Unit – III

ECOSYSTEM
The interaction and interrelationship between the living community (plants,
animals, and organisms) in relation to each other and the non-living community
(soil, air, and water) is referred to as an ecosystem. Thus, an ecosystem is a
structural and functional unit of biosphere. It is made up of living and non-
living beings and their physical environment.

Term Ecosystem was proposed by British ecologist [Link] in 1935, who

defined it as ‘the system resulting from the integration of all the living and non-
living factors of the environment’.

“Eco-system is defined as a self-regulating group of biotic communities of

species interacting with their non-living environment exchanging energy and
matter.” Study of ecosystems is called as Ecology or the study of organisms in
their natural home interacting with their surroundings is called Ecology.

Definition of Ecosystem: It is a self-sustained and functional unit of nature

consisting of biotic and abiotic factors, where the living organisms (biotic
factors) interact among themselves and also with their physical environment
(abiotic factors).

An ecosystem is generally an area within the natural environment in which

physical (abiotic) factors of the environment, such as rocks and soil, function
together along with interdependent (biotic) organisms, such as plants and
animals, within the same habitat to create a stable system. It possesses all the
characteristics required to sustain life. When we want to conserve species or to
use natural resources in a sustainable manner, we need to focus on ecosystems.
This is because an ecosystem is the minimal grouping of diverse organisms that
interact and function together so as to sustain life.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic
and abiotic components. This includes the distribution of energy in our
environment. It also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that particular
environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

• Biotic Components

• Abiotic Components

The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open

system where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.
Structure of Ecosystem highlighting the biotic and abiotic factors

Ecosystem

Abiotic Factors Biotic Factors

Producers Consumers Decomposers

Biotic Components: Biotic components refer to all life in an ecosystem. Based

Herbivores (primary Carnivores(secondary
on nutrition, biotic components
consumers)
can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs
consumers)
Tertiary Consumers
and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
• Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as
they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all
other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food.

• Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for

food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary
consumers and tertiary consumers.

a) Primary consumers are always herbivores that they rely on producers for
food.

b) Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can

either be a carnivore or an omnivore.

c) Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for

food. Tertiary consumers can also be an omnivore.

 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They

directly thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are
essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused
by plants.

Abiotic Components: Abiotic components are the non-living component of an

ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients,
wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Abiotic factors includes physical and chemical factors.

Physical factors includes sunlight, maximum and minimum temperatures, length

of day, annual rainfall, land, water availability, water currents which have a
strong influence on an ecosystem.

Chemical factors involves major essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen,

phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen, level of toxic substances, salts
causing salinity and various organic substances present in the soil or water
largely influencing the functioning of an ecosystem.

Limiting factors: it includes availability of food, shelter space etc. which can
influence the population of animals and plants.
Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems

and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic
components that involve the exchange of energy.

So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work

together in an ecosystem are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows
from one trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun
flows from producers to consumers and then to decomposers and finally
back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material.
The top-soil is the major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled
back in various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.

Classification/Types of Ecosystem:
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem: Terrestrial and
aquatic.

 Terrestrial Ecosystem: Ecosystems that are found on land are called

terrestrial ecosystem. Different terrestrial ecosystem are
 1. Forest Ecosystem
2.
3. Grassland Ecosystem
4. Tundra Ecosystem
5. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are
the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs.
Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of
grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where
rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type
of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall
and scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

 Aquatic Ecosystem: Ecosystems present in a body of water are aquatic

Ecosystem. These can be further divided into two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial
salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Difference between natural and artificial ecosystems:

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem
It consists of many species of
Here Species diversity is low.
plants and animals.
Genetic diversity is very high. Genetic diversity is very low.
Sunlight is the energy source for Sunlight is the ultimate energy source for plants but
plants and this energy drives all artificial fertilizers and other nutrients are externally
biological cycles. supplied to the soil.
Food chains are simple and often incomplete as
Food chains are long and complex.
other species are killed as pests or weeds.
Ecological succession takes place
No ecological succession.
over time.
Natural nutrient cycling takes
Incomplete nutrient cycling occurs.
place.
It is unsustainable as most fertilizers are made from
non-renewable fossil fuels, and they add to water
It is naturally sustainable.
pollution, biomagnification, and other ecological
disturbances.

