. Because the cleaning rake is held
against the bars primarily by just the weight of the chains, the rake can be pulled over large rags or solids
preventing removal.

Figure 3.13 Multiple-Rake Catenary Bar Screen (Courtesy of Duperon Corporation)

 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   65

Continuous Self-Cleaning Screens

Another type of mechanically cleaned bar screen is the continuous self-cleaning screen (Figure 3.14).
This screen consists of a continuous belt of plastic or stainless steel elements that are pulled through the
wastewater to provide screening along the entire submerged length of the screen. The screen openings are
limited in both length and width to prevent the passage of long, thin materials. Continuous screens may
have openings as small as 1 mm (0.039 in.) or greater than 72 mm (3 in.) (WEF et al., 2018). Solids are
captured on the face of the screen and, as the belt rotates, teeth protrude on the upward movement to collect
the screenings. Some of these screens include spray bars or brushes to improve the cleaning of the screening
elements. Continuous screens have either a lower sprocket or a guide rail at the channel bottom to support
the parts of the screen that are submerged.

Comminutors, Macerators, and other Grinding Devices

Comminutors and macerators grind or chop solids that could interfere with downstream wastewater
treatment processes. A macerator is a slow-speed grinder. Note that comminutors increase the amount
of inert material that will accumulate in the aeration basins and digesters, which effectively decreases
treatment capacity. Other types of grinding devices are being used in pipes and channels that use twin
shafts with cutting teeth (Figure 3.15). The cutting teeth are stacked onto rotating shafts that rotate
toward each other. The rotation, along with the teeth, help pull debris between the shafts where it is cut
into smaller pieces. These devices, typically preceded by a bar screen, do not remove the chopped solids
from the wastewater flow and instead rely on subsequent treatment units for their removal. At some small
facilities, grinding devices are used in place of bar screens. However, shredded rags can adversely affect the
operation and maintenance of primary clarifiers, thickening units, and dewatering units. Because of the
potential adverse downstream effects and the many other difficulties associated with the operation and
maintenance of comminutors and other grinding devices, their use is limited.

Comminutors, macerators, and other grinding devices are often used in pumping stations, upstream of
solids handling pumps, and in place of screens in some smaller WRRFs. This equipment can help to prevent
blockages in pipes, pumps, and channels that could result in an overflow of raw wastewater. They are

Figure 3.14 Continuous Self-Cleaning Screen (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
66  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.15 In-Channel Grinder (Muffin Monster) (Courtesy of JWC Environmental)

well suited to smaller facilities with limited staffing. Examples of places and associated conditions that may
require a comminutor or macerator in the influent channel include the following:

„„ Pumping station in the collection system that receives shop rags and other debris that routinely clogs
pumps and pipes. Pumping stations are not routinely staffed;
„„ Smaller WRRFs with narrow influent channels;
„„ Pond facility with excess solids storage capacity;
„„ A WRRF downstream of a prison complex or similar industry. Laundry, bed sheets, uniforms, and a
host of other larger materials are often flushed by prisoners. This material can be difficult to remove,
especially at smaller facilities. Blankets and uniforms can become stuck upstream of the screen and
completely block the influent channel. Grinders can help to alleviate this issue; and
„„ Upstream of solids handling pumps and processes. Debris that enters the WRRF eventually ends up in the
screenings dumpster or in the solids handling process. Once in a solids handling process, rags, plastic bags,
and other debris can get tangled together, forming larger masses. Passing sludge through an in-line grinder
can reduce the potential for damage to downstream equipment.

Fine Screens
Fine screens typically consist of wedge-wire, perforated plate, or closely spaced bars with openings of 0.5 to
6 mm (0.02 to 0.25 in.). These screens are freestanding units typically installed downstream from coarse
screens. Mechanical cleaning of these screens is essential. Water sprays or brushes are typically used for
cleaning these screens. Hot water provides better results than cold water for cleaning fine screens because
it helps to remove grease that has adhered to the surface.

Screenings from fine screens typically contain higher concentrations of organic matter. Washer/
compactors, either integral to the screen or standalone, must be used with fine screens. Some screening
designs bag these screenings, while other fine-screening devices discharge directly to storage containers.
Because of the higher organic content of these screenings, operators should transfer them more frequently
to final disposal, before excessive odors are produced.

Continuous-Element Screens
Continuous-element screens consist of screens with an endless cleaning grid that is attached to a main
drive via different configurations. Screenings are collected and conveyed to the top part of the screen and
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   67

then discharged. Continuous-element screens come in a variety of forms; however, the most popular are
the perforated-plate and belt-type technologies. Perforated-plate screens (Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.16) are
constructed of plastic or stainless steel panels with orifices throughout the panel, and are provided in a
stacked-panel configuration with rakes at regular intervals to prevent screenings rollback. Orifices are “Rollback” is when screenings fall or
typically round for ease of construction. A proper cleaning mechanism (water spray and/or brushes) is roll off the front of the screen instead
required to remove buildup of organic material. of being carried up and out of the
flow path.
Perforated-plate screens in a flow-through configuration typically require an inclination angle between 60
to 75 deg and have the greatest potential for screenings carryover. Although they have considerable head
loss, continuous-element screens have one of the best screenings retentions in the industry. They are often
used in instances where minimizing the screenings for downstream processes is important.

Stair Screens
Also referred to as Step Screens® (Figure 3.17), stair screens consist of long, thin parallel plates called
lamellas made from stainless steel, with 3- to 6-mm (0.12- to 0.24-in.) openings between plates. The plates
have a stair-stepped edge, as shown in Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.19. There are two sets of lamellas in a stair
screen; most designs have one fixed and one moving set that rotates in and out of the screen to provide a
step motion pattern that lifts the collected screenings upward until they are discharged on top of the screen
(Figure 3.19). With each cycle, every other lamella moves while the others remain in place. The moving
lamellas typically are connected by either chain drives or levers.

The thin lamellas are vulnerable to damage by large objects, rocks, broken glass, and grit. Sometimes,
wedging of larger objects has been a problem with this design. Flexible lamellas at the bottom are used
to prevent blockage or damage by large objects. Water flushing connections prevent accumulation of grit
under the lamellas. Stair screens do provide a higher open area compared to other fine screens because
they have open slots running from the bottom up to the top of the screen grid. This slot configuration
allows passage of stringy solids, which can be minimized through “matted operation” in which the screen
is operated with a mat of accumulated screenings created by using differential head control.

Figure 3.16 Perforated-Plate Screen (Courtesy of Huber Technology, Inc.)

68  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.17 Stair Screen in a Channel (Courtesy of Vulcan Industries, Inc.)

Inclined Cylindrical Screens

Inclined cylindrical screens (Figure 3.20) consist of a cylindrical screening basket with an internal
screenings removal mechanism that is typically a helical screw. The screen is typically installed at a 30- to
45-deg incline. These types of screens can either be “fixed” with screenings removed by the helical screw or
“rotating” with screenings removed by a brush and spray bar. The screenings drop into a hopper feeding a

Figure 3.18 Stair Screen Debris (Courtesy of Huber Technology, Inc.)

 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   69

Figure 3.19 Stair Screen Operation (Courtesy of Huber Technology, Inc.)

screw and are conveyed through an inclined washer/compactor pipe. One of the biggest advantages of this
screen is that it is supplied with an internal washer/compactor. However, it requires a larger footprint and
shallower influent channel compared to other screens.

Table 3.1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the screen types discussed in this chapter. There
are many other screen types available for installation in WRRFs.

Screenings Presses
Washing and compacting of removed screenings is a critical function of the screening process, particularly
for fine screens. They are both recommended for coarse screens with openings less than 38 mm (1.5 in.)
and for all fine screens and microscreens. Washer/compactors have two equally important functions.

Figure 3.20 Inclined Cylindrical Screen (Courtesy of Lakeside Equipment Corporation)

70  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Table 3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Screens (WEF et al., 2018)
Type of Screen Advantages Disadvantages
Coarse screens
Chain or cable-driven screens High screenings loading rate Submerged components

Insensitive to fats, oils, and grease

Reciprocating rake screens No critical submerged components Low screening loading rate

Allows a pivot design for servicing the unit High overhead clearance, particularly for deep channels
above the channel
May be difficult to pivot screen out of the channel when
connected directly to a washer compactor unit
Catenary screens No critical submerged components Large solids removal may be an issue
Continuous self-cleaning screen Medium to low headroom required Several moving components

Allows a pivot design for servicing the unit May be difficult to pivot screen out of the channel when
above the channel connected directly to a washer compactor unit
Fine screens
Continuous element screens Proven technology Numerous moving parts

High screenings capture rate Some designs have components subject to wear and tear

Allows a pivot design for servicing the unit High head loss
above the channel
High potential for grease blinding

Additional motor and/or spray bars for cleaning

May be difficult to pivot screen out of the channel when

connected directly to a washer compactor unit
Multiple rake screens High screenings loading rate Some designs have submerged components subject to
wear and tear
Low headroom requirements
Medium head loss

High potential for grease blinding

Stair screens Low head loss Stringy solids can pass through the screen

Allows a pivot design for servicing the unit Not recommended when rocks or excessive grit loads
from above are expected

Requires considerable footprint for installation

compared to others

May be difficult to pivot screen out of the channel when

connected directly to a washer compactor unit

Washing removes organic material and returns it to the wastewater flow. Compaction can reduce the water
content of the screenings by up to 50% with a volume reduction of 60 to 85%, thereby reducing costs of
storage and disposal. A typical performance specification for washer/compactors is to provide a minimum
of 90% removal of suspended organics.

Screenings presses like the one shown in Figure 3.21 consist of a hopper section, an auger or ram, and a
wedge section or compaction zone. Screened material is transferred from the screen into the hopper, where
it then falls into the main housing of the wash press. An auger or ram then moves the screened material
toward the wedge section or compaction zone. The auger is rotated by the drive unit. At the same time,
wash water is sprayed over the screenings to help rinse away organic material. The auger stirs the screened
material as it pushes it, making it easier for water to drain through the screenings and out the bottom of
the wash press. The rinse water and organic material are returned to the main wastewater flow. In fine
screening applications, separate wash tanks frequently are provided that mix and agitate the screenings in
wash water. As the screenings are moved into the wedge or compaction zone, they are squeezed and compressed
to remove water. Presses operate at a range of 4500 to 6000 kPa (1500 to 2000 psig) (WEF, 2016).
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   71

Figure 3.21 Screenings Wash Press (Courtesy of Duperon Corporation)

Washed and compressed screening material is shown in Figure 3.22 as it exits a wash press. Some systems
deposit screened material into bags for odor control (Figure 3.23).

Sticks and other large objects in the screenings may cause mechanical breakdowns. Most wash presses
have controls that sense jams, automatically reverse the mechanism, and actuate an alarm when a motor
overloads. Washer/compactors can be equipped with grinders ahead of the auger to reduce significantly
the quantity of screenings and provide maximum washing.

