The procedure for the investigation was as follows:

 Equal numbers of male and female guppies were put into two ponds (pond 1
and pond 2).
 In pond 1, predatory fish that prey on guppies were introduced.
 In pond 2, predatory fish that do not feed on guppies were introduced.
 The guppies were allowed to breed for 20 months, representing several
generations of guppies. (Guppies reproduce when they are about three
months old.)

The result of the investigation:

The male guppies in pond 2 had significantly more spots than the male guppies in
pond 1.

1.1 How could the validity of this investigation be increased? (2)

1.2 Identify the:
(a) independent variable (1)
(b) dependent variable (1)
1.3 Explain why the scientist included pond 2 in this investigation. (3)
1.4 Describe how Darwin's theory of natural selection can be used to explain why
the guppies in pond 1 had fewer spots. (5)

Question 2
2.1. What type of characteristics does nature select during evolution? (1)
2.2 In nature, there is always a fight for survival due to competition, predation
and adverse weather conditions. Suggest a collective term for all these
factors. (1)
2.3 Why is the concept of natural selection so important? (2)
2.4 Why is natural selection not a random process? (2)
2.5 In a population of mice, half were light in colour and half were dark.
a) If an owl, hunts in the area at night, which mice have the more
favourable characteristic? Explain your answer in terms of natural
selection. (3)
b) If the predator was a snake that detects the body heat of its prey, which
mice would probably have the more favourable variation? Explain your
answer. (3)

266
Question 3
Before the industrial revolution, light-coloured moths were far more common in
England than dark-coloured moths. Trees were covered by a pale lichen which
provided camouflage for the lighter moth. Dark moths were much more visible and
were eaten by birds.
Due to pollution from factories in the 19th century, the environment changed. Lichen
was killed off, and a black soot covered the bark on the trees. This provided good
camouflage for the dark-coloured moths, but the light-coloured moths stood out from
their background and were ready prey for birds.
The following is a graph showing the changes in the percentage of dark-coloured
moths over a number of years.

Changes in the percentage of dark-coloured moths in relation to pollution over a

period of time.
Percentage dark-coloured moths

Pollutants in air (μg/m )

3

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Key: dark-coloured moths pollutants in the air

3.1 What is the general relationship between the dark-coloured moth

population and the pollution from 1965 to 1985? (1)
3.2 Explain the relationship mentioned in question 3.1 (1)
3.3 Why did the population of the light-coloured moths decrease during the 19th
century? (2)
3.4 Once the air pollution had decreased, what do you think happened to the
population of the light-coloured moths? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
(30)

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Punctuated equilibrium

Punctuated equilibrium refers to a form of evolution characterised by long periods of

little or no change followed by short periods of rapid change. This concept was
developed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen J. Gould in 1972.
Darwin had proposed that species evolve gradually with small changes over a period
of time. This is called gradualism. In gradualism, the physical (phenotypic)
characteristics of a population change gradually because of the accumulation of
small genetic changes.
Eldredge and Gould noticed that in the fossil record, there were long periods of time
where species did not change or changed very little. This was interspersed with
periods of rapid change. Accordingly, new species were formed over a short period
of time. The main evidence for this type of evolution was the absence of transitional
fossils (the “missing-links”).

phyletic gradualism

morphology

time

punctuated
equilibrium
Figure 4: Punctuated equilibrium (Gould) versus gradualism (Darwin)

When a new species branched off from a parent species, changes occurred quickly,
but thereafter, the organism changed very little.
In a fast-changing environment, species needed to change rapidly to adapt to the
environment, failing which, they would become extinct.

268
Activity 2: Punctuated equilibrium
The graph below shows the speed at which evolution occurs in a species of butterfly.

B
evolution

time

1. Explain the trend in evolution represented by:

a) phase A (2)
b) phase B (2)
2. In view of the trend represented by A and B, what type of evolution is
represented by the graph? (1)
3. Explain why the chances of speciation are great during phase B. (2)
(7)

Lamarckism vs Darwinism
Table 2 below outlines the differences between Lamarckism and Darwinism.

Table 2: Lamarckism vs Darwinism

Lamarckism Darwinism
members have similar
make-up of a members of population are
characteristics with a
population all the same
measure of variation
populations, not individuals,
transformation of a individuals are able to
transform over time and only
species/population transform during a life time
through genetic means
natural selection – the envi-
individual chooses which
ronment exercises selective
traits to pass on to offspring
mechanism of pressure causing change
change
changes are directed to
variation exists regardless of
meet survival
organisms needs.

269
Activity 3: Theories of evolution
1. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was a French naturalist who proposed his theory
of evolution in 1809.
a) Name the two ideas on which Lamarck’s theory was based. (2)
b) Why was his theory considered incorrect and therefore subsequently
rejected? (1)
c) Was Lamarck’s work entirely without value because his theory had
been rejected? (2)

2. Charles Darwin, a British naturalist, made his most important observations

regarding evolution on the Galapagos islands.
a) List four observations his evolutionary theory was based on. (4)
b) Describe how Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection would have
explained the development of long necks in giraffes. (7)
c) Tabulate two differences between the theories of Charles Darwin and
Lamarck. (5)

3. Below are statements referring to the evolution of species. Decide if the

statement applies to Darwin, Lamarck or to both scientists.
a) Only the fittest individuals with the most advantageous characteristics
survive in a changing environment. (1)
b) All members are slightly different and these differences accumulate
over time, changing their appearance. (1)
c) A whale’s hind limbs were severely reduced because they no longer
used legs in the water. (1)
d) Species acquire bigger and better structures by the increase in their use
and pass these structures on to their offspring. (1)
(25)

Formation of a new species (Speciation)

The formation of a new species is called speciation. You have already learnt that
variation in individuals is caused by sexual reproduction, genetic mutations, crossing
over, random arrangement, etc. If enough of these variations occur and are kept within
a population, the more likely it is that a species can change.

270
 Biological species concept - a group of organisms with similar characteristics
that interbreed with one another to produce fertile offspring.

Every population has some sort of genetic variation and these variations are important
as they increase a species chance of surviving in a changing environment (natural
selection). Geographic speciation is one way speciation occurs.

Geographic speciation

Geographic speciation occurs when part of a population becomes isolated from the
parent population due to physical barriers. Such barriers could be continental drift,
oceans, rivers, mountains, or other natural disturbances such as volcanos or
earthquakes.
The images below show how two new species can arise as a result of being separated,
over a long period of time, due to a geographic barrier.

1. Early stage of separation (300 000 years ago)

individuals of the species

separated from …
… the parent population

river that only flows

in the rainy season

2. Later stage of complete isolation (150 000 years ago)

Landscape features have altered over time: the river has widened, deepened
and flows all year round, resulting in geographic isolation.
As a result, the gene flow between the two populations stops. The two
populations are exposed to different environmental conditions.
Natural selection now takes place independently in each of the 2 populations –

271
 they change genotypically and then phenotypically from each other.

3. Speciation has occurred (3000 years ago).

Climate change over time has altered the landscape: the river had dried up
enabling a meeting of the species.

The two new species may mix but are genetically

unable to breed with each other because of
evolutionary changes.

Figure 5: Process of geographic speciation in a population of lizards,

separated by a river

Generic account of speciation

 A population is separated by a geographical barrier and splits into two

populations.
 The two populations cannot mate and so gene flow between the two
populations stops.

272
  The two populations are exposed to different environmental conditions and
selective forces.
 Natural selection works independently on both populations simultaneously
 The two populations become different from the original population both
genotypically and phenotypically.
 Even if the populations were to come together again, they would not interbreed
with one another and therefore would have become different species.

Activity 4: Speciation

Question 1
1. Bontebok are antelope that are found in the Western Cape. Two main
populations exist, one at the Bontebok National Park and the other at Table
Mountain National Park. These two national parks are hundreds of
kilometres apart. Scientists believe that due to geographical separation,
speciation may occur.
1.1 Define the term “speciation”. (2)
1.2 Define the term ‘species’. (3)
1.3 Name the type of speciation that may occur in the bontebok
populations. (2)

2. For each of the statements below, state whether the statement is TRUE or
FALSE. Where false, correct the statement so that it is true.
2.1 Genetic barriers cause divided populations to remain the same. (2)
2.2 Reproductive isolation prevents two or more populations from changing
genes. (2)
2.3 Populations that become isolated by means of a geographic barrier will
not differ from their ancestral species. (2)
2.4 Competition, predation, climatic factors and disease are all
selective forces / environmental pressures. (2)

Question 2
Darwin discovered two different species of tortoises on two different island in the
Galapagos. One had a domed shell and short neck, the other had an elongated shell
and a longer neck. The two islands had very different vegetation. One of the islands
(island X) was rather barren, dry and arid. It had no grass but rather short tree-like
cactus plants. On the other island (island Y), there were no cactus plants but it had a
good supply of water and grass grew freely. The diagram below shows the two main

273
species of tortoise.

Tortoise 1 Tortoise 2

1.1 Which tortoise (1 or 2) would have been found on:

a) Island X (1)
b) Island Y (1)
1.2 Describe how the two tortoise species became different species. (5)
1.3 Scientists believe that the variation in populations lead to the formation of
new species. List four sources of variation in populations. (4)
(26)

Cladogram of speciation

On a cladogram or phylogenetic tree (diagrams showing evolutionary relationships

amongst organisms), one can easily see where a species has split into two different
species. This is known as a speciation event (Figure 6).
Over time, some species have remained alive (they are extant) while others have died
off (become extinct). Cladograms also show extinction events. If the lineage line does
not reach the top of the tree, then the species became extinct. The longer the line of
lineage, the more unchanged the species has remained.

Speciation
events

Figure 6: Cladogram showing speciation events

274
Artificial selection
Humans have long exploited the variation in wild and cultivated organisms to develop
crops or new breeds of livestock, through a process called artificial selection.

Artificial selection is a human-driven selective force and occurs at a faster rate than
natural selection. Favourable traits are artificially selected for by scientists and farmers
and then bred out to produce offspring with those traits. Artificial selection mimics
natural selection, with the exception that artificial selection is a much faster process
and results in less variation than natural selection.

Artificial selection in a domesticated animal

All dog varieties (see Figure 7) originated from the Grey wolf, Canis familaris. The first
few domesticated wolves would have been selected for traits such as tameness,
submissiveness and ones that were easy to work with. Five ancient breeds of dog
arose from inbreeding which gave rise to the large number of distinct dog breeds that
we have today. The extremely large genetic variability in the ancestral species made
it a perfect choice for domestication as different traits could be expressed under
different selective pressures.

Figure 7: Domestic dogs

Pedigree dogs, born from two dogs of the same breed, sometimes suffer from
deformations and can be vulnerable to diseases and parasites. This is due to their
decreased genetic variation.
Mongrel dogs (“pavement specials” as they are commonly referred to in South Africa)
are dogs that were outbreed and so their genetic variation is far greater than a pure-
bred dog. This makes mongrel dogs quite robust (healthy) and they do not die very
easily from natural diseases or parasites and they are very fertile.

Artificial selection in crops

Domestication in plants has resulted in wide variety of new species with large

275
phenotypic differences amongst species. Most of these crops are very dependent on
humans for survival.

The domestication of maize (Zea mays spp) is one of the greatest success stories in
agriculture. The modern day maize plant was bred from a multi-stemmed wild grass.
Over the past thousand years, farmers selected and planted seeds from those maize
plants that had bigger ears of corn and that required less space to grow. Over time, all
the undesirable traits were bred out of the plant, leaving only the large ears of corn
and less stems.

Figure 8: The evolution in the size of the ear of corn. The first image is the original
size of the Zea mays spp and the one on the far right is the modern day maize.

The following characteristics were considered favourable traits in a maize plant:

 reduced seed coat
 retention of seeds on the cob so that seeds did not just fall off
 a tall plant with a single stalk and less stems
 large ear structure resulting in more food production

Differences between natural and artificial selection

For a long time, humans have been doing breeding experiments to develop organisms
with a selected set of desirable characteristics, for example increased quality and
quantity of milk produced by cows, or drought resistance and increased sugar content
in sugar cane. This is achieved by artificial selection, which is a similar process to
natural selection.

276
However, artificial selection differs from natural selection. Some of the differences are
listed in Table 3 below.

Table 3: Difference between natural and artificial selection

Natural selection Artificial selection
The environment or nature is the
Humans represent the selective force
selective force
Selection is in response to suitability to Selection is in response to satisfying
the environment human needs
May involve one or more species (as
Occurs within a species
in cross breeding)

Activity 5: Artificial selection and domestication

Question 1
1.1 List four ways in which artificial selection has been used in agriculture. (4)
1.2 Copy the table below and complete it showing the differences between
artificial selection and natural selection. (9)

Artificial selection Natural Selection

Driven by...
Rate of change...
Amount of variation achieved
End result
1.3 Humans have been domesticating plants for years and today, most
agricultural species come from domesticated varieties.
a) Define the term “domestication”. (2)
b) What was one of the first crops to be domesticated in the world? (1)
c) Name two characteristics that were selected for in the domestication of
the crop mentioned in (b) above. (2).

Question 2
Decide if the statements below are TRUE or FALSE.
2.1 Cultivated plants show higher degrees of phenotypic variation than wild
plants (1)
2.2 Natural selection is a random process. (1)

277
 2.3 Artificial selection is similar to natural selection, except the process is driven
by man and is a quicker process. (1)
2.4 The final product of artificial selection is the adaptation of populations of
organisms to their environment. (1)
2.5 All hybrids are infertile. (1)
2.6 Artificial selection has been used by humans to speed up evolution. (1)
(24)

Mechanisms for reproductive isolation

Reproductive isolation is the mechanism that prevents two species from mating with
one another and making fertile hybrids, even when not separated by a geographic
barrier. Such mechanisms are used mostly to separate species that live in the same
environment.

Strategy Description
Different species will have different breeding seasons or, in
breeding at different
the case of plants, will flower at different times of the year,
times of the year
in order to prevent cross-pollination.

Some animals have very specific courtship behaviours that

do not attract individuals of other species, even if they are
closely related species.
species-specific Courtship behaviour is a physical or chemical signal that
courtship behaviour an organism is ready to mate. This can include anything
from being brightly coloured, to singing elaborate mating
songs or mating dances, to the secretion of pheromones in
order to attract a mate.

Many plants and their flowers are specifically adapted for

specific pollinators. Some closely related species of plants
adaptation to
have different characteristics such as flower shape, size,
different pollinators
colour, reward type (nectar or pollen), scent and timing of
(plants)
flowering all play a role in attracted certain pollinators to
them. Also, cross-pollination between the different species
is prevented.
infertile offspring in Even if two species are able to physically mate and
cross-species produce offspring, they will still be reproductively isolated
hybrids due to the fact the most hybrid offspring are infertile.

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Evolution in present times
Evolution is always happening. Most of the time it is impossible to observe changes
in populations and species because evolution happens very slowly – thus the theory
of gradualism. However, there are some cases (e.g.: rapidly producing organisms
such as viruses and bacteria) that allow scientists to study how species change in
response to environmental factors. Pathogens (viruses and bacteria) evolve quickly
because there is lots of natural variation amongst them and the fact that mutations
occur most often in rapidly reproducing organisms.

Resistance to antibiotics in TB

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic bacterial infection caused by the bacterium

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Unfortunately, the incidence of this disease keeps
increasing in South Africa.

Treatment is commonly in the form of antibiotics; however, some of the bacteria are
naturally resistant to those antibiotics (see Figure 9).

Lots of bacteria Some TB The drug The drug resistant

and some are bacteria are resistant bacteria bacteria give their
drug resistant resistant to are now able to drug resistance to
antibiotics grow and take other bacteria
over
normal resistant dead a bacterium
bacterium bacterium bacterium becoming drug
resistant

Figure 9: How antibiotic resistant happens.