Food Chain:
A food chain is like a line that shows who eats whom in nature, as
animals and plants are linked because they eat each other. A food chain is
a simple way to show the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Each step in
the food chain represents an organism that gets its energy by consuming
the previous one. A producer traps the solar energy and then provides the
basic food or energy for all the other life forms in the ecosystem. The
 consumers or animals derive their energy needs directly or indirectly
from the producers (plants). When these producers and consumers die,
the decomposers act on their bodies and return all the various elements
back to the soil, air, and water. The decomposers help in recycling the
materials in the ecosystem so that the process of life may go on and on
like an unending chain.

Definition: The Food Chain is the sequence of living organisms in a

community in which one organism consumes other organisms (living
beings) to transfer food energy. In simple words, A Food Chain is a list of
organisms (living organisms) that shows “Who Eats Whom”.

Food contains energy, the food (or energy) can be transferred from one
organism to the other organism through the food chains. The starting
point of a food chain is a category of organisms called Producers.
Producers are, in fact, plants. So, we can say that almost the food chain
begins with a green plant (or grass) which is the original source of food.

E.g. of Food chain: Suppose there is a field having a lot of green plants (or
producers of food). Now, plants can be eaten up by an insect, the insect can be
eaten up by a rat. The rat, in turn, can be eaten up by a snake, further, the snakes
are eaten up by the birds. And finally, the birds are decomposed by
decomposers. So, we find that there is a sequence (or order) in which one
organism can eat up the other organism (or consume the other organism) to
fulfil its need for food.

1. Grass → Insects → Frog → Snake → Bird

2. Algae (producer) → Protozoa (herbivore) → Small fish (carnivore) → Big

fish (top carnivore)

Important Points about the Food Chain:

Grass (producer) → Deer (herbivore) → Lion (carnivore)

1. Food Chain represents a single-directional or unidirectional flow of

energy. For example, the above food chain tells us that the transfer of
energy takes place from grass to deer and then to lion.
2. The food chain cannot take place in the reverse direction from lion to
deer to grass.
 3. It is very important to note that each organism occupies a specific
position in the food chain. for eg. grass, deer, and lion occupy a specific
position in the food chain.
4. One organism can occur in more than one food chain. For e.g., in the
forest food chain a deer may be consumed either by a lion, tiger, or
jackal.
5. In an aquatic food chain the producer is a minute organism called Algae
and Protozoa is also a minute herbivore.

Some Major Parts of the Food Chain

1. Sun: The sun is the primary energy source for photosynthesis.

2. Producers: The producers convert solar energy into food
(photosynthesis).
3. Consumers: The consumers depend on producers for energy and
nutrients.
4. Decomposers: The decomposers help in the breakdown of organic matter
and recycle nutrients in an ecosystem.

Types of Food Chains

These food chains are interconnected, which leads to the formation of complex
food webs that tell us about the relationship between multiple organisms and
their interactions.

1. Grazing food chain

2. Detritus food chain

Grazing Food Chain

The grazing food chain is also known as the Predator-prey food chain, as it
represents the transfer of energy and nutrients through the consumption of
living organisms. The grazing food chain explains the relationship between
predators and their prey. In the grazing food chain, the chain starts with the
producer such as plants which converts sunlight into energy through
photosynthesis. And ends with the consumers, these consumers can be further
divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers based on their position
in the food chain. A grazing food chain helps regulate population size and
maintain the balance between different species.

Detritus Food Chain

The detritus food chain focuses on the decomposition of organic matter, as it

involves organisms that break down and feed on decaying plants, animals, and
other organic material. The decomposers such as fungi and different types of
insects are at the base of the detritus food chain. These decomposers help in the
breaking of complex organic molecules into simpler substances, and release
nitrogen (through the nitrogen cycle), phosphorus (through the phosphorus
cycle), and carbon (through the carbon cycle) back into the atmosphere. The
detritus food chain is very important for nutrient recycling in the ecosystem. Its
main function is to highlight the importance of decomposers in our
environment.
Importance/Significance of food chains
The following are the importance of food chain:

 Food chains show the intricate relationships in ecosystems.