Figure 3.22 Washed and Compacted Screenings (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
 72  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.23 Bagging System for Washed and Compacted Screenings (Reprinted with p
­ ermission by
Indigo Water Group)

Conveying Systems
Belt conveyors are one method used in the screenings removal processes to transport debris from the point
of removal to the point of collection and, eventually, disposal. Belt conveyor systems may be operated
continuously or intermittently depending on loading conditions. An alternative to a conveyer, especially
where screens are located below ground, is to flush the screenings into a grinder pump, which pumps the
A slurry is a liquid that contains high slurry up to ground level dewatering/screening units.
concentrations of undissolved solids.
Screw augers are also used for screenings transport, particularly when an enclosed system is required for odor
control. Both shafted and shaftless augers are used, but because of the abrasive nature of screenings, shafted
augers may be preferred to avoid frequent replacement of the wear bars or liner. The biggest benefit of augers
is the ability to function as the first part of a washer/compactor system before discharge to a compaction tube.
Augers can have multiple introduction points. The auger should be sloped to a drain. A well-designed spray
system is required along the auger and, particularly, at the drain point. The drain point must be accessible in
the event of blockage.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Trash and bar racks are installed at a 30- to 45-deg angle from 4. Rollback occurs when screened material falls back down
the vertical. the face of the screen, possibly being returned to the
True wastewater flow.
False True
False
2. Mechanical cleaning of bar screens increases labor costs
because of increased maintenance. 5. A pond WRRF is most likely to have this type of screen in its
True headworks.
False a. Manual bar screen
b. Perforated plate screen
3. Fine screens capture fewer organic solids than coarse screens.
c. Stair screen
True
d. Micro screen
False
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   73

6. Match the screen type to its identifying characteristic. 7. On a single rake screen, a limit switch
1. Trash rack a. Single operating cycle a. Sets the upper and lower limits of travel for the rake
2. Manual bar screen b. Interlocking links, no b. Adjusts input line voltage
lower sprocket. c. Modifies the minimum particle size captured
3. Single rake screen c. Efficiently removes hair d. Turns off the drive motor if the rake is jammed
and stringy material
4. Catenary screen d. Integrate wash press 8. One disadvantage of using comminutors and grinders is
5. Continuous self-cleaning e. Remove only largest a. Reduced potential for clogged pipes and
screen debris damaged equipment
6. Perforated plate screen f. Rectangular openings b. Increased screenings disposal costs
limited in height and c. Shredded material reduces treatment capacity
width downstream
7. Stair screen g. May be located in a d. More frequent overflows of the influent channel
bypass channel
8. Inclined cylindrical screen h. Two sets of lamella lift
solids up stairs

Process Control
Some facilities have screens designed for manual cleaning. In this case, debris is removed with a hand rake,
typically on a daily basis or several times each day. Because the amount of screenings will be different from
WRRF to WRRF, operators will need to know what is normal for their facility and adjust the cleaning
frequency as needed. If the screens are not cleaned often enough, excessive amounts of material will
accumulate, which can cause water to build up in the channel. When the screenings are finally removed, a
surge of wastewater can enter the WRRF all at once, which may impact the effectiveness of downstream
equipment. Screenings should be removed from the face of the screen as often as necessary to ensure
a reasonably free flow of wastewater. Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer or the WRRF’s
operations and maintenance (O&M) manual, at a minimum, screens should be cleaned when the head loss
across the screen reaches 7.6 cm (3 in.) (Bristow, 2008). During rainstorms, the cleaning frequency may
have to be increased. In installations with multiple channels, additional screens may be placed into service
during a storm event.
A PLC is a mini computer that
In general, bar rack installations use automated motor-operated rakes for cleaning because screens are controls a piece of equipment.
typically unattended for long periods of time. Compared to manual cleaning, the use of a mechanical
cleaning device tends to reduce labor costs, provide better flow conditions, and produce less nuisance
conditions. Such devices are almost always used in facilities larger than 3.79 ML/d (1 mgd) and Most of the equipment in a WRRF
occasionally used in smaller facilities. will have a mode selector switch that
defines the equipment control mode.
Screens may be controlled using timed cycles, head loss as measured by a level sensor immediately When the switch is in the “hand”
upstream of the screen, or by differential head loss. Most systems use a combination of these control position, the piece of equipment can
methods. In these cases, the screen may normally operate based on head loss (either upstream or be operated using field-mounted
differential), but revert to a timed cycle if the amount of time between cycles is too long. This prevents switches that move the rake up or
debris that has accumulated on the screen from gradually working its way through the screen and into the down or to cycle the unit. When it
WRRF. Clock-operated timing switches, level-sensing devices, or programmable logic controllers (PLCs) may is switched to “automatic”, a timer,
control the motors automatically. In addition to automatic control, screens may be manually cycled by the level switch, or PLC will control
operator using an on-off switch to activate the drive motor. Manual cycling may be needed to check proper the equipment. When in automatic
operation during facility inspections. mode, equipment often may also be
controlled remotely by the WRRF
With a clock-operated timing switch, the operator selects a fixed time interval for the screen to operate. For computer system.
example, an operator may select a 10-minute interval on the timer, which would cause the screen to run
through its operational sequence and clear accumulated debris once every 10 minutes.
A setpoint is a limit determined
With head loss control, level-sensing devices measure the water height in the channel immediately by either the operator or the
upstream of a screen. If the water level is rising, it means material is accumulating on the screen and head manufacturer. The setpoint
loss is increasing. The screen will cycle and clear debris based on an operator setpoint. For example, the determines how often a piece of
operator may determine that an acceptable water level in the influent channel is 1 m (3.3 ft). Each time the equipment will operate.
water level reaches the setpoint of 1 m (3.3 ft), the screen will cycle to remove debris.
 74  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

With differential head loss control, level-sensing devices measure the water height both before and after the
screen to determine the head loss. The operator selects the upstream water level or the amount of head loss
that will trigger an operational sequence. For example, if the level indicator is set for 1 m (3.3 ft), then the
screen will run each time the water level reaches 1 m (3.3 ft). Once the debris is cleared from the screen, the
water level will drop. Finally, a PLC may be used to control the screen with a combination of timed cycles
and level indicators or with some other piece of information.

Of the four control methods, the clock-operated timing switches are the most frequently used; however,
more facilities are installing PLCs. Once experience determines the number of raking operations needed
during the average day at a particular installation, the clock-operated timers are set to operate the
raking mechanism at the required number of times each day. Timers work well, but cannot adjust to
accommodate sudden large accumulations of debris that can occur during high flow periods. If a large
amount of debris enters the WRRF at one time, as may occur during a storm event, a timed cycle could
allow the debris to accumulate on the screen too long, which may result in a complete blockage and
An ultrasonic level system bounces overflow. Therefore, level-sensing devices, such as ultrasonic level systems, are typically installed in parallel
a sound wave off the surface of the with the timers and are designed to override the timer control. Other types of level sensors include floats
water. By measuring how long it and bubbler tubes (WEF, 2016). The level-sensing system detects the increased head loss through the bar
takes for the sound to echo back, it is screen when debris clogs the bars, inducing an electrical switch to activate the raking mechanism. The
possible to calculate the height of the circuit wiring gives the level sensor system precedence over the timer, so that the level sensor will activate
water. Ultrasonic level indicators are the raking mechanism whenever an unusually large amount of debris collects on the screen. Controls are
discussed in Chapter 2. generally configured so that if a cleaning cycle is triggered by the level sensor, the clock timer cycle resets.
At the next preset time interval after the level indicator activates the raking mechanism, the timer-operated
switch will start the raking unless a large debris accumulation recurs. Controls may be configured with
level-induced actuation as primary control with timer-induced override capability, or vice versa, with little
difference in the system’s function. In either case, timer actuation protects against debris accumulating for
long periods resulting in breakthrough and adhesion challenges, and level actuation addresses sudden large
debris accumulation on the bars.

Some screening facilities have backup water level monitoring on the inlet side of the screen. The upstream-
level alarm can be an ultrasonic sensor, bubbler system, submerged transducer, or a float switch. This
Shear pins are used in many different device will alarm and activate a cleaning cycle if a high liquid level is sensed on the upstream side of the
types of equipment to prevent an screen. Screening devices include a limit switch to ensure that the rake mechanism stops or parks outside
excessive buildup of force or pressure. the water after a cleaning cycle. Limit switches are provided to shut down the motor if excessive force is
The shear pin is designed to break detected because of a rake jam or failure.
before equipment is damaged.
Older screens may be equipped with a shear pin. Shear pins are used in many types of equipment to protect
against an overtorque condition. Torque is the amount of force applied to make something rotate. If a
Torque is the amount of force applied piece of debris becomes jammed in the screen and the screen is unable to move, the motor will continue
to make something rotate. to operate and push the screen. Excess torque can build up, potentially damaging the screen. A shear pin
connects the motor and gears to the screen. The pin is designed to break when a certain level of torque or
pressure has been reached. When the shear pin breaks, the screen will no longer be connected to the motor.
Variable-frequency drives are The motor will rotate freely, but the screen will no longer be forced against the obstruction. The motor will
adjustable speed drives that are used rotate at least one revolution where it will trigger a limit switch or other safety device that will shut down
to control motor speed and torque in the motor and set off an alarm. The shear pin breaks so the screen does not.
motors that use AC power.
Most modern screens do not rely on shear pins. Instead, a power monitor controller, current monitor relay,
or no-motion sensor is used. Power monitor controllers and current monitors are used in conjunction
Electrical current is measured in with variable-frequency drives (VFDs). Power monitor controllers monitor power use and current monitor
amps. Electrical power is measured relays monitor the current draw. Both power use and current draw are indirect measurements of the
in watts. [Power = (Volts) (Amps).] amount of torque being generated by the motor and gears. No-motion sensors, also called zero speed
Electrical equipment that is doing switches, monitor the starting and stopping points on the drive shaft. The drive shaft connects the motor
more work requires more power. and gears to the screen. A blockage or other stress on the screen should cause the drive shaft rotation to
Power use and amp draw will both slow down and take longer to move between the starting and stopping points. Shaft rotation speed is
increase if the screen becomes stuck. another indirect measurement of the amount of torque.
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   75

If the amount of torque exceeds the high torque limit set by the manufacturer (or the operator), the power
monitor controller, current monitor relay, or no-motion sensor should stop the screen. The screen may
then reverse direction for a few minutes to dislodge trapped debris. The screen may cycle through forward
and reverse operation several times. If the blockage is cleared, the screen will return to normal operation. If
the blockage cannot be cleared, the screen will stop completely and sound an alarm to alert the operator.

Operation
Under normal operation of a mechanically cleaned bar screen, the operator should visually check the
equipment several times during a shift to ensure that it functions properly. Use of local manual controls
allows immediate observation of the operation of the mechanically cleaned bar screen or other equipment,
even though it may be inactive when inspection begins. Screens should be operated with manual switching
until the accumulated solids are cleared. While the equipment is running, the operator needs to check
for unusual noises, scraping of the screen, jerking motion of the drive mechanisms, overaccumulated
screenings, and lubrication of the chain or drive mechanism.

The operator should avoid any overflows in the screening storage areas. Organic materials that are not
transported off-site decay and result in offensive odors. Generation of hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas, can
create a hazardous atmosphere if the space is not adequately ventilated. Screenings are a significant source
of odors. Check screenings containers daily and empty them as needed. Most importantly, workers must
follow good hygiene practices because wastewater-soaked debris harbors pathogenic organisms. As such,
hose down equipment weekly or more often to remove accumulated material and prevent odors. Remove
grit, rocks, and other materials that may have settled in front of the screen at least once a week. Debris may
be removed using a long-handled rake, shovel, or scoop only after the screen has been powered down and
removed from service. Draining the channel first will make it easier to see and remove debris.

To place a screen into service,

„„ Start mechanically cleaned screens according to the manufacturer’s recommendations,

„„ Open the downstream channel gate, and
„„ Open the channel inlet gate.

To remove a screen from service,

„„ Close the channel inlet gate;

„„ Close the downstream gate;
„„ Allow the mechanical bar screen to run and remove collected material;
„„ Shut down mechanically cleaned screens according to the manufacturer’s recommendations;
„„ Lockout and tagout (LOTO) the screen and associated equipment;
Lockout and tagout is a safety protocol
used to isolate equipment and
„„ Drain the channel and remove debris. A portable sump pump is often used in smaller facilities. Larger
facilities may be equipped with sumps and sump pumps. Water should be transferred to a point prevent its accidental operation.
upstream of a second screen or to the screening bypass channel. Debris may be removed using a long- The LOTO procedures may include
handled rake, shovel, or scoop only after the screen has been powered down and removed from service; placing a physical lock on the power
„„ Wash the screen to remove debris. Use hot water if available to help dissolve grease; switch or circuit breaker for a piece
„„ Wash down the sides of the channel; and of equipment. This ensures that no
„„ Drain the channel. one can accidentally power up the
piece of equipment while it is being
Verify proper operation of the screenings wash press each day by inspecting the screenings to see that they worked on.
are compacted and dry. At the same time, verify that the wash water feed rate meets the manufacturer’s
specifications and check for leaks. To minimize buildup of grease and other materials, wash down
the collection trough regularly with hot water, if available. At least once a week, thoroughly clean the
screenings wash press, including the hopper and/or chutes.