TB has become more and more common in South Africa recently and this is primarily
due to the fact that patients do not finish the full course of antibiotics and the naturally
resistant bacteria then survive and reproduce. The patient will then develop TB again,
except this time, most of the bacteria are now resistant to the previous antibiotic and
so treatment will not help anymore. Patients would then have to be placed on stronger
antibiotics to kill the resistant bacteria.

279
It became common practice to treat TB patients with multiple drugs at the same time.
It was assumed that the bacteria would not develop resistance to multiple drugs at the
same time. Unfortunately, this assumption was wrong. The TB bacterium became
resistant to multiple drugs causing the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria.
Multidrug-resistant bacteria now require a very aggressive treatment using five
different drugs and very often patients with this type of TB do not survive.

Enrichment

Theory of evolution by natural selection:

[Link]

Natural selection: [Link]

Natural selection – the peppered moth:

[Link]

280
Evolution by natural selection: End of topic
exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write the letter (A – D) next to the question
number (1.1.1–1.1.5) for example 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 The theory of evolution by natural selection was first described by …

A Gregor Mendel
B Watson and Crick
C Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
D Charles Darwin

1.1.2 The reason that Lamarck would have provided for the long beak of
the hummingbird is that:

A all hummingbirds have the same beak length

B there is natural variation in beak length and some birds are
therefore better suited to feed on nectar
C the more the hummingbird used its beak, the longer it grew
D hummingbirds with shorter beaks were more fit for survival

1.1.3 Lamarck's 'laws' of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired

characteristics were:

A rejected, because only characteristics that benefit offspring can

be inherited.
B not rejected, because evidence shows that acquired
characteristics can be inherited

281
 C rejected, because only characteristics that are coded for in the
DNA can be inherited
D not rejected, because Darwin's theory supports Lamarck's

1.1.4 During an investigation, researchers measured the beak size of a

certain species of finch on the Galapagos Islands. The type of food
available before and after a drought was a factor in the study of the
evolution of the beaks of finches.

drought
mean beak depth

1975 1976 1977 1978

Which factor is the dependent variable?

A the amount of rain
B the type of food available
C the beak size of finches
D the year
(4 x 2) = (8)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 The permanent disappearance of a species from earth.

1.2.2 A tentative explanation of a phenomenon that can be tested.
1.2.3 The distribution of species in different parts of the world.
1.2.4 Variation that results in distinct phenotypes.

282
 1.2.5 The explanation that species experience long periods without
physical change, followed by short periods of rapid physical change.
1.2.6 An explanation for something that has been observed in nature and
which can be supported by facts, laws and tested hypotheses.
1.2.7 Formation of a new species when a physical barrier has divided a
population.
1.2.8 The breeding of plants and animals to produce desirable
characteristics.
1.2.9 The process whereby organisms better suited to their environment
survive and produce more offspring.
1.2.10 A group of similar organisms which interbreed successfully with each
other to produce fertile offspring.
(10 x 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 The selection and breeding of organisms A: natural selection
with desirable characteristics by humans B: artificial selection
1.3.2 An example of discontinuous variation in A: skin colour
humans B: height
A: breeding at the same time
1.3.3 Example of a reproductive isolating of the year
mechanism B: adaptation to different
pollinators
1.3.4 A group of similar organisms that can A: species
interbreed to produce fertile offspring B: genus
1.3.5 Desired characteristics are passed on A: artificial selection
from parent to offspring B: natural selection
(5 x 2) = (10)

1.4 Since 1972, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant from Princeton University
in the USA have studied finch populations in the Galapagos. The table below
shows their data collected on one island (Daphne Major), for a period of 7
years. They studied one finch population on Daphne Major.

283
 Year 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980
rainfall (mm) - - 130 20 130 70 50
number of finches 1100 1300 1100 200 350 300 250
small seeds (mg/m2) - 800 600 90 300 70 50

1.4.1 In which year were the largest drop in rainfall, number of seeds and
number of finches recorded? (1)
1.4.2 Explain how the three events mentioned in question 1.4.1 are related
to each other. (3)
1.4.3 When the number of finches decreased, there were still plenty of
large seeds on the island. What does this tell you about the seed-
eating habits of the finches that died? (1)
(5)

1.5 Many dog breeds exist today as shown in the diagram below.

(a) Explain why all breeds of domestic dogs belong to the same
species. (2)
(b) Describe how artificial selection has led to different breeds of
domestic dogs. (3)
(5)

1.6 This question applies to the diagram on the next page.

The ancestor of the modern horse had very differently shaped foot bones.
Scientists believed that the structure of the foot bones evolved as the
environment changed from swampy areas with soft mud to drier and harder
soil. This allowed the animals to move effectively in each habitat.

284
 ankle bones

foot bones

Eohippus Mesohippus Merychippus Equus

50 35 25 5 - millions of year ago

Key: the shaded bones are the ones that touched the ground

1.6.1 Describe two changes to the bones that have taken place over the
past 50 million years. (2)
1.6.2 Eohippus lived in swampy areas with soft mud. Explain one
advantage to Eohippus of the arrangement of bones in its feet. (2)
1.6.3 The changes in the arrangement of the foot bones of horses support
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Explain how the
arrangement of the foot bones of Eohippus could have evolved into
the arrangement of the foot bones of Equus. (6)
(10)
Section A: [48]

Section B
Question 2
2.1 An investigation was conducted by a scientist to determine if two plant
populations, Population 1 and Population 2, belonged to the same species.
The scientist collected seeds from each of the populations.
The procedure followed was:

285
  He planted 20 seeds from Population 1 and 20 seeds from
Population 2 in two separate plots close to each other.
 The stamens of all the flowers of Population 1 were removed.
 Pollen from the flowers of Population 2 was used to pollinate the
flowers of Population 1.
 The scientist harvested the seeds of the plants in Population 1.
 He grew these seeds under ideal conditions in a laboratory.

Result: None of the seeds germinated.

2.1.1 Explain the advantage of removing the stamens from the flowers of
Population 1. (2)
2.1.2 What evidence indicates that the two populations do not belong to
the same species? (1)
2.1.3 State two factors that the scientist would have kept constant in the
laboratory. (2)
2.1.4 State one way in which the scientist could have increased the
reliability of his results. (1)
(6)
2.2 Study the diagram below of the moth species that originally belonged to a
single population but was later separated by a mountain into two groups.

Species A

Mountain
range

Species B Species C

286
 2.2.1 Name the process which is illustrated in the diagram above. (1)
2.2.2 Explain the importance of the process you identified in question 2.2.1
above. (2)
2.2.3 Why is species A the ancestor of species B and C? (2)
2.2.4 Explain the above illustrated process in relation to the three species
indicated in the diagram. (6)
(11)
2.3 Tabulate two differences between natural selection and artificial selection.
(3)
2.4 Study the extract below which describes the evolution of the snake.

How snakes lost their limbs has long been a mystery to scientists: New
research on a 90-million-year-old snake fossil suggests that snakes
evolved to live and hunt in burrows as many snakes still do today.
It is generally accepted that snakes and lizards are closely related,
although very few transitional fossils have been found to support this
generalisation.
(adapted from [Link]

a) Explain one characteristic that you would expect a transitional

snake fossil to have. (1)
b) Describe how would Jean Baptiste de Lamarck have explained
the loss of limbs in snakes? (4)
(5)
[25]
Question 3
3.1 Lizards of a certain species on an island are usually brown in colour. A
mutation in one gene for body colour results in red or black lizards. Black
lizards camouflage well against the dark rocks and warm up faster on cold
days which will give them energy to avoid predators.
Scientists investigated the relationship between the colour of lizards in a
population and their survival rate on an island.
They conducted the investigation as follows:
 They selected a group of lizards of a certain species in a habitat.
 They recorded the percentage of each colour (brown, red or black) in
the selected group.
 They repeated the investigation over a period of 30 generations of
offspring.

287
 The results of the investigation are shown in the table below.

Colour of Percentage (%) of each colour

lizards In the population
Initial 10th 20th 30th
population generation generation generation
Brown 80 80 70 40
Red 10 0 0 0
Black 10 20 30 60
(adapted from https//[Link]/bioInteractive)

3.1.1 State the:

a) independent variable (1)
b) dependent variable (1)
3.1.2 Explain the effect of the mutation on the survival of red lizards. (2)
3.1.3 Explain why the scientists had to conduct this investigation over 30
generations. (2)
3.1.4 State two ways in which the scientists could have improved the
validity of the investigation. (2)
3.1.5 Use the theory of natural selection to explain the higher percentage
of black lizards in the population of the 30th generation. (6)
3.1.6 Draw a bar graph to compare the percentage of the brown and the
black lizards in the initial population and the 30th generation. (6)
(20)
3.2 The diagram shows the distribution of various camels on the different
continents. The arrows indicate the current distribution of the animals.

llamas
dromedary bactrian

(adapted from [Link]

Explain how speciation of camels may have occurred. (6)
[26]
Section B: [51] - Total Marks: [99]

288
 10: Human evolution

Introduction
The major phases of hominin
Our Place in the Animal Kingdom evolution

Biological classification Phylogenetic trees of hominin

evolution
Interpretation of a
phylogenetic tree to show our Genetic evidence
place in the Animal Kingdom
Cultural evidence
Activity 1: Phylogenetic
trees Activity 3: Fossil
evidence
Characteristics that humans share
with African apes ‘Out of Africa’ Hypothesis

Similarities that humans share Genetic evidence (mtDNA)

with African apes
The fossil record
Anatomical differences between
African apes and humans Fossil sites in South Africa

Advantages of bipedalism The importance of the

Cradle of Humankind
Anatomical differences as a
result of bipedalism Other South African sites

Activity 2: Anatomical Other African fossil sites

differences and
Activity 4: Out of Africa
similarities between
hypothesis
African apes and modern
humans Alternatives to evolution

Lines of evidence that support the

idea of common ancestors for living
hominids including humans End of topic exercises

Fossil evidence

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CHAPTER 10: HUMAN EVOLUTION

Introduction

In this chapter we consider the origins and evolutionary development of modern

human beings. This includes:

 Interpretation of a phylogenetic tree to show our place in the Animal

Kingdom
 We will look at the characteristics that humans share with African apes
 We also consider that which makes us, as human beings, different from the
apes / other primates.
 Fossil, genetic and cultural evidence that support the idea of common
ancestors for living hominids
 We explore the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis – the scientific understanding that
modern human beings (Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa and from there
populated the rest of the world.
 We consider the importance of the Cradle of Humankind (and that of other
fossil sites in South Africa and Africa) to an understanding of human evolution.
 Lastly, we briefly consider some alternatives to evolution.

Key terminology
Hominids are a biological group that includes modern humans,
hominids our early human ancestors, chimpanzees and bonobos, gorillas
and orangutans, sometimes collectively referred to as apes.
Hominins are a sub-group of the hominids, and includes only
hominins
modern humans and early human ancestors.
homo This is a Latin term meaning ‘human’.
Homo sapiens means ‘wise human’. All humans living today
Homo sapiens
belong to the same species of Homo sapiens.
A biological grouping that includes lemurs, baboons,
primates chimpanzees, apes, and humans. Primates share a number of
characteristics as will be detailed shortly.
phylogenetic A branching diagram or "tree" showing the evolutionary
diagram relationships among various biological species

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Our Place in the Animal Kingdom
So where exactly do scientists place us?

Figure 1: Evolutionary path of humans and other primates

Biological Classification
Modern humans – given the scientific name Homo sapiens (homo: man, sapiens:
wise) – are considered part of the animal kingdom, the Kingdom Animalia (see
Figure 1). Within this kingdom, the Linnaean classification is as follows:
 Kingdom: Animalia
 Class: Mammalia (mammals give birth to live young and feed them on
milk)
 Order: Primates (with opposable thumbs on a hand with five fingers, finger
nails, not claws, two eyes facing forward, etc.)
 Family: Hominidae (humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans)
 Genus: Homo
 Species: sapiens

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Interpretation of a phylogenetic tree to show our place in the
Animal Kingdom

The evolutionary relationships of ancestral species and their descendants can be

illustrated using a branching phylogenetic tree. A phylogenetic tree indicates which
ancestors gave rise to which descendants.
To help interpret this (and other) phylogenetic diagram, the following pointers:
 The root of the phylogenetic diagram represents the ancestor, and the tips of
the branches, the descendants of that ancestor (see below, left). To move
upwards is to move forward in time.

 Speciation is represented as a branching of the tree, as a single ancestral

lineage gives rise to two or more daughter lines (see above, right).

 Each lineage has a part of its history that is unique and parts that are shared
with other lineages, as illustrated below …

 And each lineage has ancestors that are unique to that lineage and common
ancestors that are shared with other lineages (see below).

Belonging to the same Family Hominidae suggests that humans, chimpanzees,

gorillas and orangutans share a common ancestor. Indeed, studies show that

292
humans share a common ancestor with chimpanzees that lived approximately 6
million years ago. This is illustrated in the phylogenetic diagram (Figure 2) below.

C
B

Figure 2: Phylogenetic tree for primates.

Note the place of the Family Hominidae in the tree, and the relationships between
the various primates, humans included.

Study the diagram: on the left, and right, we have a time line, in million of years,
beginning at 55 million years ago (in the past), and ending with the present (0 years).
It illustrates the evolution of various primates from a common ancestor (marked A),
who lived 55 million years ago. Markers B, C and D point to speciation events that
lead eventually, at marker E, to the emergence of the modern human.
 Marker B indicates a speciation event that led to the evolution of gibbons as a
separate species from the other primates.
 Marker C represents the common ancestor for the Family Hominidae that
includes humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, gorillas and orangutans. This
common ancestor lived approximately 10 million years ago.
 Marker D represents the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees.
This ancestor lived approximately 5 – 6 million years ago. This indicates that
of all primates, humans and chimpanzees are the most closely related.

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  The line from D to E represents the unique history of humans, and we will
explore that in some detail later in this chapter.
 The line from C backwards to A represents the shared history of the Family
Hominidae, and from D backwards to shared history of humans and
chimpanzees.
Once we have considered the major phases of hominin evolution, we will examine
some phylogenetic diagrams that focus on expanding the part of the branch from D
to E in the diagram above.
The phylogenetic tree shows us the place of the Family Hominidae within the Order
Primates and the larger Kingdom Animalia. Our focus now will be specifically on the
Family Hominidae, exploring the relationships between humans and other hominids.

Family Hominidae: [Link]

Activity 1: Phylogenetic trees

1. To what Order and what Family do modern humans belong? (2)

2. Name two species that belong to the same Family humans belong to. (2)
3. According to the phylogenetic tree in Figure 2, when did the most recent
common ancestor for humans and gorillas exist? (1)
4. Distinguish hominids from hominins. (4)
5. Study the phylogenetic tree below.

Which ONE of the following is a reasonable conclusion based on the

phylogenetic tree?
A 1 and 2 belong to the same species
B 3 is more closely related to 4 than to 5
C 1 and 5 do not have a common ancestor
D The DNA of 1 will be more similar to 4 than to 2 (2)

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 6. Study the phylogenetic tree below and answer the questions that follow.

Phylogenetic tree showing human evolution

average cranial capacity (cm )

Homo sapiens
3

Homo erectus

Homo habilis
Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus afarensis

4,5 4,0 3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5

0 million years ago

a) Define a phylogenetic tree. (2)

b) Which organism is considered to be the common ancestor of all species
shown above? (1)
c) Which organism has the biggest cranial capacity? (1)
d) Name TWO species that lived between 1,5 and 2 million years ago. (2)
e) Calculate the time difference between the evolution of Homo erectus and
Homo sapiens. (Show your working.) (3)
f) Which organism – Homo erectus or Homo habilis − is more closely related
to modern day humans? (1)
(21)

Characteristics that humans share with African apes

To trace the evolutionary development of modern humans from an ancestor shared
by all hominids, it is helpful to consider their anatomical similarities, and of course,
their differences. The differences point to the existence of different species, while the
similarities point to a possible common ancestor.