 Food chains reveal how each organism depends on other organisms for
survival.
 These display what happens when a producer or consumer is lost.
 Food chains help scientists learn more about ecosystems and it also helps
them to make them keep the balance of the ecosystems.
 The food chains are considered as the living components of the biosphere.
 Food chains help to transfer energy from one level to another.
 Through the food chains, transfer of materials and nutrients also takes place.
 The food chain gives a picture of organisms in an ecological community that
are linked to each other through the transfer of energy and nutrients.
 A food chain describes the method in which a particular organism collects its
food.
 Everyone needs the energy transmitted through a food chain in order to
survive.

What is Food Web?

A food web is a complex network of interconnected food chains that represents the
direction of the flow of energy and nutrients among various organisms in an
ecosystem. It represents the complex relationships between producers, consumers,
and decomposers. Organisms are arranged into different trophic levels, with
producers at the base, followed by primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers. All
the organisms including predators, prey, and scavengers interact within this food
web, that influences the population dynamics. Decomposers break down dead
matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. Each level in food web depends
on the lower level for energy and nutrients. Change in one trophic level impacts the
other tropic levels or the whole food web. It shows the dependency of one trophic
level on other and the importance of biodiversity.

Examples of Food Web

Some of the examples of food web are as follows:
Terrestrial Food Web: It represents interactions among organisms in terrestrial
ecosystems.
1. Producers: Plants like Grass and Trees
2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Deer, Buffalo, Cow
3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores that eat Herbivores): Fox, crocodile
4. Tertiary Consumers (Carnivores that eat other Carnivores): Tiger, Lion
5. Decomposers: Bacteria, Fungi
Aquatic Food Web: It represent interaction among organisms in aquatic ecosystem.
1. Producer: Phytoplankton (algae)
2. Primary Consumer: Zooplankton (small aquatic animals that eat phytoplankton)
3. Secondary Consumer: Small Fish (eats zooplankton)
4. Tertiary Consumer: Large Fish (eats small fish)
5. Apex Predator: Shark (top predator in this aquatic food chain)

Flow of energy: The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy
required by all living organisms. This energy is transmitted to different trophic
levels along the food chain and is always unidirectional. This energy flow is
based on two different laws of thermodynamics:

 First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be

created nor destroyed, it can only change from one form to another.
 Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred
more and more of it is wasted.

Food webs are diagrams that show who eats who in a food web, or the energy
transfer between organisms. Food webs are divided into levels called trophic
levels.

Producers are at the bottom of the food web. These are organisms that make
their own food. Producers are usually plants, but can also be algae and even
bacteria. They get 100% of their energy from the Sun. Next in the food web are
the consumers, or organisms that must eat to get energy. Consumers can be
divided into different types. Primary consumers only eat producers. Secondary
consumers eat primary consumers, and tertiary consumers eat secondary
consumers and are considered carnivores.

The ten percent rule of energy transfer states that each level in an ecosystem
only gives 10% of its energy to the levels above it. For example, in a forest
ecosystem, the grass could get 100,00 Joules of energy from the Sun. The
primary consumers that eat the plants can only get 10,000 Joules from the
plants. The secondary consumers that eat the primary consumers can only get
1,000 Joules and finally the tertiary consumers only have 100 Joules available
to them. This explains the structure of many ecosystems. If we go into a forest,
there will be lots of plants. This is because energy is abundant for them from the
Sun. But it's unlikely we will see many tertiary consumers, such as large snakes
or eagles. This is because their population is smaller due to less energy being
available.
Energy in
Trophic Level Organisms
Joules
Producers Phytoplankton, submerged vegetation, vegetation 100,000J
Primary Zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, small fish,
10,000J
consumers herbivorous ducks, mute swans
Secondary Gulls, terns, wading birds, large fish, sea ducks,
1,000J
consumers Tundra swan
Tertiary
Osprey, bald eagle 100J
consumers

Ecological Pyramid :

The graphical representation of the relationship between various living beings at

various trophic levels within a food chain is called an ecological pyramid. The
pyramid is formed on the basis of the number of organisms, energy and biomass, and
just like the name suggests, these are shaped in the form of a pyramid.