Maintenance
Equipment and systems described in this section benefit from planned maintenance procedures. The
utility should include the headworks in its program of routing inspection, lubrication, and repair, guided
76  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

by recommendations of the equipment suppliers. Keep in mind that screen channels, grit basins, and the
headworks building can all be confined spaces. Be sure to follow ­confined-space safety protocols when
conducting maintenance activities in confined spaces. Be sure to LOTO equipment before performing
maintenance.

Trash/bar racks require daily inspection for visible and audible indications of possible malfunctions, as
recommended by the preventive maintenance procedures in the O&M manuals. As a routine practice, the
operator needs to observe all moving mechanisms to determine if the components are free of obstructions,
properly aligned, moving at constant speeds, and producing no unusual vibrations. The operator should
periodically verify that all control lamps are functional and that there are no burned-out light bulbs. The
operator must listen to all moving mechanisms and recognize their normal operational sounds. For
example, abnormal screeches could indicate lack of lubrication; thumps could indicate broken or loose
components.

Preventive maintenance requires that worn parts and components be replaced before failure and that the
proper lubrication of all moving parts be applied at the recommended intervals. The operator should
always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations on the type of lubricant to use because the lubricant’s
qualities are selected for the anticipated operating conditions and for compatibility with the materials used
in the equipment.

Chains used in chain-driven bar screens tend to wear over time, which can cause the chain to appear
stretched. The chain will gradually become looser over time. Figure 3.24 shows a single chain link and its
associated barrel (on the left). When the two pieces rub together, it wears down both surfaces. Periodically,
the operator may need to adjust the tensioners in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations to
compensate. Removal of a link may be necessary to ensure that the chain rides smoothly on the sprockets.
To minimize equipment breakdown and maintain operational efficiency, badly worn parts should be
replaced. Chain drives require frequent replacement of chains, sprockets, and other parts. Chain life also
depends on how the unit is operated. For example, if the unit is operated continuously, then the chain life
could be dramatically reduced. Grease should be applied weekly (or as required) for rake guides to ensure
smooth and quiet operation.

Figure 3.24 Worn Chain Link and Barrel (Printed with permission from Kenneth Schnaars)
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   77

Once a month, the entire screening area, screens, wash press, and conveyors should be thoroughly cleaned,
including the sides of channels and the insides of covers. Inspect drainage holes on the screenings wash
press for fouling and clean them with high-pressure water, as needed. Hot water should be used, if available,
to remove grease. Monthly cleaning helps prevent the adherence of grease. Annually, or as recommended
by the manufacturer, screening equipment should be thoroughly cleaned and inspected. Some items to
look for include alignment of the rake mechanism, chain and belt tension, chain condition, loose screws
and bolts, chipping paint, rust, loose or bent covers, worn and missing sprocket teeth, and any other
annual inspection items recommended by the manufacturer. The screening channel should be dewatered
for the annual inspection so all submerged components can be viewed. Check all nuts and bolts at this
time and retighten them as necessary. Inspect and lubricate bearings annually or as recommended by the
equipment manufacturer.

Once a month, seals on the main bearing of the screenings wash press should be inspected for leakage and
wear. Inspect hydraulic units including all hoses and connections for wear and leaks. Inspect the screw
conveyor guide bars for wear. Screenings and grit are extremely abrasive and will wear down both the guide
bars and the edges of the screw conveyor. When worn, screenings will rotate in place rather than being
pushed through and compacted. It will eventually become necessary to replace the guide bars and/or the
compacting screw.

Table 3.2 Screening Equipment Troubleshooting Chart (U.S. EPA, 1978)

Indicator/Observations Probable Cause Check or Monitor Solutions
1. Obnoxious odors, flies, and 1. Accumulation of rags 1. Method and frequency of 1. Increase frequency of removal and
other insects and debris debris removal disposal to an approved facility.
2. Excessive grit in bar 2. Flow velocity too low 2. Depth of grit in chamber, 2. Remove bottom irregularity or
screen chamber irregular chamber bottom, reslope the bottom.
flow velocity
Increase flow velocity in a chamber.

Flush regularly with a hose.

3. Excessive screen clogging 3a. Unusual amount of 3a. Upstream conditions 3a. Identify source of waste causing the
debris in wastewater. Check problem so discharge can be stopped.
3b. Cleaning frequency
industrial wastes.
3b. Increase cleaning frequency.
3b. Inadequate cleaning
frequency.
4. Mechanical rake inoperable, 4. Jammed mechanism 4. Screen channel 4. Remove obstruction. Adjust spring
circuit breaker will not reset tension if appropriate.
5. Rake inoperative, but 5a. Broken shear pin 5a. Inspect shear pin. 5a. Identify cause of break and replace
motor runs shear pin.
5b. Broken chain or cable 5b. Inspect chain.
5b. Replace chain or cable.
5c. Broken limit switch 5c. Inspect switch.
5c. Replace limit switch.
6. Rake inoperative, no 6. Defective remote control 6. Check switching circuits. 6. Verify correct operation of the PLC.
visible problem circuit
Replace circuit.

Then replace circuit and motor.

7. Marks or metal against metal 7. Screen needs adjustment 7. Operate screen through one 7. Manufacturer’s adjustments
on screen binding cycle and listen for or observe recommended in equipment
metal-to-metal contact. O&M manual.
8. Slow operation of grinders, 8. Worn components 8. Operate through one cycle 8. Lubricate machine as indicated.
screenings press, or belt to identify components. Check Replace worn components.
conveyors. Screeching sounds maintenance logs.
during operation
9. Thumping sound during 9. Broken or loose 9. Complete inspection of all 9. Replace or tighten component.
operation of screens, grinders, components components, nuts, and bolts.
screenings press, or conveyors
10. Belt not tracking properly 10. Belt stretched; self- 10. Inspect belts, idlers, and 10. Adjust take-up; clean and lubricate
aligning idlers seized; tail tail pulley. self-aligning idlers; adjust tail pulley
pulley misaligned alignment.
 78  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Troubleshooting
The most common problems in the screening process are related to the following three categories:

1. Unusual operational conditions, such as sudden loads of debris that clog or jam the screening
equipment;
2. Equipment breakdown and component failure; and
3. Control failure.

To understand the screening facility, the equipment used, and the limitations of the equipment, the
operator should refer to the O&M manuals for the specific equipment used at the facility. After these
manuals have been read and understood, efficient resolution of problems can become routine. Refer to
Table 3.2 on the previous page for a troubleshooting chart related to screening equipment.

Test Your Knowledge

1. A WRRF with a combined sewer system is expecting a large 5. A mechanical bar screen must be taken out of service for
storm. The manual bar screens are normally cleaned every maintenance. Put the following steps in the correct order.
hour. The operator should plan to decrease the cleaning a. Shut down the screen according to the manufacturer’s
frequency during and immediately after the storm. directions.
True b. Close the upstream (inlet) gate.
False c. Close the downstream (outlet) gate.
d. Wash the screen to remove debris.
2. A shear pin is designed to break under a certain amount of
e. Drain the channel and remove debris.
force or pressure to prevent additional damage to equipment.
f. Lockout and tagout equipment.
True
g. Wash sides of channel and perform final draining
False
of channel.
3. Screens should be cleaned before the head loss across
6. At a minimum, how often should screens be inspected for
the screen reaches ______ or according to the screen
visible and audible indications of possible malfunctions?
manufacturer’s recommendations.
a. Daily
a. 2.5 cm (1 in.)
b. Weekly
b. 7.6 cm (3 in.)
c. Monthly
c. 12.7 cm (5 in.)
d. Quarterly
d. 17.8 cm (7 in.)

4. This type of control mechanism is best suited for storm

events or other conditions that produce highly variable
amounts of screenable material.
a. Clock timer
b. Level sensor
c. Particle counter
d. HOA switch

Grit Removal
Purpose and Function
Settling velocity is how fast a particle Wastewater grit generally consists of fine, discrete, non-biodegradable particles that have a s­ ettling velocity
falls or settles through the water. greater than that of organic solids. Grit is generally defined as ranging in size from 0.050 to 1.0 mm, which
is the same as 50 to 1000 mm (Metcalf and Eddy, Inc./AECOM, 2013). Such materials include sand,
cinders, rocks, coffee grounds, seeds, fruit rinds, and other relatively nonputrescible organic and inorganic
A micron is one-millionth of a meter. substances. Grit acts like liquid sandpaper that wears down and erodes equipment and pipes as it passes
The average human hair is 70 to through and over them. Grit removal, an essential element of preliminary treatment, protects equipment
100 mm in diameter and a grain of from abrasion and accompanying wear. Grit removal prevents accumulation of these materials in downstream
salt is about 70-mm across. processes such as process tanks and digesters, where grit accumulation can result in loss of usable
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   79

volume and treatment capacity. Settling of grit in primary clarifiers (Chapter 4) can cause the primary
sludge concentration to increase so much that it becomes difficult to pump the sludge. Putrescible substances are rapidly broken
down or decayed by microorganisms.
Grit chambers are used to settle grit from the wastewater. The settled grit is then consolidated and
separated from the wastewater using screw conveyors, chain and flight systems, bucket elevators, pumps,
and cyclones. Finally, grit is rinsed by classifiers to remove unwanted organics.

Design Parameters and Expected Performance

Variables influencing the quantity of grit include the type of collection system (combined or separate),
presence of household garbage disposals, condition of the collection system, presence and types of
industrial waste, and efficiency of grit removal. Often, grit accumulates in the collection system and is
flushed into the WRRF in larger quantities during high flow (WEF et al., 2018). In the 2008 WEF member
survey, grit quantities reported by WRRFs ranged from 3.7 to 148 L/1000 m3 (0.5 to 20 cu ft/mil. gal) To see settling velocity in action,
and averaged 37 L/1000 m3 (5.0 cu ft/mil. gal). Because the amount of grit removed is different from one place several centimeters (inches) of
WRRF to another, operators will need to know what is normal for their system. Grit removal systems a mixture of fine sand and gravel into
rely on ­differences in settling velocities to remove grit while allowing organic solids to pass on to the next a 2-L bottle. Fill the rest of the bottle
treatment process. Settling velocity (i.e., how fast a particle sinks) depends on the density of the particle as with water leaving at least 2.5 cm
well as its shape and size. Density is the weight per unit volume. For example, water has a density of (1 in.) of airspace at the top. Shake
999 kg/m3 (62.4 lb/cu ft) at 15.6 °C (60 °F). Sand has a density of about 1280 kg/m3 (80 lb/cu ft) and whole the bottle vigorously. When the bottle
kernel corn has a density of about 719 kg/m3 (44.8 lb/cu ft). If the density of a particle is greater than the is set on a counter and allowed to
density of water, it will sink. If the density of a particle is less than the density of water, it will float. How rest, the gravel will reach the bottom
fast a particle sinks or floats (settling velocity) is related to how different the density of the particle is from of the container, first forming a layer
the density of water. A particle that is only slightly more dense than water will sink slowly, whereas particles followed by the slow-settling sand.
that have high densities will sink rapidly. Round, compact solids sink faster than flat, feathery particles.
Larger particles sink faster than smaller particles made of the same material.

When a particle enters the grit basin, gravity pulls it down in a straight line (Figure 3.25). The more
dense and compact the particle is, the faster it will be pulled toward the bottom of the basin. At the same
time, the water moving through the grit basin is pushing the particle forward (Figure 3.25). How fast
the particles move forward is related to the velocity of the water. The result is that most of the particles Velocity is speed. Velocity can be
entering the grit basin will have a diagonal path from the front of the basin toward the end of the basin calculated in two different ways.
(Figure 3.25). Particles that settle slowly or that have densities lower than the density of water will be Velocity is equal to the amount of
carried though the basin before they have time to settle. Generally speaking, square and rectangular grit flow divided by the cross-sectional
basins target a horizontal water velocity through the basin of about 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec) to retain grit and area of the channel, pipe, or basin
pass on organics. Vortex grit basins target a water velocity of 0.45 to 1.1 m/s (1.5 to 3.5 ft/sec), depending (eq 3.1). Velocity is also equal to
on the manufacturer. If the flow velocity through the grit basin is too high, even very dense particles distance traveled per unit of time. An
will be pushed through to the next unit process. Operators can make adjustments to the flow velocity by example of velocity is a car driving
changing the cross-­sectional area of a grit basin by raising or lowering the water level, taking basins in and along at 120 km/hr (75 mph).
out of service, and through the use of specialized weirs. Aerated grit basins use diffused air to maintain the
desired velocities, whereas vortex-type grit basins use centrifugal force instead of gravity.