Key terminology
arboreal living primarily in trees
a thumb that can be placed opposite the fingers of the same
opposable thumb
hand

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sexual distinct differences in size or appearance between the sexes of
dimorphism an animal in addition to the sexual organs themselves
bipedalism ability to walk on two legs
quadrupedalism use of four limbs for locomotion (quadrupeds)
diurnal active during the day rather than at night.
foramen magnum hole in the base of skull through which the spinal cord passes
ridge running across the top of the skull that served to attach
cranial ridge
large jaw muscles to the head
prognathous protruding (projecting forward) upper / lower jaw

Similarities that humans share with African Apes

Hominids (members of the Family Hominidae, including humans) share a number of

characteristics. Scientists argue that these arose from their adaptation to arboreal
living (life spent mostly in trees). The main similarities are given in Figure 3 below.

large brain

eyes in front

freely rotating arms

long upper arms

rotation around
elbow joints
opposable
thumb

bare fingertips or
nails instead of
claws

upright posture

Figure 3: Characteristics
shared by humans and African
apes

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 Large brains: relative to their body size, hominids have larger brains than
other species in the Animal Kingdom. This allows them to process and store
information.

 Two eyes in the front of the head (Figure 4): this provides good binocular
vision as both eyes work together. The eyes have cones for colour vision that
gives greater clarity.

Figure 4: the eyes of a chimpanzee in the front of the head.

 Freely rotating arms: arms can be lifted above the head to swing from
branch to branch, or to pick fruit hanging relatively high above the ground.

 Long upper arms / front limbs: apes are normally quadrupeds, and this
requires longer front limbs. Longer front limbs also make it easier to grasp and
swing from branches.

 Rotation around elbow joints: this allows the limb to extend or flex to grasp
and reach for objects. It also enables the flexing and rotation of the wrists.

 Bare fingertips or nails instead of claws: Digits (finger and toes) have soft,
broad and very sensitive pads. The flat finger nails or toe nails protect these
pads.

 Opposable thumb: the thumbs of hominids are positioned so that it can

oppose other digits, enabling the hand to grip an object. See Figure 5 below.

 Upright posture: the back limbs of hominids are generally stronger than their
front limbs, enabling them to stand erect (upright) and use their hands for
grasping; standing erect also gives a better view of surroundings and
exposure of genitals to attract the opposite sex (Figure 6).

 Sexual dimorphism (Figure 7) – this refers to differences between males and

females of the same species. Humans and apes are sexually dimorphic. This
is linked to competition.

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 Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7:
opposable thumb upright posture sexual dimorphism

Hominids share some other characteristics as well. They …

 lack a tail (that other primates – baboons, monkeys, etc. use for balancing or
sometimes as an extra limb), and
 are diurnal – active during the day rather than at night

Note: Scientists hypothesise that humans and modern apes share a common
ancestor. They do NOT believe that a chimpanzee is our direct ancestor.

Anatomical differences between African apes and humans

Many of the anatomical differences between modern humans and other apes are
related to habitual bipedalism. All apes are capable of upright posture and at times
walking on two feet (gibbon in Figure 8 below). Usually however, the other apes are
knuckle-walkers, moving or scampering (run with quick light steps) on all four limbs.

A B C

Figure 8: Modes of walking: A – a chimpanzee walking on all four legs, B - a man

walking upright on two legs and C - a gibbon scampering on two legs.

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Advantages of bipedalism

Humans can also crawl on all fours but tend to stand erect and walk on two legs in
an upright position. This is known as bipedalism. The trend in human evolution has
been towards bipedalism.

Bipedalism brings with it a number of significant advantages.

 Hands are free to pick or carry food, to use tools and handle weapons
 Standing upright, with eyes higher off the ground, gives a better, wider view of
surroundings, a timelier warning of approaching predators or of potential prey.
 Movement becomes easier and more energy-efficient.
 A more vertical posture reduces the body’s exposure to sunlight when in an
open area (60% less than for quadrupeds). It also raises a large percentage of
the body away from the hot ground, where it is exposed to cooling breezes.

 In courtship behaviour, the male sex organ is readily displayed.

Anatomical differences as a result of bipedalism

 The position of the foramen magnum – the hole in the base of the skull
where the spinal cord leaves / enters the skull – has changed position. As
human evolution has progressed, Quadrupeds have the foramen magnum is
in a backward position. Humans, walking upright have it in a forward position
(Figure 9 below). As a result, humans have their skull balanced on top of the
spinal column, hence allowing bipedalism.

foramen magnum

Chimpanzee skull Human skull

Figure 9: Position of the foramen magnum in chimpanzee and human skulls

299
 The curvature (shape) of the spine – as shown in the Figures 10A and B:

Figure 10A: the human spine is Figure 10B: The chimpanzee’s spine is
curved so the upper body (and much less curved. As a result, when
the centre of gravity – the red standing erect, the ape’s weight pulls it
line) is directly above the pelvis forward, making an upright stance
when standing erect – a more unsteady – a less curved spine (C-shaped
curved spine (S-shaped spine) spine)

 The shape of the pelvic girdle (see Figures 11 and 12 below):

Figure 11A: a chimpanzee pelvis, Figure 11B: The human pelvis

long and narrow, is adapted to (short and wide) is better able to
quadrupedal knuckle walking, support the vertically stacked
providing greater rigidity. human organs.

A B

Figure 12: Hip socket and femur angle for

chimpanzees (A) and humans (B). In
humans, the shape of the pelvis means the
femur is angled inwards for maximum load
bearing. This also makes it easier to walk
bipedally, placing one foot in front of the
other.

300
Other anatomical differences include: the brain, brow ridges, jaws, teeth, palate
shape and cranial ridge.

Cranial
ridge

Figure 13: Anatomical differences between the skull of a chimpanzee and human

 Brain / cranium size (see Figure 13) – as early humans evolved, the brain
grew in size and complexity. Over the course of human evolution, brain size
tripled. Humans have a larger brain (cranium size) than chimpanzees (apes)

 Brow ridges: (as illustrated in Figure 13):

o chimpanzees have a well-developed brow ridge above the eye socket.
o In humans, the brow ridges are very small or non-existent. As the
human cranium increased in size, the forehead flattened and became
more vertical. As a result, the human brow ridge slowly became smaller
and smaller.

 Jaws, teeth and palate shape

As human beings evolved, their diet changed too. The mainly vegetarian diet
gave way to a more varied one, including the meat of animals they caught.
Once they learnt to control fire and cook their food (making it softer and easier
to chew), the jaws, teeth and palate shape changed, as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14: the palate shape and size of canines for chimpanzees and humans

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  Palate shape:
o a chimpanzee / ape palate is long, and rectangular
o the human palate is smaller, almost semi-circular

 Canines (sometimes called ‘pointed tooth’, or eye tooth) as illustrated:

o The canines for chimpanzees are quite large and pointed.
o Human canines are small. Eating softer, cooked foods, the need
for large canines and strong jaws to tear and chew food slowly
disappeared, leading to the reduction in size we see today.

 Jaws: as is clear from Figure 14 above

o the jaws of chimpanzees and apes protrude forward beyond a
vertical line through the eye. We use the term prognathous to
describe this. Thus, chimpanzees have more protruding jaws,
they have prognathous jaws.
o By comparison, humans have relatively small jaws that are less
protruding, less prognathous.

 Cranial ridge – a ridge running across the top of the cranium as shown in
Figure 15 below.
A cranial ridge serves as attachment for the muscles involved with chewing.
Adult animals who rely on powerful biting and the clenching of their teeth have
a very large cranial ridge.
In the evolutionary development of modern humans, with a change in diet to
cooked foods that were easier to chew, their jaws became much smaller and
they no longer needed large jaw muscles. And so, the cranial ridge became
redundant and disappeared.

Figure 15: Cranial ridge on a Paranthropus skull and on a gorilla skull

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 Table 1: Summary of differences between modern humans and African apes.

Feature Humans (Homo sapiens) African apes

cranium large cranium / brain small cranium / brain
brow ridges not well developed well developed, prominent
spine more curved (S-shaped) less curved (C-shaped)
pelvic girdle short and wide long and narrow
canines small large
arrangement of
small gaps between teeth big gaps between teeth
teeth
palate shape small, semi-circular long, rectangular
jaws small, less prognathous large, more prognathous
cranial ridges none across top of cranium
foramen magnum in a forward position in a backward position

Activity 2: Anatomical differences and similarities between African apes and

modern humans

1. Name five characteristics that all hominids share, and name three differences
between humans and chimpanzees. (8)
2. Explain the meaning of the term ‘opposable thumb’ in your own words. (2)
3. Explain bipedalism in your own words. Is bipedalism simply the ability to
stand on two feet? (3)
4. Name four advantages of bipedalism. (4)
5. Explain the meaning of binocular vision and depth perception. (4)
6. Use a sketch to illustrate the meaning of the term ‘prognathous’. (3)
7. Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the evolution of the palate shape and
teeth from chimpanzee to modern human. The diagram should include at
least three visible differences. (6)
8. The diagram shows the skulls of two different primate species.

The arrows point to

the position of a
crucial part of the
skull. Answer the
questions below.

303
 a) What part of the skull are the arrows pointing to in both cases? (1)
b) Which species, A or B, is more likely to be a quadruped? Explain. (3)
c) Tabulate 4 directly observable differences between the two skulls. (5)
d) Explain how the change in the skulls pictured above might indicate a
change in intelligence. (3)

9. The diagram below gives parts of the skeletons of a human and an ape.
a) Which letter, A or B, best represents a bipedal organism? (1)
b) Explain how the shape of the pelvis contributes to bipedalism. (2)
c) Which other characteristic shown in the diagram below contributes to
bipedalism? (2)

(47)

Lines of evidence that support the idea of common

ancestors for living hominids including humans

Here we focus on the progressive evolution of the above characteristics from the
ape-like beings to the humans, using fossil, genetic and cultural evidence to support
the idea of common ancestors for living hominids including humans. Before studying
the major phases of human (hominin) evolution, some terminology, associated with
human evolution must be explained first.

304
Fossil evidence

Key terminology
hominin The group consisting of modern and early humans
pithecus Greek word of ‘ape’
Biological classification ranking between family and
genus species, consisting of structurally or phylogenetically
related species
A group of organisms that are genetically similar, can
species
interbreed and produce fertile offspring
For all entries below, the first name: Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo
refers to the genus, the second name, e.g. ramidus, refers to the species.
Ardipithecus – ardi means ‘ground’, or ‘floor’, and
Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus means ‘root’: the name refers to the closeness
of this species to the roots / origins of humanity
Australophitecus Australis is the Latin for ‘southern’, thus southern ape.
A. afarensis afarensis – from Afar, a location in Ethiopia
A. africanus africanus – from Africa (thus southern ape of Africa)
A. sediba Sediba – Sotho word, meaning ‘natural spring’ or ‘well’
A. robustus robustus – meaning robust, strong, sturdy, heavy set.
Homo Latin word for human
H. habilis habilis – meaning skilful, or handy
H. erectus erectus – meaning erect, walking upright
Sapiens – wise, thus H. sapiens the wise human (a
H. sapiens
reference to the large brain)
H. ergaster* ergaster – the Greek word for ‘work’, thus working man
H. heidelbergensis* The names of these species are derived from two towns
H. neanderthalensis* in Europe where these species were first discovered
H. naledi* naledi – meaning star.

The major phases of hominin evolution

Human evolution was driven in part by climate change. Climate has always been
variable and organisms could adapt to slow changes. More rapid changes however,
with a scarcity of resources, placed enormous pressure on all organisms to adapt.
Hominins (humans) survived, and flourished, because of their ability to walk upright,
their larger brain’s ability to communicate, to problem-solve, and to make tools.

305
Here we trace the development of hominins from the genus Ardipithecus that lived
about 5 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, the only hominin species currently
living. This development is traced in Figure 16 below.

Figure 16: The evolution of modern humans – timeframes for the existence of
various hominin species and genera

Understanding human evolution is complex – there is no straight and continuous line

from one species to the next. We only look at a few fossil ‘snapshots’ that suggest
the evolutionary foundations of modern humans.

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Genus: Ardipithecus (Table 2 and 3) – the earliest hominin species (Figure 17)
 A small hominin, weighing about 50 kg; 17
fossils found; an intermediate between apes
and humans

Figure 17: Ardipithecus

ramidus

Table 2: Ardipithecus - stats

Species When existed Fossil site (year) Discovered by
A. ramidus 5 – 4 mya Ethiopia (1993) Tim White

Table 3: Ardipithecus ramidus characteristics

Height 1,2 m tall, with a weight of about 50 kg
Brain size 300 – 350 mL, the same size as adult chimpanzee
Foramen magnum a forward position
Brow ridges large / heavy, as in Figure 17 above
Jaws very protruding, prognathous
Canines smaller than for chimpanzee
Pelvis Adapted for bipedal walking and for climbing trees

Genus: Australopithecus (Figure 18, Table 4

and 5)

Figure 18: The Rift Valley in East Africa.

Fossils for this genus have been discovered only

in Africa, specifically along the Rift Valley and in
South Africa.

Australopithecines lived approximately 4 to 1,6

million years ago.

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Table 4: Australopithecus - statistics
Species When existed Fossil site (year) Discovered by
Ethiopia (1974)
A. afarensis 3,9 – 2,8 mya Donald Johansen
Kenya and Tanzania
A. africanus 3,2 – 2 mya Taung (1924); Sterkfontein Raymond Dart
A. sediba 2,0 – 1,6 mya Malapa Cave (2009) Lee Berger

Famous specimen
 A. afarensis:
Lucy, discovered 1974, lived 3,2 mya – well adapted for arboreal living, but
had ability to walk upright with proper bipedalism
Laetoli footprints, discovered in 1976 by Mary Leakey – clear evidence for
bipedalism (Figure 19)

Figure 19:
Laetoli
footprints

 A. africanus: (Figure 20)

Taung child, discovered 1924 by R. Dart – not initially accepted as hominin
Mrs Ples, lived 2 mya – discovered by Robert Broom at Sterkfontein caves
Little Foot, lived 3,9 – 4,2 mya – a complete skeleton, found in 1997 by Ron
Clarke
 A. sediba: (Figure 20)
Karabo, discovered by Lee Berger – a possible ancestor to the genus Homo

Figure 20: Fossils of (from left to right): Taung child, Mrs Ples and Karabo

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Table 5: Australopithecus – characteristics
A. afarensis A. africanus A. sediba
Height 110 – 150 cm 110 – 135 cm 120 – 130 cm
Brain size 375 – 550 mL 420 – 620 mL 420 mL
Foramen magnum forward position forward position forward position
present, smaller present, smaller
Brow ridges large / heavy
than A. afarensis than A. africanus
Cranial ridge none none none
Jaws very prognathous prognathous less prognathous
Canines large, pointed not very long not very long
intermediate –
fully adapted for fully adapted for
Pelvis bidpedal & tree
bipedal walking bipedal walking
climbing

 Australopithecus robustus (dated 2,0 – 1,2 mya)

Fossils from this particular species have been found only in South Africa. The
classification as Australopithecus is uncertain, and the species, together with
another similar species (A. boisei) from Tanzania, are now identify as of the
genus Paranthropus.