The theory of ecological pyramid was suggested by Raymond Linderman and

[Link] Hutchinson. The ecological pyramid is also often known as the energy
pyramid.

The bottom of the pyramid, which is also the broadest part is occupied by the ones at
the first trophic level, that is the producers. The next level of the pyramid is occupied
by primary consumers. This is followed by the next level in the pyramid, belonging to
the secondary and tertiary consumers. The ecological pyramid is also used to explain
how various organisms in an ecosystem are related to one another. The pyramid
ideally shows who is consumed by whom, while also showing the order in which the
energy flows.

The flow of energy in an ecological pyramid is from bottom to top, which means
energy from the autotrophs, who are also the primary producers, goes to the primary
consumers, meaning those who consume these plants. At the next step, the energy
goes to the secondary consumers who eat the primary consumers.
Types of Ecological Pyramid

Ecological pyramids can be of three kinds. These are as follows:

 Pyramid of numbers

 Pyramid of biomass

 Pyramid of energy

1. Pyramid of numbers: This ecological pyramid takes into account the number
of organisms present at each trophic level, making up that level for the
pyramid. The number of organisms decreases while going higher up the
pyramid. The ones at the bottom are the producers who are present in the
largest number and hence form the base of the ecological pyramid. E.g. in
grasslands as well as croplands, no. of producers is higher than the number of
herbivores which is higher than the number of carnivores. Hence the pyramid is
upright. In case of forest ecosystem the pyramid is inverted since no. of
primary consumers in forests is higher than the number of producers.

2. Pyramid of biomass: Biomass is total living material present in any organism.

The producers or the autotrophs have the highest level of biomass in this
pyramid. The next level of primary consumers has lesser biomass than the
producers and similarly, the secondary consumers have lesser biomass than the
 primary consumers. As a result, the level of the pyramid that has the least
biomass is at the top of the pyramid.

3. Pyramid of Energy: The pyramid of energy provides the best representation of

the overall nature of an ecosystem. It shows the flow of energy that is in the
direction of the consumers and comes from the producers. This pyramid is
always in an upright form since it signifies the flow of energy within a food
chain, something that is always unidirectional.
Ecological Succession:
Ecological succession is a sequence of changes that occur in an ecological system
over time. It can be defined as the sequence of colonization of species in an ecosystem
from a barren or an unfertile region of land. The first species to inhabit an area are
mosses and lichens. These make the region suitable for the growth of advanced
species like grasses, shrubs, and trees.

The gradual and progressive growth of a species in any given area with respect to its
changing surroundings is called an ecological succession. It is an anticipated change
that beholds the biotic components being an inevitable part of them in the
environment. Ecological succession aims at reaching the equilibrium in the ecological
system. This is achieved by a community called the climax community. To attain this
point of equilibrium constant change (increase or decrease) in the number of species is
observed. The area in which the order of communities undergoes a specific change is
called sere. Each changing community is therefore called a seral community. All
communities around us have undergone ecological succession ever since their
existence was identified. Evolution thus is a simultaneously occurring process along
with ecological succession. Also, the initiation of life on earth can be considered to be
a result of this succession process.
Types of Ecological Succession
These are the following types of ecological succession:

1. Primary Succession
Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as the regions devoid of
soil or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.

When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of
rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil. The soil
then becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the survival of different
animals and progress from primary succession to the climax community.

If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.

2. Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For eg., a climax
community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as
secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall
trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally,
the climax community arrives.

3. Seral Community
“A seral community is a transitional stage of ecological succession progressing in the
direction of the climax community.” A sere, or seral community, is described as the
progression of an ecological community's growth phases from the pioneers to the climax. A
climax community in the ecological community wherein the populations are stable and
coexist in harmony with one another and their surroundings is defined as the last stage of
succession, and it remains basically intact until it is destroyed by a natural disaster or human
intervention. Seral community is substituted by the succeeding community. It consists of
simple food webs and food chains. It exhibits a very low degree of diversity. The individuals
are less in number and the nutrients are also less.