Figure 3.25 Settling Velocity (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
 80  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Test Your Knowledge

1. The volume of grit removed for every m3 (mgd) of flow c. Viscosity

received is very consistent from one facility to the next. d. Conductivity
True
5. Which of the following particles should settle the fastest
False
through a column of water?
2. As flow velocity through the basin increases, larger, denser a. Corn kernel
particles will pass through to the next process. b. Coffee grounds
True c. Sand
False d. Gravel
3. All of the following characteristics will influence the settling 6. A grit basin has a flow velocity of 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec) at 9 a.m.
velocity of a particle EXCEPT As flows increase throughout the day, grit basin performance
a. Density will be affected in this way.
b. Size a. The percentage of organic material captured will increase.
c. Color b. Grit removal efficiency will decrease.
d. Shape c. Velocity through the basin will decrease.
d. Air consumption will increase.
4. Gravity pulls grit particles straight down, but this pushes
them forward toward the outlet of the grit basin:
a. Velocity
b. Density

Equipment

Grit Chambers

Detritus Tanks
The HRT is the time required to fill One of the earliest grit chambers was a constant-level, short hydraulic retention time (HRT) settling tank
or empty a container. If the container called a detritus tank (square tank degritter). Flow is distributed across the tank inlet to minimize velocity
already contains water and water is across the tank. There may be baffles at the tank inlet to minimize turbulence. Even flow distribution is
both entering and leaving, then the maintained by proper adjustment of the deflector baffles. Because these tanks settle dense organics and
HRT measures the amount of time grit, they require a grit-washing step to remove organic material and return it to the wastewater flow.
an average bit of water remains in the Some designs incorporate a grit auger and a rake that remove grit from the tank. Detritus tanks are not
container. HRT and detention time recommended for WRRFs with widely varying flows. The velocity of the water through a detritus tank
mean the same thing. HRT is more will vary with the amount of flow entering the facility. When flows increase in the middle of the day, some
commonly used by engineers, though grit may pass through the basin. When flows decrease at night, some additional organic material will be
operators tend to use detention time. captured with the grit.
The ABC certification exam uses
detention time. Velocity Control Tanks
Velocity is related to the cross-sectional area according to the following formula:

Detritus is loose material or debris.

Flow
Velocity  (3.1)
Area

When flow increases and area stays the same, velocity will increase. When flow is changing, then area must
also change to keep velocity constant. Horizontal flow grit chambers use proportional weirs or rectangular
control sections (such as Parshall Flumes) to vary the depth of flow and keep the velocity of the flow
stream at a constant 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec). One type of proportional weir is shown in Figure 3.26. The weir is
Additional information on weirs and shaped so the area the water is moving through remains proportional to flow. This type of weir is capable
flumes can be found in Chapter 2. of maintaining a nearly constant flow velocity through a channel. For the weir to operate correctly, debris
must not be allowed to accumulate across the opening. Constant velocity can also be maintained by giving
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   81

Figure 3.26 Flow-Proportional Weir

the grit channel a parabolic (u-shaped) or trapezoidal cross-sectional area. This channel shape functions
similarly to a flow-proportional weir by maintaining a constant flow-to-area ratio.

Hydraulic retention times for horizontal flow grit chambers are typically between 45 and 90 seconds (U.S.
EPA, 2003). Basin length is determined by the size and density of the average particle that must be removed.
Slower settling particles require longer basins than faster settling particles (Figure 3.25).

Aerated Grit Basin

In aerated grit chamber systems, diffused air is introduced along one side of the basin near the bottom. A good example of diffused air is an
The diffusers are attached to headers that are typically located at about 70% of the total depth of the basin air stone in an aquarium creating fine
to prevent them from becoming buried in grit (WEF et al., 2018). Airflow is generally between 4.7 and air bubbles. Compressed air is fed
12.4 L/(m·s) (3 and 8 cu ft/ft) and may be adjusted by the operator (GLUMRB, 2004). The air causes a through tubing from a compressor
spiral roll pattern perpendicular to the flow through the tank (Figure 3.27). The velocity (speed) of the roll to the air stone. Diffused air in
pattern influences which particles will drop to the bottom and the particles that remain will be carried into aerated grit basins is similar, but on a
the tank effluent. The velocity of the roll is governed by the shape of the grit basin and the amount of air larger scale.
introduced. Roll velocity is independent of flow through the tank, which allows this type of grit basin to
operate effectively over a wide range of flows. Vortex-type grit basins are often used at facilities with highly
variable influent flows. Smaller service areas tend to have higher peak hour to average day flows and can An air header is the piece of pipe
benefit from vortex grit basins. Heavier particles that settle are moved by the spiral flow across the tank that runs from the air source (i.e.,
bottom and then into a grit trough or hopper. compressor or blower) into the grit
basin and along the bottom. Diffusers
Aerated grit basins tend to be long and narrow with a length-to-width ratio between 31 and 81 (WEF are typically mounted directly to
et al., 2018). Longer basins tend to provide better grit removal. The width-to-depth ratio is nearly square the headers.
(0.8 to 0.9) to ensure the roll pattern fills the basin (Figure 3.27). Aerated grit basins are typically designed

Figure 3.27 Aerated Grit Basin (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)
82  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

to remove 0.21-mm (65-mesh) or larger particles with an HRT of 2 to 5 minutes (Metcalf and Eddy/
AECOM, 2013). Mesh measures the number of holes or openings in a 2.54 cm by 2.54 cm (1 in. by 1 in.)
piece of screen. It is often used to describe the particle size that can be captured by different treatment
technologies. Table 3.3 compares mesh, micron, inches, and millimeters.

Vortex Grit Basin

Vortex grit chambers are gravity-type grit chambers that swirl the raw wastewater in the chamber
(Figure 3.28). Wastewater enters a vortex grit basin through a long, straight, inlet channel. At the end of the
inlet flume, a ramp causes grit that may already be on the flume bottom to slide downward along the ramp
until reaching the chamber floor, where it is captured. The inlet channel connects to the circular portion
of the basin along one side, which creates a whirlpool or vortex effect in the circular basin (Figure 3.29).
The velocity of the vertical roll pattern (whirlpool) allows denser particles to settle while keeping lighter
organic material suspended. Vortex grit basins target a water velocity of 0.45 to 1.1 m/s (1.5 to 3.5 ft/sec),
depending on the manufacturer.

Some vortex tank designs rely on natural hydraulics to achieve the proper rotational rate, whereas other
designs use a slow, rotating-paddle-type mixer to enhance the natural hydraulics and achieve proper
separation. The grit that settles in these tanks can be removed by an airlift pump or a non-clogging,
recessed-impeller-type grit pump.

Multi-tray vortex systems are gravity-type chambers that use stacked trays to provide increased surface
area to allow coarse and fine grit particle removal (Figure 3.30). Influent is distributed to each tray, and
grit collects at the tank bottom. Grit slurry is pumped to a grit classification and dewatering system before
disposal. Degritted effluent exits via a wall-mounted weir.

Hand-Cleaned Vs Mechanically Cleaned

Hand-cleaned grit chambers are used in the smallest facilities with flows generally less than 3.8 ML/d
(1 mgd). Some have hopper-shaped bottoms for grit storage. Floor drains are provided to empty the
tanks for manual grit removal by shoveling. An example of a manually cleaned grit chamber is shown in
Figure 3.3.

Mechanically cleaned grit chambers are gravity-type units that are rectangular, circular, or square tanks.
Mechanically cleaned grit chambers use a variety of different methods to push grit into a central hopper
and remove it from the basin. Screw augers are the most commonly used method of moving grit along
the bottom of the tank to the grit sump. Screw-type collectors or augers rotate to push the grit forward
(Figure 3.31). Other methods include chain-and-flight collectors, chain-and-bucket collectors, clamshell
buckets (Figure 3.32), and pumps.

In larger facilities with wider channels, chain-and-flight or screw-type collectors move the grit to a central
sump for removal. A chain-and-flight system uses a series of boards, called flights, that span the width
of the basin to push grit into a sump or hopper (Figure 3.33). Circular tanks include a circular collector
mechanism that scrapes the grit to a central collection hopper (sump). Grit is then removed from the
hopper by bucket elevators, screw conveyors, grit pumps, or a­ irlift pumps.

Bucket elevators are simply buckets attached to chains that scoop grit from the grit chamber sump and
remove it from the wastewater (Figure 3.34). The chain runs vertically from the bottom of the grit sump to
the top of the basin, where grit is dumped into a container or is transferred to a grit washer and classifier.
Buckets are often made from steel, but may also be made from other materials. Cast nylon or other strong,
lightweight buckets reduce wear on the elevator chain. Grit buckets have wear shoes at either end; these

Table 3.3 Particle Sizes

Mesh Microns Inches Millimeters
50 297 0.0117 0.297
70 210 0.0083 0.210
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   83

Figure 3.28 Hydraulic Forced Vortex Grit Basin (Courtesy of Smith & Loveless Inc.)

Figure 3.29 Vortex Grit Basin Installation (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)

Figure 3.30 Multiple-Tray Grit Separator (Courtesy of Hydro International)

84  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.31 Grit Auger (Reprinted with permission by Indigo Water Group)

Figure 3.32 Clamshell Bucket (Getty Images)

Figure 3.33 Chain-and-Flight Collection Mechanism (Reprinted with permission by Indigo

Water Group)
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   85

Figure 3.34 Bucket Elevator (Reprinted with permission by Kim Riddell)

are pieces of metal that help the buckets move across the floor of the grit basin and reduce the amount
of wear on the bucket itself. As the shoes wear down, they are replaced for less cost than replacing the
entire bucket. A spray of water on the chain as it emerges from the wastewater helps prevent grit from
becoming lodged in the chain joints. Polyurethane floats attached to the flights will reduce their effective
weight, thus reducing the wear of the shoes and rails. As a precaution, however, grit must be kept below
the height of the floats. Drain holes on the bottom of the buckets should be cleared occasionally so water
can drain freely.

Scrapers or screw conveyers should be operated at low speed to push grit into the grit hopper while the
bucket elevator should function at a rate fast enough to remove the collected grit. If scrapers or screw
conveyors push grit into the hopper faster than the grit elevator can remove it, this may result in damage
because of grit packing in the basin. Although scrapers, screw conveyors, and grit buckets are all separate
pieces of equipment, there are some commercially available units that include both the scraper and grit
elevator in one unit.

A grit pump is basically a centrifugal pump with a recessed impeller. Grit pumping can be more difficult
than other solids pumping because the grit’s sheer weight can clog pumps and its abrasive nature quickly
deteriorates piping. To minimize these problems, the pumps are made of a­ brasion-resistant alloys. They
are designed to be operated more frequently so large quantities of grit cannot accumulate. For more
information on pumps, refer to Chapter 8 of Operation of Water Resource Recovery Facilities (MOP 11;
WEF, 2016) and Chapter 6 of Design of Water Resource Recovery Facilities (MOP 8; WEF et al., 2018).