Genus: Homo (2,2 mya to present) (Figure 21 and Tables 6 and 7)

 The genus Homo consists of the one still-living species, Homo sapiens – that
all modern humans belong to, and between 15 – 20 extinct species, including
Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Homo naledi.
 The most significant difference between this genus and Australopithecus – a
much larger brain (about 30% larger)(see Figure 22 below)

Table 6: Homo stats (Figure 21)

Species When existed Fossil site (year) Discovered by
Louis & Mary
Homo habilis 2,2 – 1,6 mya Olduvai, Tanzania (1960)
Leakey
Java, Indonesia (1891)
Homo erectus 2 – 0,4 mya Eugene Dubois
also in SA and Kenya
0,2 mya to
Homo sapiens Omo, Ethiopia (2005) Richard Leakey
present

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 Figure 21: Fossil of (from left to right): Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and
Homo sapiens.

Table 7: Characteristics of the three Homo species

Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo sapiens
Height 110 – 130 cm 160 – 180 cm 160 – 180 cm
Brain size 650 mL 900 – 1000 mL 1200 – 1800 mL
Foramen magnum forward position forward position forward position
present, but not none (see Figure
Brow ridges distinct, but small
pronounced 21 above)
Cranial ridge none small none
Jaws less prognathous less prognathous not prognathous
Canines small small, short small teeth
fully adapted for fully adapted for fully adapted for
Pelvis
bipedal walking bipedal walking bipedal walking

Phylogenetic trees of hominin evolution

We conclude this section by a short review of another example of a phylogenetic tree

310
 Figure 22:
Phylogenetic
tree of human
evolution

4,5

This phylogenetic tree shows aspects of the evolution of Homo sapiens. It shows
very clearly that a number of evolutionary branches, e.g. H. rudolfensis, P. robustus,
etc., became extinct, and more or less when this extinction happened.
The diagram might suggest that there is a single evolutionary line of development
from Ardipithecus ramidus, through A. afarensis, A. africanus, H. Habilis, H. ergaster,
and H heidelbergensis to H. sapiens. However, the process of evolution leads to a
branching pattern of relationships among organisms, not a linear progression.
As the late evolutionary biologist Stephen J. Gould put it, “evolution is a bush, not a
ladder.”

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Genetic evidence to support common ancestry for living
hominids, including humans

Studies comparing the nuclear DNA shared by humans and apes reveal that:
 The genetic difference between modern-day humans is very small. There is
on average only a 0,1% difference – they share 99,9% of the same genes.
 Between humans and apes there is a slightly larger genetic difference, but
they still share the large majority of their genes: between 96,9 and 98,8%
 Studies show that, of the African apes, the chimpanzee is the closest relative
of humans. Chimps and humans share 98,8% of the same genes – there is a
1,2% difference (10 – 12 times larger than the difference between humans).

The analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and the differences that exist between
the mtDNA of two different species enables scientist to determine how long ago the
species separated. Based on such analysis, the following relationship diagram may
be drawn (see Figure 23 below)

Figure 23: Diagram of relationships based on mtDNA comparisons

The study of genetics has proved invaluable in gaining a better understanding of

human evolution and of the origins of hominids. Given the amount of genetic
material shared between humans and other hominids (the apes), they must have
had a common ape-like ancestor who lived approximately 5 – 6 million years ago.

312
Cultural evidence

A very important aspect of human evolution, separating humans from other

hominids, is the development and use of tools.

Figure 24: A monkey using a stone to crack a nut; chimpanzee using a stick to
get at fruit in a box

The use of tools is not exclusive to humans, as illustrated in the images above. (see
Figure 24). Chimpanzees have been observed in the wild using simple tools, e.g.
using a piece of grass or a stick to fish for termites or, using a stone to crack open
nuts.

The manufacturing of tools is unique to humans – belonging to the genus Homo.

The type of tool, and the gradual development of more sophisticated tools, is
illustrated in the diagram below (Figure 25).

 Oldowan tools (from Olduvai Gorge where these tools were first found).

These are the earliest tools, from about 2,6 mya (million years ago), and are
associated with Homo habilis. They consisted of sharp flakes chipped off a
larger core – probably not sharp enough yet to cut raw meat.

 Hand axe: These tools appear around 1,7 mya, and have been found at sites
in Kenya and South Africa. They are mostly associated with Homo erectus.

 Flakes: About 250 000 years ago, early humans began to make smaller,
sharper, knife-like tools and scrapers. These tools, and all further
development, is associated with Homo sapiens.

 About 40 – 50 000 years ago, longer blade-like tools appeared. About 20

000 years ago, humans began to make spears with stone (or bone) tips
attached to a shaft. They also made tools with microliths (small stone chips)
fastened to a shaft with animal sinew.

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  About 5000 years ago, this stone industry came to an end, and was replaced
by copper, bronze, tin and eventually iron in tool-making.

Microliths / stone
tips in shafts
20 000 years ago
increasing complexity

Longer blades
50 000 years ago

Levallois flakes
250 kya – early Homo sapiens

Hand axe
1,7 mya – Homo erectus

Oldowan tool
2,6 mya – Homo habilis

Time (years ago)

Figure 25: A brief history of early human tool making

Two other aspects of culture had a significant impact on human evolution.

 The first is the control of fire (being able to make a fire) to provide warmth, to
allow for the cooking of food, and contribute to social cohesion.

 Art also contributed. The earliest known art dates from about 100 000 years
ago, and the earliest cave paintings (see Figure 26 below), of which we have
an abundance in South Africa, were made some 40 000 years ago.

The purpose of art? Some speculate that art bonded individuals, sustained
relationships for greater reproductive success, and was an attempt at spiritual
development.

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 Figure 26: San / !Kung rock paintings – the eland (right) was of great spiritual
significance to the San people and often featured in their rites of passage

Activity 3: Fossil evidence

1. Explain why our understanding of the sequence of human evolution based on

fossil evidence might change in the future. (2)
2. The image below is of Mrs. Ples.
a) Name three ape-like features of this skull. (3)

b) What clues are there in the image to the brain size of Mrs. Ples. (2)
c) Where was Mrs. Ples found, and by whom? (2)
d) What species did Mrs. Ples belong to, and when did this
species live? (2)
e) The species Mrs. Ples belonged to is extinct. What does this mean? (1)
3. Which genus of early human lived on Earth for the longest time span? How
does this relate to the time span for the other two genera considered? (3)
4. Name three Australopithecine species that lived. For each species, give the
timeframe in which they lived, an example / specimen of the species, and
where, when and by whom the specimen were found. (12)
5. If asked to decide whether a complete skull with jaw-bones was that of
Ardipithecus or Australopithecus, what four features would you examine? (8)

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 6. Study the skulls shown in the image below.

a) Identify the species represented. Species include: H. habilis, A.

afarensis, A. robustus, H. sapiens, H. erectus. (5)
b) List four characteristics of the skull and brain size that you used to
make your selection. (4)
7. Draw a line graph to show the development of brain size from Ardipithecus
through to Homo sapiens. Use the following data.

Species Time frame (mya) Brain size (mL)

Ardipithecus ramidus 5 350
Australopithecus afarensis 3,4 460
A. afarensis 2,6 520
A. sediba 1,9 420
Homo habilis 2 650
H. erectus 1,2 950
H. sapiens 0,2 1500

What conclusion/s can you draw from the graph? (8)

8. The diagram below shows possible relationships between members of the

family Hominidae. Study the diagram, then answer the questions that follow.

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 a) What is the name given to this type of diagram? (1)
b) How many genera, and how many species, are represented? (2)
c) Explain why A. robustus and A. boisei are more closely related than A.
boisei and A. afarensis. (2)
(57)

‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis

The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis states that all modern humans originated in Africa,
and then migrated out of Africa to the rest of the world.

Figure 27: Migration out of Africa into the rest of the world.

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  Approximately 150 – 200 000 years ago, ancestors of Homo sapiens (such as
Homo erectus) evolved into Homo sapiens in eastern and southern Africa.
 About 70 000 years ago, these modern humans spread out, into Europe, Asia
and across the world as illustrated in the map above (Figure 27).

Out of Africa hypothesis is supported by:

 genetic evidence
 the fossil record

Genetic evidence (mitochondrial DNA studies)

Using our current understanding of DNA, its structures and properties, scientists
have analysed human DNA to explore the relationships between humans across the
world.

Figure 28: Mitochondrial DNA found inside

mitochondria within a cell

Geneticists use mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA – Figure 28) to study human origins and
migrations since mtDNA is passed unchanged from mother to offspring. However,
during a person’s life, mutations (changes) to the mtDNA do occur.
Scientists can determine the rate at which such mutations (or markers) take place,
and can then use them as a type of molecular clock to determine the age of a
particular maternal mtDNA lineage. From the studies, we can conclude:
 African populations of Homo sapiens have the greatest number of mtDNA
markers and are thus the oldest.
 The most recent common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all living
humans, must have lived in eastern Africa approximately 150 000 years ago.

Based on markers in non-African populations, scientists believe that modern humans

moved out of Africa about 60 – 70 000 years ago. It would have been an ideal time.

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Due to an ice age, the sea levels on the Red Sea would have been quite low,
allowing Homo sapiens to cross first into the Middle East, then to Eurasia, Europe
and Australia, and about 20 000 years ago into North America.

The fossil record

The fossil record uncovered in Africa thus far points unambiguously to the fact that
modern humans originated and evolved in eastern and southern Africa.
Before examining this record in some detail, studying the major phases of hominid
evolution, we take a look at the main lines of evidence that emerge from that fossil
record. Based on the fossil record, we can state that …
 Fossils from the earliest hominin species, Ardipithecines and Australopi-
thecines, have been found only in Africa and not anywhere else.
 Fossils for the earliest species of the genus Homo, Homo habilis, have also
only been found in Africa.
 Fossil evidence for Homo erectus indicates this species lived in eastern and
southern Africa between 1,9 – 1,4 million years ago. The earliest finds in
Africa are the oldest fossils of Homo erectus discovered anywhere in the
world.
 Finally, Homo sapiens emerged in Africa. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils
were discovered in 2005 near Ethiopia’s Omo River and are dated to between
195 000 and 160 000 years ago.

Fossil sites in South Africa

There are many different fossil Hominid sites found in South Africa; but we will only
focus on the Cradle of Humankind.

 The Cradle of humankind includes different sites (see Figure 29 below).

These sites have yielded more hominin fossils than any other site.

 The Cradle of Humankind is situated in Gauteng Province, north-west of

Johannesburg which includes 15 different sites

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 Figure 29: Important fossil sites in South Africa

The discussion will only focus on 5 of the 15 sites:

1. Sterkfontein caves: First hominin discovery in 1936, and since then,

about 500 hominin fossils have been found there. This represents almost
40% of all hominin fossils found world-wide. Famous fossils:

o In 1947, Robert Broom (Figure 30) discovered Mrs Ples, the most
complete skull of the species Australopithecus africanus.

o In 1997, Ron Clarke (Figure 30), working with Stephen Motsumi and
Nkwane Molefe, discovered Little Foot, about 4,2 – 3,9 million years
old – the oldest fossil remains from the Cradle of Humankind.
o In 2013, Lee Berger and his team excavated about 1550 fossils (at
least 15 individuals) of Homo naledi, a species of hominin not known
previously.

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 Figure 30: Eminent SA palaeontologists (from left to right) – Raymond Dart,
Robert Broom, Ron Clarke.

2. Swartkrans – largest sample of Paranthropus robustus fossils anywhere,

with numerous homo fossils as well. The oldest fossils date from 2,1 – 1,9
mya.
3. Kromdraai – in 1938, the first discovery of Paranthropus robustus,
identified by Robert Broom. 29 hominin specimen, dated 2 – 1,8 mya have
been found there, with stone tools from around 1 mya.
4. Malapa – Karabo (Homo sediba), dated 2 mya – a transitional species
linking A. afarensis and the earliest form of the genus Homo.
5. Other sites: Drimolen, Plover’s Lake, and Gladysvale.

The importance of the Cradle of Humankind

The Cradle of Humankind is a world’s heritage site for these reasons:

 Australopithecus africanus
o The first adult skull was found at Sterkfontein in 1936. A virtually
complete skeleton (Little Foot) was found there in 1997.
o The fossils found at Sterkfontein are spread over a longer timeframe
than elsewhere (1 million years from 3 – 2 million years ago). The
species is only found in South Africa.
o It is an early ancestor of the genus Homo.

 Paranthropus robustus
o Found at Kromdraai in 1938, and subsequently at Swartkrans. This
species has only been found in South Africa.
o Lived in the same time period as Homo habilis, and fossils of these two
species have been found together at the Cradle of humankind. Could
this point to a speciation event occurring at the Cradle of Humankind?

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  Homo erectus
o The first fossils were found by Robert Broom at Swartkrans. At
Sterkfontein, there is the first and only association of the Homo erectus
with early stone tools such as the hand axe.

Other South African sites

 Taung (North-West Province): Taung child discovered here. It was the first
ever specimen of Australopithecus africanus, and suggested that hominin
originated not in Asia, as previously thought, but in Africa.

 Makapansgat Valley (near Mokopane, Limpopo Province): Research at

Makapansgat was initiated by Raymond Dart in 1947.

 Florisbad: In 1932, T. Dreyer discovered a reasonably complete skull, 260

000 years old, near Florisbad. The skull shows features linking it to both H.
heidelbergensis and to early Homo sapiens – probably a transitional fossil.

 Other South Africa sites include the Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains,
the Blombos Cave and the Klasies River Cave along the Cape coastline.

Other African fossil sites

The Great Rift Valley is a 2000 km long geological feature across Ethiopia, Kenya
and Tanzania. There are numerous fossil sites in the Rift Valley.

Figure 31: Location of the Rift Valley

in East Africa.

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  Ethiopia (Hadar and Middle Awash)
o In 1974, Donald Johansen discovered the first specimen of the species
Australopithecus afarensis at Hadar. Over 360 other skeletons have
been found there since.
o Homo habilis fossils and Oldowan tools were also found there.
o A large number of fossils of the species Ardipithecus ramidus was
found at Middle Awash in the Afar Depression in Ethiopia by Tim White
in 1994.
 Kenya (Turkana and Omo)
o The most complete skeleton of the Homo erectus (the Turkana boy,
dated 1,6 – 1,5 million years ago) was found at Turkana in 1984, by
Richard Leakey.
o Richard also discovered the Omo fossils, remains of modern Homo
sapiens from about 195 000 years ago.
 Tanzania (Olduvai Gorge and Laetoli)
o Louis and Mary Leakey discovered fossils of Homo habilis (dated to
between 2,1 – 1,5 million years ago) here in 1960.
o Mary Leakey discovered fossils – about 1,75 million years old – of
Paranthropus boisei (Nutcracker man) in 1959. In 1976, she found 3,5
million year old hominin footprints at Laetoli, evidence that our early
hominin ancestors walked with a bipedal, free-striding gait.

Activity 4: Out of Africa hypothesis

1. State the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis. (3)

2. Explain why we speak of an ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis, not theory. (4)
3. What evidence is there to support the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis? (9)
4. What is mitochondrial DNA? (3)
5. What factors make mtDNA a useful tool in the exploration of human
evolution? (4)
6. In your own words, describe the importance of the Cradle of Humankind. (4)
7. List two sites in South Africa, but not part of the Cradle of Humankind, where
important fossils remains were discovered. Provide some detail of the fossils
found. (4)
(31)

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Alternatives to evolution

Evolution is a well-established scientific theory based on real-world observation.

Nevertheless, various alternative explanation are proposed. These include:

Creationism

Creationists believe that all life was created individually by a supreme being using
supernatural powers. They do not believe that an existing species evolved from an
earlier species.

Intelligent Design

Proponents of intelligent design do not accept stages of natural selection since

nothing can evolve out of something simple to become more complex. The
complexity of things points to an intelligent cause.

Theistic Evolution

Theistic evolutionists believe in a divine being that created the material world through
the natural processes that we refer to as evolution. Evolution is simply the tool that
the supreme being uses to create the diversity and complexity of life around us. For
theists, science and religion can co-exist.