Causes of Ecological Succession

Some important causes may be defined as below:
 Climatic Causes: these can be rainfall, temperature variations, humidity, gas
composition, etc.
 Biotic Causes: the organisms in a community compete to thrive for existence.
Some of them are lost in the process while some new ones are incorporated.
  External Causes: soil conditions are affected by the process of migration,
invasion, and competition amongst various species.

Characteristics of Ecological Succession

Ecological succession has subsequent characteristics:
 It results from the disparity in the physical atmosphere of the community.
 It is a systematic procedure of community development.
 It involves variations in species structure and it increases the diversity of
species.
 Nutrient variation regulates the settlement of new communities.
 Succession operate s in a stabilized ecosystem.

Process of ecological succession

Five Stages of Ecological Succession process are –

1. Nudation – the formation of a bare area or nudation by several reasons, such as

volcanic eruption, flooding, landslide, erosion, etc.
2. Invasion – arrival of the reproductive bodies or propagules of various
organisms and their settlement in the new or bare area.
3. Competition and Co-action – increase in number of species with the limited
space
4. Reaction – modification of the environment through the influence of the living
organism present on it. Reaction causes change in land, soil, water, temperature
of the area.
5. Stabilization or Climax – final or terminal communities become more or less
stabilized for a longer period of time. It can maintain its equilibrium with the
climate of the area. Final community is called the climate community which is
determined by the climate of the region. Examples of climax communities are –
grassland, forests, coral reef.
Grassland Ecosystems
 Grasslands are one of the intermediate stages in ecological succession and cover a part of the land
on all the altitudes and latitudes at which climatic and soil conditions do not allow the growth of
trees.
 Grasslands make up almost a quarter of the total land surface. The types of plants that grow here
greatly depend on what the climate and soil are like.
 Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and quality is poor.
 The low rainfall prevents the growth of numerous trees and shrubs but is sufficient to support the
growth of grass cover during the monsoon.

Tropical grasslands are commonly called Savannas. They occur in eastern Africa, South
America, Australia and India. Savannas form a complex ecosystem with scattered medium-
size trees in grasslands.

Structure/Components of Grassland Ecosystem

The different structural components of the grassland ecosystem can be classified as abiotic
and biotic components.

Biotic Components
 Producers – In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs & shrubs also
contribute to the primary production of biomass.
 Consumers – In a grassland, consumers are of three main types:

 Primary Consumers – The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on

grasses. Herbivores such as grazing mammals (e.g., cows, sheep, deer, rabbit, buffaloes,
etc), insects (e.g., Dysdercus, Coccinella, Leptocorisa, etc), some termites and millipedes
are the primary consumers.
  Secondary Consumers – These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers
(Herbivores). The animals like foxes, jackals, snakes, frogs, lizards, birds etc., are the
carnivores feeding on the herbivores. These are the secondary consumers of the grassland
ecosystem.
 Tertiary Consumers – These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers.
 Decomposers – These include bacteria of death and decay, moulds and fungi (e.g., Mucor,
Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, etc). These bring the minerals back to the soil to be available
to the producers again.

Abiotic Components
 These include the nutrients present in the soil and the aerial environment.
 The elements required by plants are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur.
 These are supplied by the soil and air in the form of CO2, water, nitrates, phosphates and
sulphates.
 In addition to these, some trace elements are also present in the soil.

Flora and Fauna of Grassland Ecosystem

 Grasses are the dominating plants, with scattered drought resistant thorny trees in the tropical
grasslands.
 Badgers, fox, ass, zebra, antelope are found grazing on grasslands that support the dairy and
leather industries.
 Grasslands also support the large population of rodents, reptiles and insects.

Functions of Grassland Ecosystem

They perform certain functions. These are:

 Energy flow through the food chain

 Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
 Ecological succession or ecosystem development
 Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms
 To increase the fertility of the soil and to regulate the productivity of the ecosystem.
 To reduce the leaching of minerals due to low rainfall.