The removal of grit by pumps offers the advantage of eliminating the need for a bucket elevator and
its submersed sprockets. However, blockages might occur in the pump suction line, in the intake area
of the sump, or in the discharge piping. If this occurs, removal of the blockage may require reversing
the pumping direction or blowing air into the sump. Some facilities contain water and/or air flushing
connections on the suction and discharge side of the pumps to remove blockages.
 86  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Cyclones
Cyclones (Figure 3.35) use centrifugal force in a cone-shaped unit to separate grit and organics from the
wastewater. A pump discharges a slurry of grit and organics into the cyclone at a controlled rate. The
A tangent is a line that touches a curve slurry enters the cyclone tangentially near its upper perimeter (A) and flows through an opening into the
or circle in one place. Tangential feed feed chamber. The feed chamber is the uppermost portion of the cyclone. The opening between the feed
means the feed is entering the cyclone pipe and feed chamber is called the feed orifice. It is typically rectangular with the long dimension in line
along the edge or perimeter of the with the body of the cyclone. The feed velocity creates a vortex (whirlpool) in the classification zone (B).
outer edge. Larger, denser particles move downward producing a grit slurry at the lower, narrower opening (C), while
a larger volume of slurry containing mostly volatile material is discharged through the upper port (D). The
bottom of the cone section is the apex orifice (C). Cyclones capture approximately 95% of grit particles
Orifice is another word for opening. when functioning well. The grit stream falls into a grit washer, and the degritted flow leaves the cyclone
through the opening near the top of the unit (D) and is returned to the treatment process. In some systems,
a mechanical mixer is used to create the centrifugal effect.

The cyclone does not have any moving parts. The pump that moves grit slurry from the grit tank
generates the initial velocity, which provides energy at the mouth of the cyclone. The fluid velocity
starts the degritting process. The volume of pumped slurry and the resultant pressure at the cyclone
are critical requirements specified by the cyclone manufacturer. Temperature, solids concentration, and
other characteristics of the slurry may require changes in the sizes of the upper and lower orifices after
installation and some initial operating experience. In some designs, these orifices are manually adjustable.

Classifiers
Grit classifiers effectively remove organics from the grit. Screw- and rake-type classifiers (Figure 3.36) can
effectively remove organics from some grit slurries. Multiple papers have shown that screw classifiers alone
do not effectively wash grit solids (Boldt, 2005; Kern and Pisano, 1998). To ensure a low organic content,
however, ample dilution water is required to rinse the grit. Pumps typically provide sufficient dilution
water, but bucket elevators may not, especially during periods of peak grit capture. Consequently, they may
require supplementary liquid.

Figure 3.35 Hydrocyclone (Courtesy of Weir Minerals)

 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   87

Figure 3.36 Grit Classifier (Courtesy of Weir Specialty Pumps)

The grit classifier in Figure 3.36 is paired with a grit cyclone. Grit is pumped from the grit basin sump
(A) to the cyclone inlet (B). The vortex finder (C) is a cylinder within the cyclone that extends into the
barrel and induces the spiral flow pattern through the cyclone. Larger, denser particles exit through the
bottom of the cyclone where they pass into the grit washer classifier (D). Lighter, less dense organic
particles exit the cyclone at the top and are returned to the wastewater flow (E). Grit washing occurs at the
low end of the classifier in a well that has an adjustable weir to govern the depth of liquid above the settled
grit (F). Most washers are equipped with spray nozzles along the conveyor to remove stray putrescibles. For
optimum washing, some cyclones use an adjustable lower orifice to change the volume of liquid discharged
with the grit. The classifier may be either a reciprocating rake device or a screw collector. Either type may
include water sprays for grit washing. Both the reciprocating rake and the screw collector are inclined
upward at an optimum angle for draining water and organic matter. The grit then falls into a wheelbarrow,
dumpster, container, truck or storage hopper (G). The drive speed reducer is shown as (H) in the figure. A
belt conveyor system may be used for transport of the washed and dewatered grit. Washers need regular
lubrication and must be checked for wear. The screw conveyor will wear down over time from constant
contact with grit and can develop chips and holes. The inside of the classifier will also wear. Eventually, a
gap will develop between the conveyor and the wall of the classifier and grit will build up internally.

Free vortex-based grit classifier systems (Figure 3.37) use centrifugal force to wash organics from grit.
Grit slurry is pumped to the cylindrical classifier, creating high centrifugal forces that concentrate grit
particles at the outside wall (A). Grit particles then settle by gravity to the tank bottom (B). Lighter, less
dense organic particles are swept up and out through the center of the vortex (C) as the vortex sweeps the
grit particles to the bottom outlet, while rinse water is injected to provide a final rinse (D). Washed grit is
discharged through a flow controller to a dewatering escalator unit for final disposal (E). Degritted effluent
exits the top of the classifier carrying organics back to the treatment process (F). Free vortex classifiers of
this type can produce output grit with less than 15% volatile solids while capturing 95% of grit particles as Volatile solids are organic solids.
fine as 75 µm. Systems of this type can be effective for utilities with wide-ranging flow that see high organic
content during low flows.

Grit dewatering escalators (Figure 3.38) are typically used in conjunction with free vortex grit classifiers.
Contrary to screw- and rake-type classifiers, dewatering escalator units are designed to capture all of the
solids entering the clarifier. No washing is expected of this type of unit. Grit from the grit separator is
discharged into a large hopper full of water that serves as a clarifier. The clarifier is essentially an unstirred
tank where solids can settle to the bottom while lighter organics flow out with the degritted water. Grit
88  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Figure 3.37 Free Vortex-Based Grit Classifier System (Courtesy of Hydro International)

dewatering escalators use a large clarifier surface area to achieve a low surface loading rate, which results in
particles 75 µm and larger being retained. An inclined rubber cleated conveyor belt is used to slowly convey
grit solids to the discharge point, while a wiper blade cleans each cleat as it passes. A chain-and-sprocket
drive system moves the belt at 0.005 to 0.01 m/s (1 to 2 ft/min).

Figure 3.38 Grit Dewatering Escalator (Courtesy of Hydro International)

 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   89

Conical grit washer technology uses a cone-shaped tank to capture grit. Rotating arms within the tank
slowly mix the settled grit and a washing jet at the bottom of the unit, activated by a solenoid valve on a
timer, vigorously washes it. Lighter material continuously overflows the unit and heavier organic material
is removed at regular intervals from a midlevel overflow.

Washed grit settles to the bottom where a screw conveys and dewaters the output grit. Systems of this
type are designed to capture 95% of grit particles 212 µm and larger while producing output grit with 5%
volatile solids. The surface flow velocity, including the wash water, should be less than 25 m/h (0.02 ft/sec)
and the weir overflow rate should be less than 15 m2/h (160 sq ft/sec).

Grit Transportation within the Facility

Grit removal equipment is typically located adjacent to the storage hoppers or containers. If this
equipment is located elsewhere, conveyors may be used to transfer the grit to the loading area. Overhead
clamshell bucket, chain-and-flight collectors, and augers can be used to remove grit from grit basins, but
most installations use mechanical pumping. This is because grit slurry can be pumped directly to washing
and dewatering equipment.

Grit can be conveyed directly to trucks, dumpsters, or storage hoppers. Containers should be covered
to prevent odors during storage and hauling. Conveyors frequently are used for transporting grit from
handling facilities to containers. Overhead storage hoppers that discharge to truck containers avoid the
need to keep a truck at the facility.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Velocity is calculated by multiplying the flowrate by the c. Vortex dimensions

cross-sectional area. d. Flow-proportional weir setting
True
6. This type of grit basin may use paddles to maintain the flow
False
circulation pattern.
2. Grit classifiers return organic material to the wastewater flow a. Detritus tank
and remove excess water from the grit. b. Aerated grit basin
True c. Vortex grit basin
False d. Velocity control
3. A WRRF currently has one grit basin in service. The flow 7. An operator must bypass their aerated grit basin for several
velocity through the basin is 0.8 m/s (2.6 ft/sec). How many days while annual maintenance is performed on the diffusers.
grit basins should be in service to maintain a flow velocity Which of the following statements is true?
between 0.24 and 0.3 m/s (0.8 and 1.0 ft/sec)? a. Airflow should be set to 50% of maximum after basin
a. 1 dewatering.
b. 2 b. Grit may pass through and cause damage to downstream
c. 3 equipment.
d. 4 c. The organic loading to downstream processes will increase.
d. Screenings will accumulate in the grit channel.
4. Flow-proportional weirs are used in velocity control
horizontal flow grit basins for this purpose: 8. Grit is typically removed from a vortex-type grit basin
a. Produce a constant discharge rate in this way.
b. Reduce buildup of grit behind the weir a. Manual removal with shovels
c. Measure flowrate b. Chain-and-flight system
d. Maintain a constant velocity c. Screw auger
d. Grit pumps
5. In an aerated grit basin, this process control parameter
influences which particles will sink and which will continue
on to the next process.
a. Velocity of the roll pattern
b. Depth of the basin
90  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Process Control
Grit removal efficiency is difficult to measure. Poor performance over an extended period of time will
result in increased wear of downstream equipment, increased maintenance costs, and buildup of grit
deposits in pipes, channels, and treatment processes, resulting in a loss of capacity. Therefore, a high level
of early grit removal is a sound objective. However, the operator must consider grit-removal equipment
wear vs increased removal efficiency and resultant downstream equipment longevity. Increased equipment
run time will increase O&M costs.

Grit removal systems start at preset times and operate for preset times. For example, an operator may
select setpoints for a grit pump to operate for 8 minutes once every 20 minutes. When selecting setpoints,
keep in mind that the pump should cycle frequently enough to prevent the grit from compacting in the
hopper. The cycle length, or total minutes of pump time, should be coordinated with the hopper size. For
example, if the hopper holds 2 m3 (528 gal) of grit and the pump has a capacity of 0.2 m3/min (53 gpm),
then the pump run time per cycle should be approximately 10 minutes. The time between pumping cycles
is determined by how long it takes for the hopper to fill with grit. Hopper fill time depends on the influent
flowrate and the amount of grit in the influent wastewater. Operators will need to observe conditions at
their facilities to determine the optimum pump cycle and run time.

Grit should be removed from the grit collection area on a daily basis. Operators should visually inspect grit
samples for low, high, and average flow conditions. Grit that is grey, greasy, or has a foul, rotten egg odor
indicates the presence of excessive amounts of organic material. This indicates that flow velocities are too
low or that some other adjustment needs to be made to either the grit removal or grit washing process. An
accumulation of heavy, inorganic grit particles downstream of the grit basin indicates that flow velocities
through the grit basin are too high at least some of the time. Operators should expect to see grit quality
vary somewhat depending on the time of day that samples are collected.

Organic material in the grit can cause odor issues at the facility headworks. Operators should optimize
grit basin operation and grit washing systems to minimize odors. Additionally, high organics/odors can
lead to grit transportation and disposal issues. Grit, just like screenings, must pass the paint filter test to be
acceptable for landfill disposal.

Detritus and Velocity Control Tanks

Detritus and velocity control tanks cannot be adjusted by the operator beyond placing more tanks into
service or removing tanks from service. The goal of process control is to maintain a velocity of 0.3 m/s
(1 ft/sec). Generally, detritus tanks and velocity control grit basins are intended to maintain an HRT of
approximately 1 minute (WEF et al., 2018). Example velocity and HRT calculations are included in the
calculations section of this chapter.

Aerated Grit Basin

Aerated grit chambers provide an HRT of 3 to 10 minutes (WEF et al., 2018). Compressed air, typically
from the facility’s process air supply, enters the grit chamber through diffusers at a controlled rate to
induce the proper velocity of the spiral roll for the settling of grit. Air rates typically range from 5 to
12 L/s·m (3 to 8 cfm/ft) of tank length. Rates as low as 2 L/s·m (1 cfm/ft) have been used for shallow,
narrow tanks. Rates higher than 8 L/s·m (5 cfm/ft) often are used for deep, wide tanks. The goal is to
achieve air-induced rotation of the wastewater at approximately 0.6 m/s (2 ft/sec) near the tank entrance
and 0.5 m/s (1.5 ft/sec) at the tank exit (WEF, 2007). The airflow rate should be adjusted to maximize
removal of inorganic grit while minimizing entrapment of organic particles. Inconsistent air supply
can result in erratic roll patterns, high percentages of organic matter in the removed grit, and/or low
removal efficiencies.