Literalism

Literalists interpret their scriptural texts literally. Christian literalists take the creation
accounts in the Book of Genesis literally. Literalists embrace a very narrow, more
restricted version of creationism.

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Human evolution: End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write the letter (A–D) next to the question
number (1.1.1–1.1.5) for example 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 A possible explanation for an observation that can be tested is

known as a

A fact
B law
C theory
D hypothesis

1.1.2 The most dramatic change in the evolution of Homo sapiens is

traced in

A loss of body hair

B shortening of the jaws
C shorter legs
D the increase in brain size

1.1.3 How were the first modern humans (Homo sapiens) different from
any of the other hominid species?

A They lived outside Africa

B They lived longer in Africa than any of the other hominids
C They used tools
D They used symbolic thought, represented in language and art.

1.1.4 Which one of the following serves as evidence of cultural evolution in

early Homo species?

A The size of a Homo erectus cranium relative to a Homo sapiens

cranium.
B The presence of ancient stone tools
C Male and female skeletons in the same area
D Animal fossils mixed with hominin fossils.

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 1.1.5 Three related species, X, Y and Z, share a common ancestor.
Species Y and Z share the most recent common ancestor.
Which phylogenetic tree most accurately represents their
evolutionary relationship?

(5 × 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct term / phrase for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 Living primarily in tree

1.2.2 The type of vision shared by apes and humans that allows for depth
perception
1.2.3 The family to which humans belong
1.2.4 The hypothesis which supports migration of human ancestors from
the point of origin
1.2.5 The ability of an organism to walk on two feet
1.2.6 Having a face with protruding jaws
1.2.7 The first hominin that used stone tools sharp enough for cutting meat
1.2.8 The genus to which modern humans belong
1.2.9 The permanent disappearance of a species from Earth
1.2.10 Genetic material used to trace female ancestry
(10 × 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 Found in apes and humans A: claws
B: nails and an opposable thumb
A: Mrs Ples
1.3.2 Fossils found in South Africa
B: Lucy

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 1.3.3 Fossil evidence found in A: Ardipithecus ramidus
Ethiopia B: Australopithecus africanus
A: fossilisation
1.3.4 Study of fossils
B: palaentology
1.3.5 Discovered the fossil called A: Raymond Dart
'Little Foot' B: Ronald Clarke

(5 × 2) = (10)

1.4 The diagram shows the skulls of two organisms; a human and a gorilla.
Study the diagrams (drawn to scale) and answer the questions that follow.

1.4.1 Which diagram (A or B), represents the skull of a gorilla? (1)

1.4.2 Which organism (A or B), is bipedal for most of its adult life? (1)
1.4.3 Name and explain two possible advantages of bipedalism for an
organism. (4)
1.4.4 Tabulate two observable differences between the skull of organism A
and B (5)

1.4.5 Name one similarity between organism A and B which is a

characteristic of primates. (1)
(12)

327
1.5 The diagram below shows possible evolutionary relationships between
hominids. A dotted line indicates the species is extinct.
Pan sp. (chimpanzee)
Ardipithecus ramidus
Australopithecus anamensis
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus africanus
Paranthropus robustus
Australopithecus garhi
Paranthropus aethiopicus
Paranthropus boisei

Time Homo

1.5.1 What is this type of diagram called? (1)

1.5.2 List the different hominin genera shown in the diagram. (4)
1.5.3 According to this diagram, which …
a) genus is most recently evolved? (1)
b) genus of hominin is the oldest? (1)
c) hominin species shares a common ancestor with
Australopithecus africanus? (1)
1.5.4 Give two examples of an Australopithecus africanus fossil found in
South Africa. (2)
1.5.5 Name two Homo species, besides Homo sapiens, that have been
found in Africa. (2)
(12)
Section A: [54]

Section B
Question 2

2.1 Read the following passage, then answer the questions based on it.

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Australopithecus sediba
According to those who discovered the fossil remains of Australopithecus
sediba, this species shared many characteristics with Australopithecus
africanus, from which it descended. The species however also reveals a
number of early Homo features, more so that any other Australopithecus
species. This suggests that A. sediba is possibly ancestral to Homo, though
it may also be an evolutionary dead end.
Like other species from the genus Australopithecus, A. sediba had a
relatively small brain size. The length of the legs, arms adapted for climbing
trees, and details of the teeth also resemble earlier Australopithecines. On
the other hand, the species’ hand with the precision grip of a toolmaker, and
its facial features closely resemble those of early Homo species.
Remarkably, A. sediba had a more human-like pattern of movement than a
fossil attributed to Homo habilis.
The pelvic structure of A. sediba suggests this species walked upright on a
regular basis. The legs and feet however point to a previously unknown way
of walking upright. With each step, Australopithecus sediba turned its foot
inward with its weight focused on the outer edge of the foot.
(adapted from Australopithecus Sediba, [Link]

2.1.1 Who discovered Australopithecus sediba, and where? (2)

2.1.2 A. sediba is described as having a relatively small brain size. What
was the average brain size for this species? (1)
2.1.3 Define the term ‘transitional fossil’. (2)
2.1.4 A. sediba is described as possibly an “evolutionary dead end”. What
is an evolutionary dead end? (3)
2.1.5 According to the passage, Australopithecus sediba had a previously
unknown way of walking upright. What does this suggest for the
evolution of bipedalism? (2)
2.1.6 What is the difference between bipedalism and standing upright?
Use examples to explain. (5)
(15)

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2.2

The diagram above shows the progression of human evolution. Study the
diagram of some early hominin A, B, C, D and E which represent Homo
erectus, Homo sapiens, Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo
neanderthalensis, in no particular order.
2.2.1 Identify each of the above hominid members (A – E) correctly from
the list given above. (5)
2.2.2 Mention any three common characteristics which are shared by the
members represented in the above diagram. (3)
2.2.3 Name the family the above group belongs to, and the collective
name for these members (2)
2.2.4 Supply any three characteristics that make the organism, labelled E
different from other primates. (3)
(13)
[28]
Question 3

3.1
3.1.1 A larger brain size is often associated with a greater intelligence.
Accordingly, Homo neanderthalensis, with a larger brain than Homo
sapiens, should have been more intelligent, and thus better able to
adapt to climate changes. Yet H. neanderthalensis is extinct, while
H. sapiens flourishes. What other factor related to the brain could
explain this? (2)
3.1.2 Explain the relationship between the decrease in the jaw size of
evolving hominin species and their increasing brain size. (3)
(5)

3.2 Scientists use fossils as evidence for human evolution. The brain volume of
some extinct primates has been estimated from their fossils and have been

330
compared to the brain volumes of living primates. The results are shown in
the table below (figures in brackets give mid-point of existence).

Period of Existence Average Brain

Hominid
(million years ago) Volume (mL)

Ardipithecus ramidus 5,8 to 4,4 (5,1) 400

Australopithecus afarensis 4 to 2,7 (3,4) 450

Australopithecus africanus 3 to 2 (2,5) 450

Homo habilis 2,2 to 1,6 (1,9) 750

Homo erectus 2 to 0,4 (1,2) 1 000

Homo neanderthalensis 0,3 to 0,23 (0,27) 1 500

Homo sapiens 0,2 to present (0,1) 1 400

Modern apes 0,2 to present (0,1) 500

3.2.1 Apart from fossil evidence, give two other types of evidence for
human evolution? In each case, give a brief explanation of how the
evidence is used to support the notion of human evolution. (4)
3.2.2 The brain of an organism is not preserved as fossil. How do experts
determine the average brain volume of extinct species? (2)
3.2.3 Calculate the difference in brain volume (in mL) between the two
living primates. Show all calculations. (3)
3.2.4 Draw a line graph to show the evolution of brain size across all
hominin species listed in the table. Use the mid-point of the period of
existence on one axis. Once the points have been plotted, interpret
the graph. (8)
(17)
[22]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [104]

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A FINAL WORD: ASSESSMENTS
The purpose of an assessment is to give an indication of your mastery of a subject.
During the year, informal assessments allow you to be aware of your strengths and
weaknesses, and to identify the areas in which you may need additional help. Formal
assessments allow your parents and teachers to be aware of your progress.
Assessments will measure your understanding of the content, concepts and skills
needed to pass Grade 12.

Informal daily assessments

These occur during the daily lessons, as you check your homework and classwork,
answer questions posed by your teacher or work through questions in a group. This
is where you will be able to become aware of areas that you are struggling in and
take action through extra studying or consulting with peers or your teachers.

Formal school-based assessments

In Grade 12, your final mark is made up in the following way:

Formal Tests (× 1), June and trial exams

25%
Practicals (× 2) and Project / Assignment

Final Exam (external) 75%

Because school-based assessments only count 25% they are often neglected. But
remember, they help to prepare you as best as possible for your final exam.

Assessment Content
Knowing Recalling learned information – details, facts,
40%
science formulas, terms and definitions or procedures.
This will test your ability to expand upon given
Understanding information, either by interpreting, giving an
25%
science example, classifying or summarising, or comparing
different concepts or objects.
This refers largely to your practical skills and your
Applying your ability to follow procedures or given methods, and
20%
knowledge use your knowledge of theory to draw conclusions
from your results
Here you your given knowledge one step further to
Analysis and solve non-routine problems or evaluate a new
15% procedure based upon your background knowledge.
evaluation
You could also be asked to integrate pieces of
information to create a new idea.

332
Examples of useful verbs and what is required of you

Analyse - Separate, examine and interpret

Calculate - Used when a numerical answer is required. In general, you should
show your working, especially where two or more steps are involved
Classify - Group things based on common characteristics
Compare - Point out or show both similarities and differences between things,
concepts or phenomena
Define - Give a clear meaning
Describe - State in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the main points of a
structure / process / phenomenon / investigation
Determine - To calculate something, or to discover the answer by examining
evidence
Differentiate - Use differences to qualify categories
Mention - Refer to relevant points
Name - State something; alternative keywords: give, identify, mention
State - Write down information without discussion
Suggest - Offer an explanation or a solution
Tabulate - Draw a table and indicate the answers as direct pairs

Exam format
Each exam paper is 150 marks and written over 2 ½ hours. Your two exam papers
will be broken up in this way:
 Section A – short answer questions, such as multiple choice, terminology,
statements and response to data. (50 marks)
 Section B – two longer questions broken up into subsections. (50 marks)

Content per exam

 Paper 1
o DNA: Code of Life (18%)
o Meiosis (14%)
o Genetics and Inheritance (32%)
o Evolution (36%)

333
  Paper 2
o Reproduction in vertebrates (5%)
o Human reproduction (27%)
o Responding to the environment – humans (36%)
o Responding to the environment – plants (23%)

Tips and suggestions for examinations

Writing exams can be a source of stress. Here are some ideas to get the most out of
your learning time (pre-exam) and writing time (in-exam)
 Be sure to plan thoroughly. Don’t leave your studying to the last minute, and
try not to procrastinate during your learning time. Prepare a study time table –
allow yourself enough time over the period of 4 weeks – focus on at least 3-4
topics per week.
 Get yourself a study buddy - you will be able to assist one another on difficult
concepts/skills
 Pay careful attention to your theory. Remember that 40% of your exam will be
based on that directly.
 Spend time working through past exam papers and test papers to
familiarise yourself with the basic format. Time yourself during these practices so
that you do not work too slowly.
 Set yourself a goal beforehand to work towards.
 Before the exam, be sure to get enough sleep and eat a decent meal.
 During your exam, consider the marks of each question. You have 150 minutes
and 150 marks so it is 1 mark per minute. It will benefit you if you try to work
slightly faster than this during Section A to give yourself more time in Section B.
 Read each question fully before starting to answer it. Additionally, for Section
B, plan your answers as far as possible, even if just with key word, before
beginning to write.
 Write neatly and be sure to number your questions according to the question
paper.
We wish you every success as you prepare!

334
ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES

Chapter 1: DNA – the code of life

Activity 1: DNA
1. 1 – adenine , 2 – deoxyribose sugar , 3 – hydrogen bonds 
2. 10 
3. Nucleus  and mitochondria 
4. Double helix 
5.  for structure,
×3 - for correct labels P phosphate group

sugar adenine

(11)

Activity 2: DNA replication

1. DNA replication 
2. DNA replication ensures that identical cells, with the same number and type of
chromosomes, can be produced during cell division. 
3. 1 – deoxyribose sugar , 2 – phosphate  , 3 – nucleotide  , 4 - thymine 
4. The process of DNA replication
 Double helix DNA unwinds as the weak hydrogen bonds between the
nitrogenous bases break 
 The two DNA strands separate from each other (DNA unzips) and each
original DNA strand serves as a template to form a new strand 
 Free DNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm attach to the original strand

 The nucleotides attach to their complementary bases (A to T and G to C)

 Each DNA molecule now consists of one original strand and one new
strand 
 The result is two genetically identical DNA molecules; the entire process
is controlled by enzymes 
5. Mitochondrial DNA in mitochondria or chloroplastic DNA in chloroplasts 
(13)

Activity 3: DNA profiling

1. Suspect 2 
2. 3 of the DNA bands match the evidence from the crime scene while none of the
other suspects match. 
3. Any one of … 
 identification of relatives such as paternity testing or tracing siblings
 testing for genetic disorders
 to determine matching tissues for organ transplants
 research into variation in populations
4. Any two of …. 
 DNA samples may be planted or a person could be framed with the use
of false evidence
 Human error can lead to false results
 Only a small amount of DNA is analysed so it may not be unique to one
individual
 Testing standards may not be followed in various private labs
 Invasion of privacy and revealing personal information (5)

Activity 4: Protein synthesis

1. Translation of protein synthesis 
2. a) ribosome  , b) mRNA  , c) peptide 
3. a) C – tRNA  , b) D – amino acid 
4. Transcription 
 section of DNA double helix unwinds as the weak hydrogen bonds between
the nitrogenous bases of DNA break
 DNA unzips (in this section of DNA), and one strand acts as a template
 This DNA template is used to form a complementary strand of messenger
RNA (mRNA) 
 This is done using free RNA nucleotides in the nucleoplasm 
 The mRNA now contains the code for the protein which will be formed 
 Three adjacent nitrogenous bases on the mRNA are known as codons.
These code for a particular amino acid. 
 mRNA moves out of the nucleus through a nuclear pore into the cytoplasm,
where it attaches onto a ribosome. 
(12)
Activity 5: Codons and amino acids
1. 2 
2. CUC 
3. a) TGG  ; b) aspartate 
(4)
Chapter 2: Meiosis

Activity 1: Meiosis I and Meiosis II

1.1 A  1.2 C  1.3 C  1.4 B 
1.5.1 B  1.5.2 C  1.6 D 
(14)
2.1 A only  2.2 B only  2.3 Both A and B  2.4 B only 
2.5 B only  2.6 Both A and B  2.7 None 
(14)
3.1 Meiosis  3.2 Anaphase I 
3.3 2 – centromere  , 3 – centriole 
3.4 crossing over 
3.5 Results from the swopping of genetic material during Prophase I which brings
about genetic variation 
(6)
4.1 Metaphase II 
4.2 Single chromosomes are lined up at the equator  in two cells 
4.3 Crossing over between the maternal and paternal chromosomes results in
genetic variation (different gene combinations) 
4.4 No 
4.5 Only 2 chromosomes – in humans, there would be 23 
4.6 Anther  and ovule 
(8)
5. Meiosis  is vital so that sexual reproduction  can occur. This is due to the
fact that the chromosome number is halved  (diploid to haploid  ). This
allows haploid male and female gametes to fuse  to form a diploid zygote
which has the correct  diploid number. It also allows genetic variation  so
that the offspring has a unique genetic makeup. In this way a better adapted 
offspring could be formed which could lead to evolution.
(8)
(50)
Chapter 3: Reproductive strategies in vertebrates