Economic Importance of Grasslands

 Grasslands are the grazing areas of many rural communities.
 Farmers who keep cattle or goats, as well as shepherds who keep sheep, are highly dependent on
grasslands.
 Domestic animals are grazed in the ‘common’ land of the village.
 Fodder is collected and stored to feed cattle when there is no grass left for them to graze in
summer.
 The grass is also used to thatch houses and farm sheds.
 The thorny bushes and branches of the few trees that are seen in grasslands are used as a major
source of fuelwood.
 Overgrazing by huge herds of domestic livestock has degraded many grasslands.
  Grasslands have diverse species of insects that pollinate crops.
 There are also predators of these insects such as small mammals like shrews, reptiles like lizards,
birds of prey, and amphibia such as frogs and toads.
 All these carnivorous animals help to control insect pests in adjoining agricultural lands.

Forest Ecosystem
Study of interdependent relations of flora and fauna in a forest is termed as Forest Ecosystem.
In such ecosystems, the entire interaction happens naturally between all abiotic and biotic
components. The ecological potential of any species depends on their habitat requirements
like temperature, climate, frugality, their lifespan and, reproducing capacity.

Types of Forest Ecosystem

1. Temperate Forest Ecosystem
2. The Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem
3. Boreal or Taiga Forests

There are Producers who prepare food for the entire forest ecosystem. Trees and plants are
thus called the primary producers. Consumers are the one who cannot produce their own
food and thus depend on producers for their food and energy sources. Organisms that only eat
plants are referred to as primary consumers. For example, herbivores such as deer and rabbits
are primary consumers. Secondary consumers feed on herbivores and are called as
Carnivores. Omnivores are the consumers that feed both on plant and animals.

Organisms like worms, microbes, fungi, ants, and other bugs are called Decomposers as they
break down the plant and animal wastes into small particles which ultimately blends with the
environment. Human beings are omnivores as they feed on both flora and fauna and thus are
a part of this forest ecosystem.

Forest Biome
Forests can be divided into 5 main categories, depending on the types of trees found in them.
They are –

1) Coniferous Forest
As the name suggests, the trees found in these forests mainly consists of cone-bearing trees
like the spruce, pine, fir, and hemlock. These are found mostly in the northern parts of North
America, Asia, and Europe.

2) Deciduous Forest

The trees of these forests are broadleaved and are shed between late summer to early autumn.
The leaves are usually green but later acquires yellow, red and orange colours gradually.
These forests are found in America, Western and Central Europe, and Northeastern Asia
where the winters are cold and summers are warm.

3) Mixed Forests

Deciduous and Coniferous trees as both types constitute mixed forests, which are mostly
found in mountainous areas. These are found almost every part of the world.

4) Mediterranean Forests

They are also called scrublands as its temperature is suitable for short oaks and pines to grow.
The Mediterranean forest contains a wide variety of wildflowers and insect-eating birds. This
forest is also termed as “maquis”.

5) Tropical Rainforest

These forests are situated in the areas with hot temperatures like South America, Africa, Asia
and Australia. Thus they are called Tropical and due to continuous rainfall throughout the
year, they are called Rainforests. It is a habitat for various insects, colourful birds and
mammals.

Biotic components of forest ecosystem:

Biotic components of a forest include producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers:

1. The producers are mainly herbs, shrubs and trees.

2. A wide variety of grasses, ferns, creepers, berries, herbs and shrubs are found in
a forest ecosystem.

Herbivores:
 1. Herbivores such as deer, nilgai and elephants feed on grasses or shrubs.

2. Leaf hoppers, bugs, beetles and so on, feed on grasses and leaves of trees.

Carnivores:

1. Carnivores such as tigers, lions and foxes consume their prey largely by
predation.

2. There are also a large number of predatory birds such as eagle and kite.

Decomposers:

1. Decomposers include bacteria and fungi.

2. They derive their nutrition from dead and decaying organisms, which include
both plants (especially leaves fallen on the forest floor) and animals.

Abiotic components of forest ecosystem:

1. The abiotic components of a forest ecosystem include air rich in oxygen, water
contained in several water bodies and organic and inorganic compounds in trees
and soil as well as in the dead remains of plants and animals.

2. Climatic factors such as sunlight, temperature, rainfall and humidity play a

great role in determining the flora and fauna in a forest ecosystem.

3. In temperate forests, the climate changes a lot from summer to winter. In

tropical forests, the climate remains constant throughout the year.