When an aerated grit chamber is initially filled or after the tank is being returned to service, the operator
should turn on the air when the wastewater reaches the diffusers. This will help to avoid fouling the
diffusers. Grit should not be allowed to accumulate above the diffusers. Large grit accumulations
complicate diffuser inspection, result in diffuser damage, and reduce the efficiency of the grit collection.
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   91

Vortex Grit Basin

Operators should ensure that the tank is maintaining the proper swirl velocity. Swirl velocity can be
adjusted by limiting the number of basins in service or by adjusting the paddle speed, if available. If
excessive amounts of organic material are being captured with the grit, paddle speed should be increased.
If excessive amounts of grit are found in downstream processes, it may be necessary to decrease paddle
speed. Operators should inspect the pumping system during each shift to ensure that the equipment is not
plugged. Cyclones can return grit, previously captured by the grit basin, to the influent channel. If excess
liquid and uncaptured grit from these processes is returned to the influent stream downstream of the grit
basin, it can accumulate in downstream channels and basins. Be sure to check all potential sources of grit
at your facility before making a process control change.

Grit Collection Mechanisms

Grit collection mechanisms can be damaged if excessive amounts of grit are allowed to accumulate or by
rapidly flowing water. When initially filling grit tanks equipped with collection mechanisms, the influent
gate should be opened slowly. Once the collection mechanism is submerged, the operator may then turn
on the longitudinal collectors (flights), the screw collector (if any), bucket elevator or grit pump, and, if
present, the grit washer and classifier. This approach avoids startup under load conditions after the grit
builds up. Many grit collection mechanisms have a fixed operating speed and cannot be adjusted. Others
are equipped with VFDs, which allow the drive and mechanism speed to be adjusted by the operator.
Variable-frequency drives can decrease electrical use and operating costs. If possible, adjust the speed
of the collection mechanism to maintain the grit level below the tops of the screw auger or flights. All
components of the system are often interconnected electrically so that all will stop and an alarm will sound
when any component fails to function. This feature helps prevent equipment damage and loss of the
tank in use.

Buckets
During operation, buckets should be inspected frequently to check the volume of grit collected. If the
buckets are filled, the elevator speed should be increased or an additional grit channel should be placed
into service. If the grit volume is decreasing, the opposite actions may be appropriate. If it is not possible to
adjust the operating speed, operators may run the buckets more frequently or increase total run time. For
example, a grit bucket mechanism may be switched from operating once every 15 minutes to once every 10
minutes. The number of minutes of operation per operating cycle can also be adjusted.

Cyclones
If a cyclone is being started for the first time, has been out of service for more than a few weeks, or if
vibration was the cause of shutdown, both orifices of the cyclone should be inspected before startup
to ensure that they are clear. To view both orifices, lift up the apex end of the cyclone and look up the
cyclone into the inlet area. The rectangular inlet orifice should be clearly visible. To start the system,
the operator opens the inlet valve and starts the grit collector, pump, and washer. Cyclones are sized
for a specific flowrate, pressure, and apex (outlet) size and will not function properly if one or more
of these variables is out of range. Be sure to check the manufacturer’s O&M manual and specifications
for the cyclone at each facility. Pressures at the cyclone and the pump inlet need to be checked regularly.
Operation should be routine, provided the proper volume of slurry is delivered to the cyclone at the
proper pressure. Thus, the equipment needs regular observation. Excessive vibration of the cyclone
may be caused by an obstruction in either the upper or lower port, and excessive flow at the lower end
may result from a damaged liner or an obstruction of the upper port. Items needing regular inspection
include bearings, pumps, valves, pipe work, cyclone lining (wear), and other items recommended by the
manufacturer.

Calculations
Process control of grit removal systems may require an operator to calculate HRT or velocity. The formula
for HRT, also referred to as detention time, is

Volume
Detention Time  (3.2)
Flow
92  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Typical HRTs for different types of grit basins are as follows (Metcalf and Eddy/AECOM, 2013):

„„ Horizontal flow grit basin = 45 to 90 sec,

„„ Aerated grit basins = 2 to 5 min, and
„„ Vortex grit basins = 20 to 30 sec.

Velocity is related to the cross-sectional area the water is moving through according to the following
formula:
Flow
Velocity  (3.3)
Area
Velocity is typically expressed as meters per second (m/s) or feet per second (ft/sec) for wastewater flowing
through a collection system, pipe, conduit, or grit basin. For primary and secondary clarifiers, discussed in
later chapters, velocity is expressed as m3/m2·d or gpd/sq ft.

Maintenance
Because grit removal equipment has many moving parts, many possible types of malfunctions and
breakdowns can adversely affect the operation and efficiency of the device. The operator needs to learn
the equipment and how to assess problems that will occur. The operator should always follow the
manufacturer’s O&M manuals for its equipment.

Additionally, the following items need to be checked regularly:

„„ Gates;
„„ Bolts on flights and elevator buckets, chains, and sprockets;
„„ Flight shoes and rails;
„„ Collector screws; and
„„ Shear pins.

The underwater equipment and chain idlers must be lubricated with the manufacturer’s lubricant and
at the recommended lubrication frequency. Gear drive units should be checked regularly to prevent
contamination of lubricants by excessive water accumulation.

Aerated Grit Basin

Adequate ventilation is essential if the basin is enclosed; otherwise, the corrosive atmosphere will inevitably
affect exposed electrical wiring and controls and concrete, as well as the risers and headers. Risers and
headers should be inspected at least annually for corrosion or rupture. Some systems are equipped with
removable headers and diffusers that can be lifted out of the basin as a single unit. Most systems, especially
newer systems, have headers and diffusers that are fixed to the bottom of the tank. If the headers cannot
be lifted, the basin must be drained for inspection. Bent or damaged diffusers and headers should be
straightened or replaced as required. Diffuser (the device releasing the air into the wastewater) openings
should be cleared regularly. If surface turbulence diminishes, the diffusers may need cleaning to remove
rags or grit. Excessive turbulence in one area could indicate a missing or damaged diffuser or header. Rags
should be removed whenever the headers are exposed.

If diffusers must be lifted to allow grit removal with a crane-operated bucket, the operator should maintain
a reduced flow of air through the raised diffusers to prevent clogging. Crane-operated buckets remove grit
only in large facilities (typically in facilities larger than 400 ML/d [100 mgd]). If the diffusers do not have
to be raised during grit removal, an air volume reduction will usually be necessary to allow control of the
bucket while it descends into the basin hopper. The wastewater flow can be maintained without restriction
during the bucket removal of grit.

Vortex Grit Basin

Operators should dewater and inspect the unit after 6 months of operation and then on an annual basis
thereafter. Inspection requires the basin to be dewatered via the grit underflow pump. Operators should
inspect for solids accumulation on the trays, support structure, and chamber floor. Accumulated solids
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   93

can be hosed to the underflow collector for removal by the grit underflow pump. Larger solids should be
removed manually.

Cyclone Degritters and Grit Washers

Items requiring regular inspection include bearings, pumps, valves, pipework, the lining (wear), and the
lining attachment to the casing. Washers need regular lubrication and must be checked for wear.

Grit Dewatering Escalator

Operators should check the drive, belt, and wiper mechanism on a weekly basis.

Troubleshooting
To understand grit removal, the equipment used, and the limitations of the equipment, the operator
should refer to the O&M manuals for the specific equipment used at the facility. After these manuals have
been read and understood, efficient resolution of problems can become routine. Table 3.4 lists common
grit equipment problems, their causes, and their remediation.

Test Your Knowledge

1. Increased equipment run time will increase O&M costs. 5. The lower port of a grit cyclone is partially blocked by a piece
True of trash. The blockage will likely cause
False a. Excessive vibration of the cyclone
b. Increasing flow velocity through the grit basin
2. When grit pumps are used to remove grit from a hopper,
c. Decreasing the rinse water to the grit classifier
a timed cycle of 10 minutes of operation once every 30
minutes should always be used. d. Liner delamination
True 6. The headworks building at a new WRRF shows evidence of
False metal and concrete corrosion. The problem seems to be even
worse in covered channels. The most likely cause is
3. When placing a rectangular grit basin with a chain-and-flight
a. Industrial discharges
system into service, the basin should be filled completely
before starting the mechanism. b. Grease buildup
True c. Inadequate ventilation
False d. Over-aeration

4. A sample of grit is grayish in color and smells like rotten eggs. 7. An operator is used to seeing an even mixing pattern on
The operator should consider the surface of the aerated grit basin. Today, the surface is
fairly smooth and does not show signs of good mixing. The
a. Slowing down the vortex paddle
operator should
b. Increasing flow velocity through the grit basin
a. Increase the airflow rate to the basin
c. Decreasing the rinse water to the grit classifier
b. Check the diffusers for rags
d. Placing another grit basin into service
c. Replace broken headers and diffusers
d. Adjust the outlet weir

Additional Pretreatment Considerations

Flow Equalization
Reducing flow fluctuations (diurnal and storm) in the collection system benefits the operation and
performance of the WRRF. Some WRRFs are equipped with flow equalization basins as part of preliminary
treatment. Flow equalization basins temporarily store influent wastewater during peak hour flow and
storm events. The water level in the tank changes over the course of a day, filling up during peak hour
flows and emptying again during periods of low flow. Ideally, the flowrate out of a flow equalization basin
and into the WRRF will be at a constant rate. Facility flows through parallel units, such as screens and grit
chambers, must balance to aid optimum performance of each unit.
94  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Table 3.4 Grit Removal Equipment Troubleshooting Chart (U.S. EPA, 1978)
Indicators/Observations Probable Cause Check or Monitor Solutions
1. Grit packed on collectors 1a. Collector operating at 1a. Collector speed 1a. Reduce collector speed.
excessive speeds
1b. Removal system speed 1b. Increase speed of grit removal
1b. Bucket elevator or removal from collector.
equipment operating at
slow speeds
2. Vibration of cyclone degritter 2a. Obstruction in the lower port 2a. Flow from lower port 2a. Remove obstruction.

2b. Obstruction in the upper port 2b. Too much flow in lower end 2b. Reduce inlet flow.
3. Rotten egg odor in 3. Hydrogen sulfide formation 3. Sample for sludge deposits, 3. Wash chamber and dose with
grit chamber total and dissolved sulfides hypochlorite (bleach).
4. Accumulated grit in chamber 4a. Submerged debris 4a. Inspect chamber for debris. 4a. Wash chamber daily.
Remove debris.
4b. Flow velocity too low or 4b. Check equipment.
broken chain or flight 4b. Repair equipment
5. Corrosion of metal 5. Inadequate ventilation 5. Ventilation and sample for 5. Increase ventilation and
and concrete sludge deposits, total and perform annual repair and
dissolved sulfides repainting.
6. Removed grit is gray in color, 6a. Improper pressure on 6a. Discharge pressure on cyclone 6a. Keep pressure at cyclone
smells, and feels greasy cyclone degritter degritter. between 28 and 41 kPa (4 and
6 psi) by governing pump speed.
6b. Inadequate airflow rate 6b. Check airflow rate. Oil as O&M manual specifies.
6c. Grit removal system 6c. Use dye or floating objects to 6b. Increase airflow rate.
velocity too low check velocity.
6c. Increase velocity in
grit chamber.
7. Surface turbulence in aerated 7. Diffusers covered by 7. Diffusers 7. Clean diffusers and correct
grit chamber is reduced rags or grit screens or other pretreatment
steps to prevent recurrence.
8. Surface turbulence in aerated 8. Broken diffusers or headers 8. Diffusers and headers 8. Repair or replace as needed.
grit chamber is increased in
one or more locations, but
reduced in others
9. Low recovery rate of grit 9a. Bottom scour at 9a. Velocity 9a. Maintain velocity near 0.3 m/s
excessive speeds (1 ft/sec).
9b. Aeration
9b. Too much aeration 9b. Reduce aeration. Increase
retention time by using more
units or reducing flow to unit.
10. Overflowing grit chamber 10a. Pump surge problem 10a. Pumps 10a. Adjust pump controls.

10b. Excessive influent flow 10b. Influent flowrate 10b. Control inflow and
infiltration.
11. Septic waste with grease and 11. Sludge on bottom of basin 11. Grit basin bottom 11. Wash basin daily.
gas bubbles rising in basin
12. Grit pump 12. Worn seals, shaft 12. Pump components 12. Replace seals; lubricate pump
efficiency decreased components, or impeller as specified; inspect and replace
impeller as needed.
13. Decreased grit removal 13. Inlet pressure is too low 13. Inlet pressure 13. Increase inlet pressure by
efficiency through cyclone adjusting the grit pump discharge.
14. Loud operation of cyclone 14. Torn or collapsed liner 14. Liner 14. Replace liner.