Activity 1: Fertilisation
1. External fertilisation 
2. The fish are close to each other when they release their gametes  . Many egg
and sperm cells are released to maximise the chances of fertilisation  .
3. Oviparous / Ovipary 
4. The eggs are already in water  , no desiccation (drying-out) will occur  .
5. The chances of fertilisation are reduced as gametes have to meet in water  .
To overcome this challenge, many gametes are produced and released shortly
after each other and while the parents are close to each other to maximise the
chances of fertilisation  .
Offspring do not have a large degree of protection from the external environment
and are easily predated upon  . To overcome this challenge, parents can offer
parental care and defend eggs and juveniles. Offspring are also precocially
developed and well-suited for their environment meaning that they can fend for
themselves  . (10)

Activity 2: Amniotic egg

1. 1 – Amnion  ; 2 – chorion 
2. Temperature regulation; limits mechanical injury; prevents dehydration of the
embryo  - any two
3. The bladder 
4. The foetus is directly connected to the mother via the umbilical cord to the
placenta. Through these structures, the foetus can receive nourishment
(replacing the function of yolk sac)  and release nitrogenous waste to the
mother’s body (replacing the function of the allantois) 
5. The outer shell is porous to allow gaseous exchange but prevents the
desiccation of the embryo as it limits water loss  . The chorion allows gaseous
exchange to take place through the porous egg shell  . The amnion cushions
the developing embryo from mechanical injury  and helps regulate
temperature  and prevents dehydration  . (12)

Activity 3: Parental care

1. a) B  & D  b) A  & C 
2. a) Parental care for precocially developed young would be less intensive as
these young are already mobile at birth and can feed and fend for themselves 
.
 Parental care for altricial young however would require a greater degree of
parental care as these young cannot feed themselves  as their bodies are still
under-developed  . Parents would need to feed and protect these young until
they reach a more developed state  .
b) The bodies of precocial young are well developed. Precocially developed
young’s eyes are open, they have down feathers or fur and can move soon after
birth  . The bodies of altricially developed young however are not as well
developed as their eyes are closed, bodies are naked and have very limited
movement  .
c) In precocial ovoviviparous species’ eggs, more yolk is found to assist in the
development of a well-developed body. This also sustains the young for a longer
incubatory period  . In altricial ovoviviparous species’ eggs, less yolk is found
and the offspring are born sooner, thus being under-developed  .
3.
Precocial development Altricial development
Development of the body well developed under developed
Eyes after birth open closed
Presence of fur / feathers have fur / feathers usually naked
low degree of parental high degree of parental
Parental care required
care required care required.
young usually have
young can move soon
Mobility limited capability to
after birth.
move freely.
Yolk amount in egg greater quantity lower quantity

 - for tabulating answer

 - 2 marks per correct development – one for precocial, and one for altricial
development
(19)
Chapter 4: Human reproduction

Activity 1: Reproductive systems

1. A – urethra , B – vas deferens , C – prostate gland , D – testes , E –
uterus , F – fallopian tube , G - ovary , H – vagina 
2. a) Protects the sperm cell from the acidic environment of the vagina or provides
a fluid medium in which sperm cells can swim/ increases mobility of sperm 
b) place for the foetus to develop ; maintains pregnancy ; assists in child
birth; implantation of the blastocyst ; protects the foetus ; passage for
sperm cells  (any one)
3. serves as a birth canal ; allows for passage of blood  / endometrial lining /
amniotic fluid / placenta; facilitates sexual intercourse  / receives semen;
secretes acid which prevents infections  (any two)
4. to keep the testes at a temperature that is lower than body temperature ,
optimum temperature for sperm production which is necessary for the production
of healthy sperm and so that healthy sperm can survive. 

Activity 2: Gametogenesis
1. In males meiosis occurs in the testes  and in females meiosis occurs in the
ovaries .
2. Gametogenesis is the process in which cells undergo meiosis to form gametes
.
3. Gametogenesis in males is called spermatogenesis  and in females it is known
as oogenesis .
4. Structure of ovum  follicle cells

cytoplasm

layer of jelly

nucleus

1 mark for title, one for actual drawing, 3 marks for any 3 correct labels.
5.
 acrosome  – contains enzymes to penetrate the ovum 
 head  – contains the nucleus with the male genetic information 
 middle portion  – contains many mitochondria to provide energy for the
sperm cell to swim 
 tail  – propels the sperm cell forward / allows the sperm to swim 

Activity 3: Hormones
1. Day 14 (13 or 15 is accepted) 
2. The level of oestrogen decreases sharply or the level of luteinising hormone
increases 
3. a) Graafian follicle 
b) corpus luteum 
4. a) The follicles have developed into the Graafian follicle secreting more
oestrogen  to make the endometrial wall thicker / more vascular
b) Increased levels of oestrogen stimulate the pituitary gland to release more LH
 so that ovulation can occur 
5. a) pregnancy has resulted or the woman is pregnant 
b) no pregnancy or leads to menstruation 

Activity 4: Menstrual cycle

1. oestrogen / follicle stimulating hormone 
2. the lining of the endometrium thickens during this period stimulated by the
increased level of oestrogen or the follicle develops during this period
stimulated by increased levels of FSH ()
3. corpus luteum has not disintegrated, it continues to secrete progesterone so the
endometrial lining remains thickened ()

Activity 5: Fertilisation and development of the embryo

1. A – jelly coating , B – cell membrane , C – cytoplasm , D – head , E –
acrosome , F – nucleus , G – middle part (neck) 
2. a) G  b) E  c) D 
3. The zygote undergoes mitosis  until a ball of cells is formed called the morula
. The morula continues to divide and forms a mass of cells with a hollow cavity
 called a blastocyst . The outer membrane of the blastocyst forms the
chorionic villi which attaches it to the endometrium .
4. Gestation is the period of development inside the uterus between fertilisation
and birth 
Chapter 5: Genetics and inheritance

Activity 1: Traits, genes and alleles

1. a) B  b) A  c) C  d) D and A 
2. Genes code for proteins 
3. Any of the alternative forms of a gene  that may occur at a specific locus 
4. a) homozygous 
b) heterozygous 
5. Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes  , one from the mother
and one from the father  , that have the same length, overall appearance,
and genes, although the alleles may differ 
6. As letters  , uppercase for dominant and lowercase for recessive alleles
7.
Genotype Phenotype Alleles

homozygous dominant Tall  T/T

homozygous recessive  short t/t

heterozygous  Tall  T/t 

8. Homologous chromosomes 

homozygous dominant allele pair (BB) 

gene
loci
heterozygous allele pair (Cc) 

homozygous recessive allele pair (dd) 

Correct drawing 
 (25)
Activity 2: Monohybrid crosses with complete dominance
1.
P1 Phenotype Yellow seeds x Green seeds 
Genotype YY x yy 
Meiosis
G/gametes Y Y x y y 

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype Yy Yy Yy Yy 
Phenotype All (100%) Yellow seeds 
P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (Any 6)

P2/F1 Phenotype Yellow seeds x Yellow seeds 

Genotype Yy x Yy 
Meiosis
G/gametes Y y x Y y 

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype YY Yy Yy yy 
Phenotype Yellow Yellow Yellow Green
seeds seeds seeds seeds 

Genotypic Ratio : 1YY: 2Yy: 1yy (1:2:1)

Phenotypic Ratio: 3 Yellow seeds: 1 Green seeds (3:1)

P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (any 6)

2. Tongue rolling is dominant, and both parents were heterozygous (Rr)  . If

both parents have the recessive allele for non-rolling tongue and the child
received both recessive alleles , one from father (r), and one from mother (r),
then then it creates a genotype for non-rolling tongue (rr). 
(15)
Activity 3: Monohybrid cross with incomplete dominance
1.
P1 Phenotype Grey x Grey 
Genotype BW x BW 
Meiosis
G/gametes B W x B W

Fertilisation Gametes B W
B BB BW
W BW WW
1 mark for gametes 
F1 Genotype BB BW BW WW 
Phenotype Black Grey Grey White 

Genotypic Ratio: 1BB: 2BW: 1WW (1:2:1)

P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (any 6)
2.1
P1 Phenotype Sipho high x Andiswa high
cholesterol cholesterol levels
levels 

Genotype HL x HL 
Meiosis
G/gametes H L x H L

Fertilisation Gametes H L
H HH HL
L HL LL
 - for gametes
F1 Genotype HH HL HL LL 
Phenotype Very High, High, High, Low 
(Cholesterol levels)
 50% * of their children will have high but not extreme cholesterol levels
P1 and F1  Meiosis and Fertilisation  (*1 compulsory + any 6)

2.2 a) 25% 
b) 25%  (15)

Activity 4: Sex-linked diseases

1.
P1 Phenotype: Normal father x Normal mother 
Genotype XHY x XHXh 

Gametes XH Y
Meiosis
XH XHXH XHY
Xh XHXh XhY
1 mark for correct gametes
Fertilisation
1 mark for genotypes

F1 Genotype XHXH ; XHXh ; XHY ; XhY 

Phenotype 50% Normal female; 25% Normal male ;

25% Affected male 

P1 and F1 
Meiosis and Fertilisation  (any 6)

2. The allele for the trait is carried on the X-chromosome  . The Y-chromosome
does not carry the allele for the trait  . Males only have one X-chromosome 
. A male only needs one recessive allele  to be affected, whereas for a female
to be affected both alleles must be recessive  . (any 4)

3.1 The gene  for this disorder is located on the autosome (chromosome number
7) and not on the sex chromosomes / gonosomes  .
3.2
P1 Phenotype: Normal parent x Normal parent 
Genotype Bb x BB 
Meiosis
Gametes B b x B B

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype BB; BB; Bb; Bb 

Phenotype Normal Normal 

P1 and F1 
Meiosis and Fertilisation 
0% chance to have a child with cystic fibrosis  * Compulsory mark
Compulsory 1 + any 5

3.3 To determine their chances of having a child with the disorder  to help them
to make an informed decision  on whether to have children or not.
(20)

Activity 5: Monohybrid crosses using blood types

1.
P1 Phenotype: Father - Blood group AB
x Mother - Blood group A 
Genotype IAIB x IAi 
Meiosis
Gametes IA IB x IA i

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype IAIA ; IAi; IAIB; IBi 

Phenotype Blood group A, A, AB and B 
P1 and F1 
 Meiosis and Fertilisation 

Hence the man with blood group AB cannot be the father of that child
 . * Compulsory mark
(Compulsory 1 + any 5)

2. a) IA  , IB  , i 
b) 2 
c) Any individual inherits one allele from each parent 
d) IA  , IB 
e) Each child has an equal  , i.e. a 25% chance, of having any blood group 
– A, B, AB, or O
(15)
Activity 6: Dihybrid crosses
1.1 Dihybrid  crossing
1.2 a) short  ears; b) pointed  lip; c) EEll or Eell 
1.3 EL  and El 
1.4 Due to random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator  during meiosis
 any one of the two alleles of a characteristic can sort with any two of another
characteristic
The alleles of different genes move independently  of each other into the
gametes 
They can therefore appear in the gametes in different combinations: LE, Le, lE,
le  (any 4)
2.1 Andrew has short fingers while Susan has normal fingers  . Andrew has
straight hair while Susan has curly hair 
2.2 Bh  , bh  (14)

Activity 7: Pedigrees

1.1 2  1.2 ( x 100)  = 14,3% 

1.3 a) XDXd  b) XdXd 

1.4 100% 
2.1 Because they were normal they must each have one dominant allele 
and in order for their children to be affected each parent must have one
recessive allele 
2.2 NN  or Nn 
2.3 The father  would have been affected  if it was sex-linked in order for the
daughter to be affected 
3.1 10 
3.2 a) Dd  b) Dd 
3.3 a) homozygous  b) heterozygous 
3.4 Individual 2 is the grandmother  of individual 12 or
Individual 12 is the grandson  of individual 2.
(19)
Activity 8: Genetic engineering
1. They learnt that what one thinks  will happen is not likely to happen in
reality. 
2. Genetic engineering is expensive  so only rich countries can use it. 
3. Short term
 greater yield  therefore better food security. 
 enhanced nutrient content  e.g. vitamin A in rice.
 easier to grow  as the crop is less likely to get a disease and can grow in
harsh conditions.  (any 2 + 2)
Long term
 possible health  issues due to excessive use of herbicides  or allergic
to ‘new’ gene.
 loss of biodiversity. 
 using genetic engineering for experiments  which push the limits of
ethics and morality  e.g. human genes in mice. (any 1 + 1)
4. If a human gene is incorporated into a vegetable (tomatoes/peppers) and you
eat it  , you are actually also eating a very small part of a human cell  .
5. Recombinant DNA technology 
6. BAD  : “Playing God with nature” in this way could lead to psychological and
social problems.  or GOOD: Could feel special  because you were
created by a unique scientific experiment 
(15)
Chapter 6: Human responses to the environment

Activity 1: The central nervous system

1. A – cerebrum , B – corpus callosum , C – cerebellum 
2. a) C - cerebellum ; b) A  - cerebrum 
3. a) controls breathing, peristalsis, heart beat and swallowing 
transmits impulses from the spinal cord to the brain 
controls less important reflexes such as blinking, coughing, sneezing,
vasodilation, vasoconstriction and salivating  – any two
b) control centre for things such as hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature and
emotions ( - any two)
4. The spinal cord is protected by vertebrae with cartilage discs between them to
act as shock absorbers , by membranes called meninges , and cerebrospinal
fluid  – any two
5. The medulla oblongata would be affected. This could lead to problems with ..
breathing , heartbeat , digestion , communication between the brain and
the spinal cord . (any two)
(15)
Activity 2: Neuron structure
1. motor neuron 
2. A – dendrite , B – nucleus , C – axon , D – myelin sheath , E – cell
membrane 
3. a) transmits impulses away from the cell body 
b) speeds up the transmission of impulses 
4. Dendrites receive the impulse and move them towards the cell body . They
pass through the cell body and are transmitted down the axon.
5. Mark allocation: correct type of neuron – title: a sensory neuron 
correct direction of impulse 
any two correct labels 
(see diagram on next page)
(13)
 Sensory neuron receptor
cell

axon

direction of
impulse cell body

axon terminals

Activity 3: Reflex arc

1. a) E ; b) A ; c) C 
2. a) The receptor detects the stimulus, in this case a pin prick, and generates
impulses .
b) transmits impulses from the central nervous system to the effector to bring
about a response .
3. The spinal cord shortens the reaction time by sending impulses directly to the
effector . The brain delays the reaction  as impulses must travel further,
which could cause injury or even death .
4. a) The receptor would detect the stimulus and generate impulses , however
the impulses would not reach the central nervous system  because the
sensory neuron is cut . The sensation would not be felt and the body would not
be able to respond .
b) The receptor would detect the stimulus and generate impulses  which will
reach the central nervous system . The sensation will be felt but the body will
not be able to respond  because the motor neuron is cut so impulses cannot
reach the effector .
(16)
Activity 4: Practical investigation on reaction times
1. a) gender  b) reaction time 
2. Each trial was repeated five times for each of the participants. 
Relatively large sample size was taken 
3. Same group of learners used 
Same person dropping the ruler 
Same meter ruler 
Same time of day 
4. Boys have faster reaction time than girls.  OR Girls have lower reaction
times than boys.  OR Both girls and boys have the same reaction time.