4. Water keeps on circulating in a forest ecosystem.

The desert ecosystem is the planet’s driest ecosystem, and thus, it has less diversity
of life and little vegetation. Being a part of the terrestrial ecosystem, it houses animals
and plants that can live in harsh weather conditions. The desert ecosystem is devoid of
any precipitation and rainfall.

So, the desert ecosystem is a community of non-living and living organisms living and
interacting with each other in an abandoned environment. It’s the interaction between
Abiotic and Biotic Components of this environment. If you are searching for the
desert ecosystem PDF, read on to learn further about its features.

Characteristics of Desert Ecosystem

Here are the characteristics of desert ecosystem:
 Less Rainfall or Precipitation
Less precipitation is a significant desert feature and the reason behind its
dryness. Deserts receive seasonal rainfall that occurs for a small duration (just
around 25 to 30 centimeters).
 Aridity
Aridity implies a deficiency of dry moisture. As it experiences less rainfall, it
results in aridity
 Wind Velocity
Wind velocity is high in this ecosystem. That’s why deserts experience dust
storms or sandstorms of higher intensity, forming sand dunes.
 Extreme temperature
This type of ecosystem experiences extreme hot or cold temperatures during
night and day! The days happen to be hot, while nights are extremely cold.
 Humidity
Its humidity level is low in the daytime, while it turns out to be high during the
nights.
 Population Density
Population density happens to be low in the deserts. And there’s a dearth of
food and water, plus the climatic conditions are harsh which is certainly not
preferable for living.
 Scarcity of water
 As it receives negligible rainfall, there’s a scarcity of water. This shortage of
water makes deserts experience drought for more than six months!

Soil Quality
Deserts are rocky, dry, sandy, and thin. Thus, it experiences low growth in
vegetation. The soil is grey in color that does not have any organic contents
such as phosphorus and nitrogen.

Outlining the Desert Ecosystem Types

Besides dry and hot areas, desert ecosystems also exist in the arid, tropical, and
extremely cold areas. Here are the types:
1. Hot & Dry
This ecosystem comprises dry and hot climatic conditions and receives low rainfall
annually. Extreme variations in the temperature are there where the soil is harsh and
rough. The best dry & hot desert ecosystem examples are South Asia, Central
America, Africa, Australia, North America, etc.

2. Semi-Arid
It’s similar to the prior one. This ecosystem has stable ground, hard rocks, and lesser
sand dunes. Temperature isn’t extreme. The best example of this kind of desert
ecosystem is the Great Basin, which gets a good amount of rainfall.

3. Coastal
It’s found in the large water bodies’ coastal lines such as seas and oceans and affected
by ocean currents. Besides receiving winter fog, the climate is hospitable. Namib in
Africa and Atacama Desert in Chile have a coastal desert ecosystem.

4. Cold desert ecosystem

It comprises abundant rainfall during winters and less during summers. It has chilling
winters and snowfall, shorter summers, and a moderately moist & hot climate. The
ecosystem is covered with snow dunes. The best cold desert ecosystem examples are
Antarctica, the Nearctic realm, and Greenland.

Functions of Desert Ecosystem

Desert ecosystem happens to be a significant part of our planet. And regardless of how
dry or harsh this ecosystem is, it has a function to play. Each function of the desert
ecosystem in the bullet point has a significant part to contribute to the planet.
 It serves as a habitat to multiple species of animals and plants and. These
animals and plants have adapted, and they survive in extreme environments.
 It acts as the carbon sink. That means the bacteria in sands help in storing CO 2

or carbon dioxide in order to prevent it from getting into the atmosphere.

  The ecosystem is a huge source of natural gas, oil, and minerals and.
 Desert ecosystem contributes to the production of salt.
 It’s a perfect ecosystem for preserving the historical belongings of Mother
Nature. So, deserts have huge significance in archaeological discoveries.
 They have unusual landscapes & oases. People get attracted to its scenic beauty
due to its natural formation. Thus, deserts have become a tourist’s favorite
location.
 Desert sands act as the carbon sink. Scientists found that bacteria that are living
in Africa’s Kalahari Desert helps store the carbon dioxide and CO from the air. 2

Aquatic ecosystem:
 Aquatic ecosystems include plant and animal species found in bodies of water. Aquatic ecosystems are
classified based on salinity into following two types: (i) Freshwater (ii) Marine

Freshwater aquatic ecosystem covers only 0.8 percent of earth. Freshwater is further classified into lentic
and lotic habitats.