Odors and Odor Control

Odors often emanate from the headworks of a facility because of the long duration of wastewater transit
through the collection system during hot weather. This may produce hydrogen sulfide and other anaerobic
byproducts of decomposition that cause dangerous confined-space situations and complaints. Whenever
possible, septic influent flows should be prevented in the collection system using appropriate techniques.
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   95

Otherwise, odor control with prechlorination, iron salts, potassium permanganate, hydrogen peroxide,
nitrates, or preaeration may be necessary.

Within the WRRF, special odor control units use sodium hydroxide, sodium hypochlorite, activated carbon,
or potassium permanganate to control releases of odor. These units typically require housing the influent
structures, collecting the gases, and then treating them.

Septage Management
Septic waste is domestic wastewater collected from septic tanks, cesspools, portable toilets, pit toilets, and
recreational vehicles. It is typically hauled to WRRFs in tanker trucks. Water resource recovery facilities can
accept septage from domestic sources, but should not take grease trap waste or industrial septage because
this is regulated differently than domestic wastewater. Domestic septage is regulated under the Code of
Federal Regulations at 40 CFR Part 503. Domestic septage includes the liquid or solid material removed
from a septic tank, cesspool, portable toilet, or similar system that only receives domestic septage. It does
not include grease trap waste, shop pit wastes, car wash pit wastes, or dry cleaning waste residues. If these
wastes are mixed with domestic septage, then the entire batch of septage becomes nondomestic septage
and is no longer covered under the 503 regulations. Nondomestic septage, such as grease trap waste, is
regulated under 40 CFR Part 257.

Septage tends to be much higher strength than typical domestic wastewater and may contain higher
concentrations of FOG, heavy metals, toxic organics, trash, rocks, and debris. Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) is typically 26 times more concentrated compared to typical raw domestic wastewater and may be
as much as 300 times more concentrated (WEF, 1997). Total suspended solids (TSS) are typically 51 times
more concentrated and can be as much as 374 times more concentrated (WEF, 1997). The increased load
to the WRRF can be substantial, especially for smaller facilities. When accepting septage, operators should
monitor and track incoming loads and calculate the total mass of BOD, TSS, and ammonia-nitrogen
received (kilograms [pounds]). Tracking the total mass received will help to ensure that the amount of
septage received does not exceed the WRRF’s rated treatment capacity.

Many municipalities have enacted a waste hauler’s ordinance that licenses and controls access for septage
dischargers including sampling of waste loads. Each load received should have a tracking manifest that
includes the following sections:

„„ Wastewater characterization section (e.g., BOD, TSS, FOG concentrations)

●●Amount of septage
●●Type of waste (municipal, commercial, industrial)
●● Location pumped from
„„ Generator’s section
●● Generator’s name and contact information
●● Certification statement (type, source, and volume)
„„ Hauler’s section
●● Hauler’s name and contact information
●● Hauler’s permit number and vehicle license number
●● Pump-out date
●● Signed certification by hauler
●● Disposer/receiver’s section
●● Septage receipt date
●● Sample identification number (if applicable)
●● Signature

Septage may be received at an upstream manhole, the facility headworks, or the solids handling process.
Accepting septage at an upstream manhole makes for a simple and economical receiving station. Other
advantages include allowing the septage to be diluted before reaching the WRRF. Disadvantages include
increased odor potential near the manhole, increased opportunities for sewer blockages, increased line-
cleaning needs downstream of the addition point, potential for hydrogen sulfide corrosion of the collection
96  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

system at the addition point and immediately downstream, difficulty regulating and controlling access,
and effects on traffic patterns and businesses. Accepting septage at the WRRF headworks gives the facility
control of septage discharge into treatment processes as well as the ability to segregate the waste and hold
it apart from the rest of the influent. This allows the operator an opportunity for flow equalization and
sampling before addition. Disadvantages to this approach include increased odor potential at the facility
(but greater potential for odor control) and additional staff time to manage facility access. Accepting
septage into the solids handling process can be expensive because of receiving station requirements, but it
reduces loadings on liquid processes and lessens the chance of a biological process upset. However, septage
may affect the dewatering of processed solids. Adequate pretreatment using aeration, grit removal, and
screening should precede treatment of septage wastes at the WRRF.

Some WRRFs are equipped with specially designed septage-receiving stations as part of the WRRF
headworks or, sometimes, immediately upstream of the facility. Septage-receiving stations are equipped
with screens to remove debris, one or more holding tanks, and septage pumps. The pumps allow operators
to slowly introduce the septage to the influent, which decreases the effect of high BOD, TSS, and ammonia
on downstream processes. Receiving stations are often equipped with card reader systems that allow
authorized septic haulers to access the system and make deliveries unassisted. A septage-receiving station
can dramatically reduce the amount of time required by WRRF staff and provide an easy paper trail for
billing purposes.

Table 3.5 summarizes potential operational concerns that should be addressed before accepting septage.

Table 3.5 Operational Concerns Associated with Septage Receiving

Concern Description
Hydraulic surge at smaller facilities A single septic truck may hold up to 5000 gal of septage. Trucks
can discharge their contents in under 30 min. If septage is not flow
equalized, the instantaneous flowrate may be as high as 167 gal/
min (0.24 mgd). At a smaller facility, this hydraulic surge can disrupt
biological treatment and push solids from the secondary clarifier into
the final effluent.
Increased organic and solids Sudden increases in organic and nutrient loads have the potential
loadings to pass through the WRRF partially treated or untreated. Excessive
organic and nitrogen loading also can depress the dissolved oxygen
concentration in the aeration basin if blower capacity is inadequate
for the load.
Damage to downstream equipment Septage often contains large debris such as rocks, rags, bits of
metal, and other items that can damage downstream equipment.
Prescreening septage before introducing it to the WRRF is
recommended.
Potential foaming and/or toxicity Septage contains volatile fatty acids and hydrogen sulfide and may
in aeration basins contain heavy metals and organics that may harm biological treatment
processes and/or affect biosolids disposal options. Volatile fatty acids
and hydrogen sulfide can encourage the growth of certain types of
filamentous bacteria in the activated sludge process. Concentrations
of dissolved hydrogen sulfide as low as 1 mg/L have been shown to
inhibit nitrification.
Additional operation and Accepting septage means increases in several areas of O&M such as
maintenance (O&M)
„„ Staff time to manage receiving site access, sample collection,
manifesting, recordkeeping, and disposal of grit, screenings, and
biosolids;
„„ Screenings and grit disposal;
„„ Odors in headworks;
„„ Scum in clarifiers; and
„„ Solids handling and disposal.
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   97

Regulatory Considerations
To complete the handling of screenings and grit, the material must be transported for disposal in
accordance with local, state, and federal regulations. Landfilling is by far the most common method
of disposal; however, increasingly strict European regulations for landfilling are designed to require
incineration and other methods of disposal. Screenings and grit must, at a minimum, pass the paint-filter
liquids test before they can be accepted for disposal at a landfill. This test measures the amount of free
water that leaches from the screenings by measuring the quantity of liquid from a representative screening
sample that passes through a filter of Mesh No. 60. After the 5-minute test period, if any liquid passes
through the filter, the material is deemed to contain free liquid. Some states may have additional testing
and performance requirements. Operators should check with the landfill that will be receiving the
screenings and grit to be sure all requirements are met.

Safety Considerations
It is important that O&M personnel follow safety guidelines specified by headworks equipment
manufacturers and commonly practiced by the utility. This includes, but is not limited to, procedures
describing appropriate equipment lockout, confined space entry, localized power interruption, and standby
rescue personnel during maintenance activities. Operations personnel must familiarize themselves with
and respect safe operations guidelines recommended by the equipment manufacturers and maintain a
clean, well-ventilated, and well-lit environment to prevent accidents.

There is a tendency to view screens and rakes as nonhazardous because the equipment moves slowly.
Although slow, the equipment is powerful. Never reach into a screen or attempt to dislodge equipment
by hand. If debris becomes lodged in a screen, the screen should be taken out of service and powered off
before any attempts are made to correct the situation. Use a rake or other long-handled tool to search for
the item blocking the screen. Similarly, screened material should not be handled without thick, puncture-
resistant gloves because syringes and other sharp objects may be present.

Because screening and grit equipment is located at the facility influent, the accumulation of potentially
explosive or toxic gases is always a concern. The National Fire Protection Association 820 Standard, Fire
Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection Facilities (2016), sets standards for fire protection in
WRRFs and classifies spaces based on their risk of fire or explosion. Most headworks buildings will be
classified as Class 1, Division 1. These are locations where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases
might exist under normal operating conditions or when maintenance is performed. In Class 1, Division
1 areas, failure of electrical equipment could potentially be an ignition source. For this reason, any
equipment installed in a WRRF headworks should be rated as explosion proof. Operating personnel
must exercise extreme caution in these confined areas and explicitly follow all safety procedures for
confined-space entry. Good safety practice demands continuous monitoring of hydrogen sulfide and
methane levels in these confined areas and smoking must be prohibited.

Operators must follow good housekeeping procedures in the preliminary treatment area. Spills of
screenings, grit, grease, and other such items should be regularly cleaned up to prevent slip and fall
injuries. The operator should ensure that all safety guards are in place and that all safety devices are in
good working order. The rotating equipment used in preliminary treatment is not commonly supplied
with safety devices such as light curtains or power interruption trip cords (except some belt conveyors), so
personnel must be trained to shut off and lockout equipment before attempting to free troublesome debris.

Proper barriers must be maintained around all equipment and tanks. For example, aerated grit tanks are
turbulent and less buoyant than non-aerated water, which makes it more difficult for a worker that has
fallen into the tank to extricate themselves. Screenings and grit contain pathogenic organisms and sharp
objects that can result in illness or injuries. Facility personnel should wear gloves when working near
these materials. Practice good personal hygiene by washing hands often and avoiding touching your face,
eyes, and hair.
98  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Test Your Knowledge

1. The water level in flow equalization basins should fluctuate 5. A septage hauling and receipt manifest should include all of
over a 24-hour period. the following information EXCEPT
True a. Source, type, and amount of septage
False b. Signed certification by the generator
c. Hauler’s commercial driver’s license number
2. Because septic waste is already partially treated, it tends to be
lower strength than typical domestic wastewater. d. Septage receipt date
True 6. Septage wastes received by WRRFs should be monitored and
False tracked to
a. Proportion cost of service to customers
3. Septage can contain rocks and other debris, which can
damage downstream equipment if it is not screened out. b. Ensure treatment capacity is not exceeded
True c. Calculate percentage of industrial septage received
False d. Meet paint filter test requirements

4. Grease trap waste can be accepted and treated by most 7. This test measures the amount of free water in screenings
WRRFs under the 503 Regulations as long as it comes from and grit:
restaurants and not categorical industrial users. a. Total suspended solids
True b. Mesh size
False c. Biochemical oxygen demand
d. Paint filter
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   99

c h a pt e r summary

Screening Processes Grit Removal Processes

„„ Physically blocks entry of large debris (rags, sticks, bricks, „„ Decreases velocity to about 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec)
wood, plastics) into the WRRF
Purpose

Purpose
„„ Larger, denser particles settle while lighter, less dense
„„ Protects downstream equipment organic particles pass on to the next treatment process

„„ Prevents blockages „„ Protects downstream equipment

„„ Prevents blockages
„„ Dependent on service area, type of collection system, „„ Dependent on service area and type of
Quantity

Quantity
and type of screen used collection system
„„ Varies between less than 0.75 to 150 L/1 000 m3 „„ Varies between 3.7 to 148 L/1000 m3 (0.5 to 20 cu ft/
(0.1 to 20 cu ft/mil. gal) mil. gal) and averaged 37 L/1000 m3 (5.0 cu ft/mil. gal)
Three main types of screens: „„ Three main grit removal systems: velocity-controlled
grit systems, aerated grit systems, and vortex
„„ Trash racks
General