(8)

Activity 5: The human eye

1. C – pupil , D – iris , H – suspensory ligaments 
2. The cornea is transparent to allow light to enter  and it is curved to allow for
refraction of light .
3. E – contains rods and cones which are the receptors sensitive to light. These
allow for an image to form .
G – pigments absorb excess light to prevent reflection ; blood vessels supply
oxygen and nutrients (any one)
4. a) F  b) A 
5. pupillary mechanism 
the circular muscles of the iris contract 
the radial muscles of the iris relax 
the pupil constricts 
the amount of light entering the eye is reduced 
(14)
Activity 6: Accommodation
1. a) C  b) B 
2. a) short-sightedness  b) concave lens 
3. accommodation
ciliary muscles contract while the suspensory ligaments become slack ;
tension on the lens decreases ; the lens becomes more convex (bulgy) ; this
causes light rays to bend more ; a clear image is formed on the retina 
(9)
Activity 7: Case study on visual defects
1. The person is able to see near objects  but cannot see objects more than 6
metres away clearly 
2. Concave lenses 
3. The protein found in the lens forms clumps that cloud the lens .
4. She would eventually become totally blind .
5. Kayise’s near-sightedness is caused by a lens that cannot adjust adequately to
focus the incoming light (is no longer supple) , and is cloudy . During surgery,
the lens is removed and replaced with an artificial lens . As a result, Kayise
could see clearly without glasses .
6. Light rays enter through the cornea but are not able to be refracted through the
lens correctly . The clouding prevents the refraction of light  and the light rays
are not focused onto the yellow spot , which leads to vision becoming blurry.
7. Long-sightedness / astigmatism ( - any one)
(13)
Activity 8: The human ear
1. a) Eustachian tube ; b) round window ; c) cochlea 
2. ossicles ; transmits vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear ;
amplify the vibrations 
3. a) crista 
b) they detect changes  in speed and direction of the body 
(9)
Activity 9: Balance, hearing and defects
1. a) B  b) C 
2. The stirrup cannot vibrate  and the vibrations will not be transmitted to the
inner ear . The organ of Corti will not be stimulated  resulting in hearing loss.
3. a) E – tympanic membrane , or B – ossicles 
b) C – the cochlea 
4. A virus or inflammation of the inner ear disrupts the transmission of sensory
information from the ear to the brain . This may result in dizziness, difficulties
with balance, with hearing, and lead to a ringing in the ears (tinnitus) .
(10)
Chapter 7: The human endocrine system and homeostasis

Activity 1: Endocrine glands and their hormones

A – hypothalamus ; ADH 
B – pituitary gland ; GH , TSH , FSH , LH , prolactin  – any four for a
total of 20 marks for Activity 1.
C – thyroid gland ; thyroxin 
D – adrenal gland ; adrenalin  and aldosterone 
E – pancreas ; glucagon , insulin 
F – ovaries ; oestrogen  and progesterone 
G – testes ; testosterone 
(20)
Activity 2: Effects of a certain hormone
1. Adrenalin 
2. On top of each kidney 
3. Less blood flow to the gut , as it is not involved in responding to the emergency
. Blood flow is redirected to organs involved in responding to the emergency 
such as: skeletal muscles to improve muscle tone  or heart muscle, for the
heart to beat faster so as to increase the transport of oxygen and glucose
needed for increased respiration .
4. Pupil 
5. The pupil dilates  to allow more light to enter the eye  for clear vision 
during the emergency situation.
(10)
Activity 3: A negative feedback mechanism
1. Thyroid gland 
2. Thyroxin 
3. Stimulate the thyroid gland 
4. High levels of thyroxin are detected  by the pituitary gland which leads to a
decrease  in the secretion of TSH. Thyroid activity is slowed down  / less
thyroxin is produced. Thyroxin levels drop to normal .
(8)

Activity 4: Research task on endocrine disorders

Answers will depend on the hormone you choose to investigate. Your teacher will
provide you with a mark scheme. A possible rubric (mark scheme) is given here:
 Learners Possible
Component
mark mark
Hormone? Where produced? Target area/organ/s 5
Regulation of hormone 5
Normal function of hormone (homeostatic level) 5
Cause of disease (hyper/hypo) 5
Symptoms/Effects 5
Treatment 5
References (at least 3 and correctly cited) 5
Presentation skills (Quality of PowerPoint or poster) 10
Knowledge in answering questions 5
TOTAL 50

Activity 5: Body temperature

1. Hypothalamus 
2. 37,5°C 
3. 10 minutes
4. Most human activity is controlled by enzymes  and enzymes require optimum
temperatures to function 
5. Diagram I 
6. Blood vessels dilated to bring more blood to the surface  and so more heat will
be lost  OR Increased sweat production  which will cool down the body 
Chapter 8: Plant responses to the environment

Activity 1: Phototropism
1. a) Position of the tin foil on the shoot 
b) Shoot growth 
2. Lerato decided on …
the duration of the investigation 
the plant species to use 
the method of recording the results 
the apparatus to use  (any three - mark first three only)
3. Since the tip of shoot B was not covered , the auxins produced at the tip
moved to the shaded side . This stimulated cell elongation on the shaded side
. The shaded side grew faster and bent towards the light source .
4. Lerato ensured the validity of the investigation …
by using the same plant species 
by placing the shoots the same distance from the lamp 
by ensuring that the shoots were both exposed to unilateral light 
by ensuring that both shoots were exposed to the light for the same length of
time 
5. The reliability of the investigation can be improved by …
repeating the investigation 
increasing the number of shoots used for each setup 
increasing the period of the investigation 
(16)
Activity 2: Geotropism
1. Geotropism 
2. Geotropism is the growth of a plant in response to gravity .
3. The role of auxins in geotropism
 When the root is placed horizontally, the auxin concentration will be high on
the lower side of the root 
 gravity attracts auxins 
 More growth occurs on the upper side of the root 
 because auxins on the lower side inhibit growth 
 As a result the upper side of the root grows faster 
 causing the root to bend downwards 
(8)
Chapter 9: Evolution by natural selection

Activity 1: Natural selection

Question 1
1.1 By ensuring that both ponds in an experiment have identical  environmental
conditions  ; by ensuring that there were equal numbers  of predatory fish in
both ponds  (any one correct answer)
1.2 a) the type of predators 
b) average number of spots on each male guppy 
1.3 as a control  , to compare the results between the ponds
to ensure that any changes that occurred  were due to the presence of
predators  and not other environmental factors.
1.4 there is variation  amongst the male guppies
some have more spots  while others have fewer spots 
the ones that have more spots attract predators  and are eaten  by the
predators.
the ones with fewer spots survived  and reproduced to pass the gene for
fewer spots on to the next generation  (any five)

Question 2
2.1 Those that will benefit an organism and make it more successful 
2.2 Selective forces 
2.3 It provides a mechanism for evolution  , explaining that animals are able to
change to a changing environment and that these small changes over time can
result in a new species being formed  that is different to ancestral species.
2.4 The environment actively selects  which organisms are best suited to their
environment  . The ways by which variation arises in a population may be
random but natural selection is a very selective process.
2.5 a) The dark coloured mice  – they will be difficult to spot in the dark  as they
will be well camoflauged at night  in their surroundings
b) The light coloured mice  – lighter colours absorb less heat than darker
colours  . Darker coloured mice will absorb more heat and therefore will be
more “visible” to the snake  .

Question 3
3.1 Direct relationship 
3.2 As the air pollution decreased over time, the percentage of dark coloured moths
 also decreased 
3.3 The pollution caused a black ash to cover the lichen on the birch trees which
made the light coloured moths more visible to predators  and therefore the
population numbers would decrease as predation increased  .
3.4 The light coloured moth population would have increases since lower pollution
levels resulted in less ash on the birch trees, allowing the lichen to grow again
 . Lighter coloured moths are more difficult to see on a light background and
so would not be predated upon .
(30)

Activity 2: Punctuated equilibrium

1. a) No evolutionary change takes place in phase A  – the species is in
equilibrium with its environment .
b) Phase B points to an accelerated evolutionary change  due to rapid
environmental changes .
2. Punctuated equilibrium 
3. During phase B, species with advantageous characteristics, i.e. suitable to the
new environment, survive and reproduce.  Species that do not have
advantageous characteristics die out. Thus the chances of speciation during
phase B are much greater than during phase A .
(7)

Activity 3: Theories of evolution

1. a) The more a part was used, the larger and more dominant the trait became –
the Law of Use and Disuse  .
Acquired changes were passed down to offspring – Law of Inheritance of
Acquired characteristics 
b) Lamarck’s ideas were rejected since he suggested that the acquired
characteristic which an organism gained through its life experience was
transferred to it’s offspring, which is not possible, since the acquired
characteristic does not bring any change to an individuals set of genes  .
c) No  , it laid the foundation that traits could be passed on to offspring and
he attempted to explain how and why species had changed from those in the
fossil record  .
2. a) four observations
 Populations can produce far more offspring than needed 
 Sizes of most natural population and resources remain relatively constant
.
 Natural variation of characteristics among members of the same species
 are evident 
 Some characteristics are inherited and so are passed on to the next
generation 
b)
Organisms produce a large number of offspring  .
There is a lot of variation among offspring as offspring differ from their
parents in minor random ways – for example, in the length of their necks 
.
The offspring with traits / characteristics that make them better suited to the
environment – i.e. with long necks to get to food sources others can’t get to
– will be most likely to survive and reproduce  .
The organisms without the trait are less able to get to the food and so will
die  .
This means that more offspring in the next generation will have longer
necks, a helpful difference. The next generation will have a higher
proportion of individuals with the new trait – long necks  .
These differences – the long necks – accumulate and eventually all
individuals in a population have the new trait 
Over time, together with other minor changes, this process leads to an
entirely new species and evolution by natural selection will have take place
.
c) any two …
Lamarckism Darwinism
Members of a population are all Natural variation within the same
the same  population 
Individuals are able to transform Populations transform over time and
during a life time  only through genetic means 
Individual chooses which traits Natural selection – the environment is
to pass on to offspring; changes the selective pressure causing
are directed to meet survival  change 

3. a) Darwin b) Both c) Lamarck d) Lamarck

 - for each correct answer
(25)

Activity 4: Speciation
Question 1
1.1 the formation of a new species  
1.2 A group of organisms  that are closely related to each other  , and are able
to interbreed and produce viable offspring 
1.3 Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation  
2.1 False – causes populations to diverge  
2.2 True  
2.3 False – they will differ from ancestral species  
2.4 True  
Question 2
1.1 a) Tortoise 2 
b) Tortoise 1 
1.2
 The ancestral tortoise population was separated by a geographic barrier (the
ocean) as they were found on the mainland and an islands 
 There was no gene flow between the populations 
 Each population was exposed to different climatic conditions and different
vegetation types, so that natural selection occurs independently in both
populations 
 The individuals in the populations become very different to each other both
in their genes (genotypically) and their appearance (phenotypically) 
 Even if the populations were to mix again, they will not be able to reproduce
with one another  , since they are now two different species.
1.3 crossing over during Prophase I of meiosis  ; the random arrangement of
maternal and paternal chromosomes  ; random fertilisation of egg cells  ;
random mating 
(26)

Activity 5: Artificial selection and domestication

Question 1
1.1 any four, one mark  each
 produce disease resistant crops
 improve yield of crops
 adapt old crops to grow in adverse conditions
 develop special breeds for particular purposes
 enhance nutritional value and flavour of crops
1.2 one mark for table, one each per correct answer.
Artificial selection Natural Selection
Driven by... man  nature 
Rate of change... faster  slower 
Amount of variation
less  more 
achieved
End result improved crops and suitable to changed
livestock  environment 

1.3 a) the selecting and breeding of organisms  with desirable characteristics 

b) maize (Zea mays) 
c) any two: reduced covering of the seed  ; retention of seeds (kernels) on
the cob  ; erect habit with a single stalk  ; larger ear structure 

Question 2
2.1 True 2.2 False 2.3 True 2.4 False 2.5 False
2.6 False - one mark  per correct answer
(24)
Chapter 10: Human evolution

Activity 1: Phylogenetic trees

1. The Order Primates  and the Family Hominidae 
2. Gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos  any two
3. About 10 million years ago 
4. Hominids are members of the Family Hominidae  and include humans and
early humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans  .
Hominins form a sub-group (tribe) within the Family Hominidae  , and include
only modern humans and early human ancestors  .
5. B 
6. a) a branching diagram or "tree"  showing the evolutionary relationships
among various biological species  .
b) Australopithecus afarensis 
c) Homo sapiens 
d) Homo habilis  , Australopithecus africanus  and Homo erectus  (any
two)
e) Homo sapiens: emerges around 0,5 mya  ; Homo erectus emerged around
1,8 mya  . Time difference = 1,8 – 0,5 = 1,3 million years ago  .
f) Homo erectus  (21)

Activity 2: Anatomical differences and similarities between African apes and

modern humans
1. Shared characteristics: Large brain, eyes in front of head, opposable thumbs,
bare fingertips / nails instead of claws, upright posture, freely rotating arms,
sexual dimorphism  for any five
Differences (human vs chimpanzee): Forward vs backward position of foramen
magnum, curved vs straighter spine, short, wide vs long, narrow pelvis, no vs
prominent brow ridges, C-shaped or semi-circular vs long, rectangular palate,
small vs large canines, orthognathic vs prognathous jaws  for any three .
2. The thumb is opposable if it can touch and exert pressure on the finger pad of
another finger  on the same hand  .
3. Bipedalism or habitual bipedalism is the ability to stand erect and walk comfort-
ably on two feet  , placing one foot in front of the other, slight apart  . It is
more than simply standing on two feet  – many animals can do that for a short
period.
4.  for any four: Hands are free to pick or carry food, to use tools or weapons;
Standing upright, with eyes higher off the ground, gives a better and wider view
 of surroundings, a timelier warning of approaching predators or of potential prey;
Movement becomes easier and more energy-efficient; A more vertical posture
reduces the body’s exposure to sunlight when in an open area; In courtship
behaviour, the male sex organ is readily displayed.
5. Binocular vision: having two eyes  in the front of the head  to view an object.
Depth perception is a function of the brain  that interprets what the eyes see
and recognises shape, distance, etc.  – this is known as stereoscopic vision.
6. prognathous means protruding, as in sketch, the jaws of
the chimpanzee skull extend far beyond the vertical line
running through the eye-socket.
 - for sketch,  - showing jaws protruding

7. Diagram illustrating the evolution of palate shape 

change in canines 
Smaller human teeth 
Changing palate shape 

Canines – humans canines differ

Changing palate shape

Humans have smaller

teeth generally

Chimpanzee vs human palate

8. a) foramen magnum 
b) Species B  . When walking as quadruped, on all fours, the back is almost
horizontal  . To look forward comfortably, the spine needs to go into the skull
towards the back of the base  .
c)  - for table, each observable difference – any four
Skull A (human) Skull B (gorilla)
Brain size large Much smaller
Jaws Orthognathous / flat face Prognathous
Teeth Small, small canines Large, large canines
 Cranial ridge none Present
Brow ridge none prominent
d) The larger the cranium  , the larger the brain is can house / accommodate
 . A larger brain suggests greater intelligence  .
9. a) A 
b) The pelvis is A is shorter and wider (more cup-shaped) than the pelvis in B
 . It is better able to support the weight of vertically stacked organs  , as in a
human.
c) The shape of the pelvis in A and the direction of the hip socket angle the
femur inwards  for maximum load bearing and an efficient, comfortable
bipedal gait  .
(47)
Activity 3: Fossil evidence
1. While numerous fossils have been found, most have only been discovered in the
last 50 years or so. Every fossil find requires study and interpretation, to find out
how it fits into the overall picture  . This is not an easy task, particularly if you
have few pieces of the puzzle  . New discoveries can change our
understanding radically, as has happened in the past already.
2. a) Brow ridge , strongly projecting upper jaw bone , smaller cranium / brain
size  - for any three
b) the size of the cranium  
c) by Robert Broom  , in 1947, near Sterkfontein 
d) Australopithecus africanus  , lived in Africa between 3,2 and 2 million
years ago 
e) Extinct means to no longer exist. No member of the species is still alive  .
3. The genus Australopithecus lived on Earth between 4 and 1,2 million years ago
– a total of 2,8 million years  , much longer than the genus Homo (about 2,2
million years)  , and very much longer than the Homo sapiens species (200
000 years)  . The genus Ardipithecus probably lived for about 1,5 million years.
4. Australopithecus afarensis  : 3,9 – 2,8 million years ago  , Lucy – discovered
1974  , by Donald Johansen at Hadar, Ethiopia 
Australopithecus africanus  : 3,2 – 2 million years ago  , Taung child –
discovered by Raymond Dart in 1924  , at Taung, North West Province, South
Africa  .
Australopithecus sediba  : 2 – 1,7 million years ago  , Karabo – discovered in
2009  , by Lee Berger, at Malapa, South Africa  .
5. Cranium size / brain size  : Ardipithecus had a smaller brain size (350 mL as against
435 – 530 mL) 
The position of the foramen magnum  : for Ardipithecus, it would not be as forward as
for Australopithecus  .
 Considering the dentition, examine palate shape, and the size of canines  .
Australopithecus would have a slightly rounder arch  .
The size of the canines  : larger in Ardipithecus than in Australopithecus 
6. a) 1 – A. afarensis, 2 – A. robustus, 3 – H. habilis, 4 – H. erectus, 5 – H.
sapiens – one mark  for each correct specification
b) Brain size: the larger the brain, the further the species in the stage of
evolution, generally speaking; brow ridges / the shape of the forehead / how
prognathous the jaw is / the size of the jaw – one mark  for each correct
specification
7.
Brain size (cm )
3