General
grit systems
„„ Coarse screens „„ All rely on differences in settling velocity to separate
„„ Fine screens grit, organic material, and water
„„ Settling velocity depends on the particle density,
size, and shape
„„ Openings between 38 and 152 mm (1.5 and 6 in.) „„ Earliest method of grit removal

Detritus Tanks
„„ Remove largest debris „„ Settle both grit and organics
Trash Racks

„„ May be used in bypass channels for short-term use „„ Grit washing required
„„ Square tanks decrease flow velocity
„„ Grit removed manually or by screw augers,
chain-and-flight systems, grit elevators, clamshell
buckets, or pumps
„„ Bar screens „„ Velocity is calculated by dividing flow by cross-

Velocity Control Tanks

sectional area
„„ Manually or mechanically cleaned
Coarse Screens

„„ Clear openings of 6 to 51 mm (0.25 to 2 in.) „„ Channels have parabolic or trapezoidal shaped cross-
sectional areas to keep the flow to area ratio constant
„„ Remove smaller material to further protect pumps when flow is changing
and equipment
„„ Flow-proportional weirs may also be used to match
„„ Stringy material can still pass through cross-sectional area to flowrate
„„ Many different types: front clean screens, chain-driven
„„ Grit removed manually or with screw conveyors,
screens, reciprocating screens, catenary screens,
chain-and-flight collectors, and/or grit elevators
continuous self-cleaning, and other types
„„ Designed to remove smaller solids than coarse screens „„ Diffused air introduced on one side of basin to create a
spiral roll pattern
„„ Clear openings of 3 to 6 mm (0.12 to 0.24 in.)
Aerated Grit Basin

„„ Velocity of roll pattern influences which solids settle

Fine Screens

„„ Smaller openings capture more material

„„ Velocity of roll pattern is independent of influent flow
„„ Screen face consists of wedge wire, perforated
plate, or mesh „„ Settled grit pushed into hopper by spiral flow pattern
„„ Stringy material captured by perforated plate and mesh „„ Designed to achieve process goals at detention times
of 4 to 5 minutes at maximum flowrate
„„ Many different types including continuous element
screens, stair screens, inclined cylindrical screens, and
other types
„„ Wide variety of different screens available „„ Circular basins
Additional Screens

Vortex Grit Basin

„„ All operate on the same basic principle—separation by „„ Flow introduced tangentially to create whirlpool effect
size
„„ Velocities range from 0.3 to 1.1 m/s (1 to 3.5 ft/sec)
„„ See Chapter 11 of MOP 8, Design of Municipal
„„ Denser particles settle to the bottom of the basin
Wastewater Treatment Facilities (WEF et al., 2018) for
information on other types of screens „„ Lighter, less dense particles overflow to the
next process

„„ Grit pumps pull grit from bottom hopper

100  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

„„ Cleaning cycles set as timed cycles or Adjust process to maintain target velocity:

„„ Triggered by a difference in water level from one side of „„ Velocity-controlled; adjust cross-sectional area
the screen to the other (head loss) or
„„ Aerated; adjust airflow
Process Control

Process Control
„„ Combination of both methods.
„„ Vortex; adjust paddle speed
„„ Minimum cleaning frequency is when head loss reaches
„„ All types; limit the number of units in active service
7.6 cm (3 in.)
Inspect grit:

„„ Presence of organic material indicates velocities

are too low.

„„ Buildup of grit in downstream processes indicates

velocities are too high.
„„ Screenings deposited directly into dumpsters or „„ Grit deposited directly into dumpsters or trucks or

„„ Washed and pressed to remove up to 90% of organic „„ Concentrated with cyclones or

Processing

Processing
material and up to 50% of water content
„„ Washed and concentrated with grit classifiers;
„„ Compaction at 4500 to 6000 kPa (1500 to 2000 psig)
„„ Several different types of classifiers including paired
reduces volume by 60 to 85%
cyclone with grit classifier, free vortex-based grit
classifier, grit dewatering escalators, and conical
grit washers
Maintenance

Maintenance
„„ Daily observation for visible and audible indications of malfunction

„„ Preventive maintenance and planned replacement of worn parts

„„ Regular cleaning and washdown to remove adhered material

„„ Lubricate according to manufacturer's recommendations

Regulatory

Regulatory
„„ Grit and screenings must pass the paint filter test before being sent to landfill.

c h a p t e r e x e r c ise

This exercise will draw on some of the knowledge acquired in this chapter. In this section, an operator must complete the following tasks:

„„ Determine how often a screenings dumpster must be emptied,

„„ Select a screen type given information about the downstream equipment, and
„„ Determine how many grit basins should be in service to maintain a target velocity.

WRRF Information:

Current Screen Type – 2.0-in. bar screen.

New downstream process does not tolerate stringy material such as rags and hair. The new screen should effectively remove these
materials.

There are four, trapezoidal, velocity control grit channels placed to operate in parallel. Place one or more of the grit basins into service to
maintain a target velocity as close as possible to 0.3 m/s (1.0 ft/sec).

Parameter SI Units English Units

Influent Flow 10.598 ML/d 2.8 mgd
Screenings Produced 0.075 m3/ML 10 cu ft/mil. gal
Screenings Container Volume 1.133 m3 40 cu ft
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   101

Grit Basin Length 4.57 m 15 ft

Grit Basin Width 0.457 m 1.5 ft
Grit Basin Height / Depth 0.457 m 1.5 ft

c h a pt e r e x e r c i s e s o l u ti o n s

1. Determine how often the screenings container must be emptied.

Step 1—Find the total volume of screenings produced each day.

10 598 m3 influent flow  1 ML  0.0748 m3 screenings produced 

  0.79 m /d
3
SI 1000 m3 
d 1 ML influent flow

2.8 mil. gal influent flow 10 cu ft screenings produced 

English    28 cu ft
d  1 mil. gal influent flow 

Step 2—Determine how long it will take to fill the screenings container.

SI 1.13 m3 available space  1 day 

   1.43 days
 0.79 m screenings produced 
3

40 cu ft available space  1 day 

English    1.43 days
 28 cu ft screenings produced 

Step 3—Convert time in days to hours.

1.43 days  24 hours 

   34.3 hours
 1 day 

2. Select a new screen that will meet the needs of the downstream process. The downstream process is sensitive to rags and stringy
material. Look back through the screen descriptions. One of them is better at removing stringy material than the others. Select the
continuous element, perforated plate screen for best performance.

3. Determine how many grit basins should be in service to maintain a flow velocity as close as possible to 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec). If the
velocity is too low, excessive amounts of organic material will be removed with the grit. If the velocity is too high, downstream
processes may not be protected.

Step 1—Find the formula for calculating velocity.

Flow
Velocity 
Area
Step 2—Determine which units velocity, flow, and area must be in to solve the equation. The target velocity is given in meters per
second or feet per second. The units selected for flow and area must work together to produce the desired units for velocity. Look at
the equations in both SI and English units below. See how the units on the right side of the equation cancel out to leave units that match
the left side of the equation.

m Flow, m3/s
SI Velocity, 
s m2

ft Flow, cfs
English Velocity, 
s Area, sq ft
102  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Step 3—Assume all of the flow is going through a single grit basin. Find the area of one grit basin. The formula for the area of a
rectangle is length multiplied by width. This is deceptive because the problem gives dimensions for length, width, and height or depth
of channel. The area of importance for velocity through a grit basin is the cross-sectional area. The cross-sectional area, shown in green
on the figure below, is the area that the water is flowing through or past. The cross-­sectional area will be calculated using the dimensions
given for width and height. These are the length and width for this rectangle. Note that the area used for velocity is not the entire
cross-­sectional area of the channel, but only the area that the water is flowing through. If the question had given both a channel depth
and a water depth, then the water depth would be used to find the cross-sectional area of the water.

SI Area = (Length) (Width)

Area = (0.457 m) (0.457 m)

Area = 0.209 m2

English Area = (Length) (Width)

Area = (1.5 ft) (1.5 ft)

Area = 2.25 sq ft

Step 4—Convert the influent flowrate to compatible units.

10.598 ML  1 day   1 hour   1 minute  1 000 000 L   1 m3 

SI  24 hours   60 minutes   60 seconds   1 ML  1000 L   0.123 m /s
3
day

2.8 mil. gal  1 day   1 hour   1 minute  1,000,000 gal   1 cu ft 

English     4.33 cfs
d  24 hours   60 minutes   60 seconds   1 mil. gal   7.48 gal 

Step 5—Calculate the velocity with a single grit basin in service.

SI m Flow, m3/s
Velocity, 
s Area, m 2

m3
0.123
m s
Velocity, 
s 0.209 m 2

m
Velocity,  0.59
s
 Chapter 3 Preliminary Treatment of Wastewater   103

English ft Flow, cfs

Velocity, 
s Area, sq ft

ft 4.33 cfs
Velocity, 
s 2.25 sq ft

ft
Velocity,  1.93
      s

Step 6—Compare the velocity with one basin in service to the desired velocity. The desired velocity is 0.3 m/s (1 ft/sec) and the velocity
with one basin in service would be 0.59 m/s (1.93 cfs). This is approximately double the desired flowrate. The operator should place two
grit basins in service.

References
Boldt, J. (2005) Eliminating Grit Deposition Problems Through Objective Grit System Design: A Case
Study at the Fox Lake NRWRP, Illinois. Paper presented at the Illinois Water Environment Association
Conference, March 9–13.

Bristow, L. (2008) Racks, Screens, Comminutors, and Grit Removal. In C. S. University, Operation of
Wastewater Treatment Plants: A Field Study Program, Vol 1, 7th ed.; California State University at
Sacramento Office of Water Programs: Sacramento, California; pp 57–100.

Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board (2004) Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities;
Health Research Inc., Health Education Services Division: Albany, New York.

InfoBarScreens (2009) About Reciprocating Rake Bar Screens. [Link] (accessed Dec 2016).

Kern, J. W.; Pisano, W. (1998) Vortex Grit Chambers: Process, Performance, and Modifications. Proceedings
of the 71st Annual Water Environment Federation Technical Exposition and Conference; Orlando, Florida,
Oct 3–7; Water Environment Federation: Alexandria, Virginia.

Metcalf and Eddy, Inc./AECOM (2013) Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Resource Recovery, 5th ed.
McGraw Hill: New York.

National Fire Protection Association (2016) Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection
Facilities; NFPA 820; National Fire Protection Association: Quincy, Massachusetts.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1978) Field Manual for Performance Evaluation and Troubleshooting
at Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, D.C.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2003) Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet: Screening and Grit
Removal; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water, Municipal Technology Branch:
Washington, D.C.

Water Environment Federation (1997) Septage Handling; Manual of Practice No. 24; Water Environment
Federation: Alexandria, Virginia.

Water Environment Federation (2016) Operation of Water Resource Recovery Facilities, 7th ed.; WEF
Manual of Practice No. 11; Water Environment Federation: Alexandria, Virginia.

Water Environment Federation; American Society of Civil Engineers; Environmental and Water Resources
Institute (2018) Design of Water Resource Recovery Facilities, 6th ed.; WEF Manual of Practice No.
8/ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 76; Water Environment Federation:
Alexandria, Virginia.
104  Wastewater Treatment Fundamentals I — Liquid Treatment

Suggested Readings
Arasmith, S. (2011) Pumps and Pumping [Link] (accessed Aug 2017).

Gravette, B.; Strehler, A.; Finger, D.; Palepu, S. (2000) Troubleshooting a Grit Removal System. Proceedings
of the 73rd Annual Water Environment Federation Technical Exposition and Conference [CD-ROM];
Anaheim, California, Oct 14–18; Water Environment Federation: Alexandria, Virginia.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1987) Preliminary Treatment Facilities, Design and Operational
Considerations; EPA 430/9-87-007; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: ­Washington, D.C.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994) Guide to Septage Treatment and Disposal; EPA 625/R-9-402;
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, D.C.

Water Environment Federation; American Society of Civil Engineers; Environmental and Water Resources
Institute (2018) Chapter 11—Preliminary Treatment. In Design of Water Resource Recovery Facilities,
6th ed.; WEF Manual of Practice No. 8/ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 76;
Water Environment Federation: Alexandria, Virginia.