5 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 present

Time (million years ago)

Conclusion: the initial brain size development is slow, and then speeds up
exponentially as one approaches the present.  
(this is clearly illustrated by the two lines of best fit drawn through the scatter
plots: the line representing a gradual, more linear brain size development,
and the line showing accelerated development)
 - for correctly drawn graph – scatter plot, position of dots/crosses
 - for correct labelling, axes
8. a) phylogenetic tree 
b) two genera Australopithecus, Homo  and seven species 
c) [Link] and A. boisei share a more recent common ancestor 
(57)
Activity 4: Out of Africa hypothesis
1. All modern humans (Homo sapiens)  originated in Africa  and migrated to
other parts of the world 
2. It is a hypothesis, since it relies on currently available fossil evidence that has
been studied and from which relationships etc. are inferred  . Fossil evidence
yet to be discovered can contradict the presently generally accepted Out of
Africa hypothesis  . This has happened a few times in the past. Some
scientists argue for a multi-regional origin  . A theory is more definitive than a
hypothesis  , hence the Out of Africa hypothesis, not theory.
3. Genetic evidence  – mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother  .
Analysis of mutations / markers on the mtDNA shows the oldest female
ancestors  were living in Africa  , and that all currently living humans are
descended from her  .
Fossil evidence  – the fossils for Ardipithecus, for Australopithecus and for
Homo habilis, have been found only in Africa  . The oldest Homo erectus fossil
 and the oldest Homo sapiens fossil  have also been found in Africa.
4. Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome  found inside
mitochondria  . The mitochondria, and thus mitochondrial DNA, are passed
only from mother to offspring through the egg cell  .
5. Scientists look for mutations in the mtDNA  . The mutations (called markers)
occur at a steady and known rate  . Those with the greatest number of markers
are the oldest human populations (all from Africa)  . Comparing markers
allows scientists also to determined when populations separated from each
other  .
6. The importance of the Cradle of Humankind derives from the abundance of
hominin fossil (40% of all world-wide)  found here. The fossil species found
only here  : Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus  . The first African
fossils of Homo erectus were found here  .
7. Makapansgat Valley  : this cave complex has a significant fossil record, and 40
individuals of the species A. africanus that is only found in South Africa  .
Florisbad  : an almost complete skull of an early Homo sapiens (or of H.
heidelbergensis) – with a cranial volume of 1400 mL – was found there  .
(31)
Image Attribution 5. GMMDC construction – adapted
from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
Cover image by Peshkova (3D rendering, 566585809
digital blue DNA wallpaper), Shutterstock, 6. GMMDC construction – adapted
749136616 from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
566585809
Chapter 1: DNA – The code of life 7. GMMDC construction – adapted
from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
1. GMMDC construction 566585809
2. Designua, Shutterstock 781948435 8. GMMDC construction – adapted
3. Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
Grade 12, Figure 1.1 566585809
4. 4A: Adapted – Udaix, Shutterstock 9. GMMDC construction – adapted
108604994; 4B: Mind the Gap, from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
Life Sciences, Grade 12, Figure 566585809
1.2 10. GMMDC construction – adapted
5. 5A and 5B – GMMDC construction from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
Activity 1: GMMDC construction – 566585809
adapted from DBE Life Sciences 11. GMMDC construction
Past Paper, 2017, Paper 2 12. GMMDC construction – adapted
6. Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock,
Grade 12, Figure 1.2 566585809
7. 7A to 7E: GMMDC construction Activity 1: Mind the Gap, Life
Activity 2: GMMDC construction – Sciences, Grade 12, Figures 2.4
adapted from DBE Life Sciences and 2.7
Past Paper, 2016, September 13. Mind the Gap, Life Sciences,
Paper 2 Grade 12, Figure 2.10
8. GMMDC construction 14. Vanellus Foto, Wikipedia, CC BY-
Activity 3: GMMDC construction – SA 3.0
adapted from DBE Life Sciences 15. GMMDC construction
Past Paper, 2016, September
Paper 2 Chapter 3: Reproductive strategies in
9. GMMDC construction vertebrates
10. GMMDC construction
11. GMMDC construction 1. 1A: Werner, Brigitte, Pixabay,
12. GMMDC construction CC0; 1B: US Fish and Wildlife
Activity 4: adapted from DBE Life Service, Wikipedia, CC0
Sciences Past Paper, 2017, Paper 2. Temaki, Wikipedia, CC BY 2.0
2 3. Richard Smith, Flickr, CC BY 2.0
4. Rice University, Wikipedia, CC BY
Chapter 2: Meiosis 4.0 – adapted
Activity 2: GMMDC construction
Key terminology diagrams: 5. J. Marsh, Staticflickr, CC BY 2.0
GMMDC construction, 6. US Fish and Wildlife Service,
1. GMMDC construction – adapted Wikipedia, CC0
from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock, 7. Qatar&Me, Wikipedia, CC BY 2.0
566585809 8. Alexey Krasavin, Wikipedia, CC
2. GMMDC construction BY-SA 2.0
3. GMMDC construction – adapted
from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock, Chapter 4: Human reproduction
566585809
4. GMMDC construction – adapted 1. GMMDC construction
from Dreamy Girl, Shutterstock, 2. GMMDC construction
566585809 3. GMMDC construction
4. GMMDC construction

366
 5. Adapted from Ducu59us, Chapter 6: Human responses to the
Shutterstock, 117393253 environment
6. Adapted from Ducu59us,
Shutterstock, 117393253 1. GMMDC construction
7. GMMDC construction 2. GMMDC construction
8. Adapted from Marochkina, 3. GMMDC construction
Anastasiia, Shutterstock, 4. CNX OpenStax, Wikipedia, CC BY
433022800 4.0
9. GMMDC construction – adapted Activity 1: GMMDC construction –
from Miucci, Shutterstock, adapted from [Link]
199519034 5. GMMDC construction
10. GMMDC construction – adapted 6. 6A, 6B, 6C – GMMDC
from Marochkina, Anastasiia, constructions
Shutterstock, 433022800 7. Joshya, Shutterstock, 203105053
11. Adapted from Neokryuger, – adapted
Shutterstock, 444640249 Activity 2: GMMDC construction
12. Steve Cymro, Shutterstock, 8. GMMDC construction
332191181 Activity 3: GMMDC construction
13. GMMDC construction 9. Designua, Shutterstock,
685689190 – adapted
Chapter 5: Genetics and inheritance 10. GMMDC construction
11. A and B: Mind the Gap, Life
Table 1 diagrams: GMMDC Sciences, Grade 12, 6.8 and 6.9 –
constructions adapted
1. GMMDC construction 12. A and B: Mind the Gap, Life
Activity 1: GMMDC construction Sciences, Grade 12, 6.10 and 6.11
2. Wikipedia, CC0 – adapted
Table 2 diagrams: Mariana Ruiz, 13. A and B: Гуменюк И.С, Wikipedia,
Wikipedia, CC0 CC BY SA 4.0 – adapted
3. GMMDC construction – adapted 14. A and B: Gumenyuk, I.S.,
from [Link] Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 4.0 –
4. Designua, Shutterstock, adapted
752962399 15. A and B: BruceBlaus, Wikipedia,
5. AFPics, Shutterstock, 378455887 CC BY-SA 4.0 – adapted
6. Ilaria Burlini, Shutterstock, 16. A and B: BruceBlaus, Wikipedia,
687783598 CC BY-SA 4.0 – adapted
7. Adapted from Biology Dictionary, Activity 6: [Link] –
CC BY-SA 3.0 CC BY-SA 4.0 – adapted
8. Mark Robinson, Wikipedia, CC BY DBE, Life Sciences Past Paper,
2.0; TMSpack, Pixabay, CC0; September 2017, Paper 2
TanteLoe, Pixabay, CC0 17. Adapted from Divers Alert
9. GMMDC constructions Network, Anatomy of the Ear
10. Blambca, Shutterstock, 154662770 18. GMMDC construction
11. GMMDC construction 19. GMMDC construction
Activity 7: GMMDC constructions 20. GMMDC construction
12. GMMDC construction 21. Blamb, Shutterstock, 23857687 –
13. GMMDC construction adapted GMMDC
14. Toni Barros, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 22. GMMDC construction – with
2.0 Blamb, Shutterstock, 23857687
15. [Link], CC BY-SA 2.0 23. GMMDC construction – adapted
16. Studio BKK, Shutterstock, from Sakurra, Shutterstock,
1120881782 737695282, and Alila Medical
17. NordNordWest, Wikipedia, CC0 Media, Shutterstock, 98133092
24. GMMDC construction
25. A and B: GMMDC construction

367
 26. GMMDC construction Healthcop – Cretinism; D:
27. Maxx-Studio, Shutterstock, [Link], CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
699866578 17. A and B: GMMDC constructions –
28. Family Hearing, Wikipedia, CC BY- adapted from Joshya,
SA 4.0 Shutterstock, 182603222
Activity 9: GMMDC construction 18. CNX OpenStax, Wikipedia, CC BY
3.0
Chapter 7: The human endocrine 19. GMMDC construction – adapted
system and homeostatis from Blamb, Shutterstock,
327769451
1. Aldona Griskeviciene,
Shutterstock, 1088531576 Chapter 8: Plant responses to the
2. Aldona Griskeviciene, environment
Shutterstock, 1088531576
3. Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, 1. A, B and C: GMMDC constructions
Grade 12, 7.1 – adapted Activity 1: GMMDC construction
4. GMMDC construction – adapted 2. GMMDC construction – adapted
from BruceBlaus, Wikipedia, CC from Disqus, Biology Notes for
BY 3.0 and MEpedia, CC BY-SA IGCSE.
4.0 3. Designua, Shutterstock,
Table 2 diagrams: adapted from 387248392
Tefi, Shutterstock, 323959508; Activity 2: GMMDC construction
Vecton, Shutterstock, 661087420; 4. A: Manthri, Anusha, Shutterstock,
Tefi, Shutterstock, 67846957 1179337225; B: Fabrizio Only,
5. Designua, Shutterstock, Shutterstock, 60095335; C:
189761837 Pixabay, CC0
6. A and B: Tefi, Shutterstock,
67846957; Tefi, Shutterstock, Chapter 9: Evolution by natural
323959508 – adapted selection
Activity 1: Double Brain,
Shutterstock, 686764972 1. Charles Thevenin, Wikipedia, CC0
7. GMMDC construction 2. GMMDC construction – adapted
8. GMMDC construction – adapted from Linnean Learning – Twitter,
from Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, CC BY-SA 3.0
Grade 12, 8.2 3. Leonard Darwin, Wikipedia, CC0
9. GMMDC construction – adapted 4. Chavez, Miguel, Wikipedia, CC0
from Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, 5. GMMDC construction
Grade 12, 8.3 6. GMMDC construction
10. GMMDC construction – adapted 7. GMMDC construction – adapted
from Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, from Wikipedia, CC0
Grade 12 8. John Doebley, Wikipedia, CC BY
11. Alila Medical Media, Shutterstock, 2.5
147789425 9. Ducu59us, Shutterstock,
12. GMMDC construction – adapted 745167673
from Designua, Shutterstock,
281113787 Chapter 10: Human evolution
13. Claire Moore, Wikipedia, CC0
14. GMMDC construction – adapted 1. GMMDC construction
from Mind the Gap, Life Sciences, 2. GMMDC construction – in order,
Grade 12, Section 7.2.2 left to right: Pixabay, CC0;
15. Earl, [Link], CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 DataBase Center for Life Sciences,
16. A: Designua, Shutterstock, CC BY 4.0; Aspen Photo,
292833791; B: Karen Bunjean, Shutterstock, 170032571; CC0;
Shutterstock, 655176013; C: Dutch Designs, CC0; Pixabay CC0
3. GMMDC construction

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4. Thomas Spoerlein, Shutterstock, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 2.5 and
1007996728 CC0; Adam Benton,
5. Africa Studio, Shutterstock, [Link], “Human
357498392 ancestors used tools earlier than
6. Eric Isselee, Shutterstock, previously thought”, CC BY-SA
30906931 3.0.
7. Eric Gevaert, Shutterstock, 26. EcoPrint, Shutterstock, 104024036
11497138 and 695073016
8. A: Mariait, Shutterstock, Activity 3: Usagi-P, Shutterstock,
264973217; B: YWD, Walking 290914883
man png, CC0; C: Eric Isselee, 27. GMMDC construction – adapted
Shutterstock, 51124108 from Crates, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA
9. NoPainNoGain, Shutterstock, 4.0
342125462 28. National Human Genome
10. A and B: Bastian Groscurth, Research Institute, Wikipedia, CC0
Shutterstock, 463116554 29. GMMDC construction – adapted
11. A and B: adapted from Henry using Hontl, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA
vandyke Carter, Wikipedia, CC0; 3.0
Kenan Taylor, Milne Publishing, 30. Smithsonian Institution Archives,
CC BY-SA 3.0 SIA2008-0845, CC0; Wikipedia,
12. A and B: Helen Beare, Australian CC0; Wits University, Wkipedia,
Museum, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 CC BY-SA 3.0
13. Artur Balytskyi, Shutterstock, 31. GMMDC construction – adapted
688267297 using Andreas 06, Wikipedia, CC0.
14. Adapted from Beth Blaxland, Fran
Dorey, Australian Museum, CC
BY-SA 4.0
15. Nrkpan, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0
Activity 2: Mind the Gap, Life
Sciences, Grade 12, 10.9
16. GMMDC construction
17. Tiia Monto, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA
3.0
18. En rouge, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA
3.0
19. D. Pietras, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA
4.0; GMMDC construction
20. José-Manuel Benito Alvarez,
Wikipedia, CC0; adapted – J.
Braga, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 4.0;
Brett Eloff, Wikipedia, CC BY-SA
4.0
21. José-Manuel Benito Alvarez,
Wikipedia, CC0; Thomas Roche,
Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 2.0; Fran
Dorey, Australian Museum, CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0
22. Mind the Gap, Life Sciences,
Grade 12, 10.10
23. GMMDC construction
24. David Bokuchava, Shutterstock,
1007000509; Vincent St. Thomas,
Shutterstock, 235455565
25. GMMDC construction – adapted
from José-Manuel Benito Alvarez,

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