Lentic Ecosystem

Standing water bodies such as ponds, lakes, bogs, pools and other reserve waters are known as lentic
habitats. A lot of aquatic insects such as crabs, amphibians , shrimps and frogs etc. are the species of lentic
ecosystem.

Lotic Ecosystem

On the other hand, flowing water such as rivers and streams are known as lotic habitats. Lotic ecosystem
mainly refers to flowing water that moves in an unidirectional way. A lot of aquatic insects such as
mayflies, beetles and stoneflies etc. are the species of the lotic ecosystem.

Components of Aquatic Ecosystems:

 Abiotic Components
o Light: Solar radiation provides the energy that keeps the system running. The amount of dissolved or
suspended particles in water, as well as the number of plankton, all influence light penetration. An aquatic
environment can be classified into euphotic (eu=true, photic=light), mesophotic, and aphotic zones based
on the extent of light penetration. In the euphotic zone, plants and animals have plenty of light. In the
aphotic region, there is no light
o Inorganic substances: These are carbon, water, phosphorus, nitrogen, calcium, and other elements like
sulphur depending on the location of the ecosystem. The inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and
oxygen are dissolved in water. Both plants and animals rely on water for food and gas exchange.
Phosphorus, nitrogen, sulphur, and other salts of inorganic nature are present in the bottom bed and within
living organisms as reserves. A very small percentage of these salts can be dissolved

 Organic compounds: Amino acids, humic acids, as well as the broken down products of dead animals and
plants, are some of the natural organic compounds of the aquatic environment. They are partially dissolved
and partially suspended in water

 Biotic Components


o Producers or autotrophs: These synthesize food for all the heterotrophs of the aquatic ecosystem. We can
classify them into two segments:
o Floating microorganisms and plants: These are called phytoplankton (“Phyto”- plants, “plankton” –
floating). They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes, they are so abundant in the water body that they
make it look green in color; e.g., Spirogyra, Ultrix, Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox
o Rooted plants: From the periphery to the deeper layers, these are organized in concentric zones. With
increasing water depths, three distinct zones of aquatic plants can be seen in the following order:
o Zone of emergent vegetation: e.g., Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria
o Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves. e.g., Nymphaea
o Zone of submergent vegetation: For example, the pond weeds such as Hydrilla, Rupia, musk grass etc
o Consumers/Heterotrophs: Consumers are those organisms that derive their nutrients either directly or
indirectly from the autotrophs i.e the producers, for e.g., Tadpole, snails, sunfish, bass etc. These animals
can be classified into the following groups:
o Unattached creatures that live at the air-water interface, such as floating plants, are known as Neuston. For
example, Beetles and back-swimmers
o Periphyton are organisms that cling to the stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances that emerge
above the mud’s surface, such as sessile algae and their associated group of animals
o Zooplanktons are floating animals. For example, Cyclops, Cypris.
o Nektons are creatures that have the ability to float and navigate at will. For example, Fish
o Benthic species are those that live at the bottom of the ocean, e.g., Molluscs, mites, beetle, and some
crustaceans
o Decomposers: They are distributed throughout the entire aquatic ecosystem but live at the water body’s
bed. These are bacteria and fungi, e.g., Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia, that feed on the dead and
decomposing lives

Mineral Nutrient cycles:

We all know that nutrients are the chemical substances that are required by
all living organisms to grow and survive in the environment. Circulation or
exchange of nutrient elements between the living and nonliving components
of an ecosystem is called the nutrient cycle or biogeochemical cycle. The
term biogeochemical cycles represent the interactions among
the organic (bio-) and inorganic (geo-) components and concentrate on the
chemistry (chemical-) and movement (cycles) of chemical elements and
compounds. Nutrient cycling represents the movement of elements through
various forms and their return to their original state.

Characteristics of Nutrient Cycle

The main characteristic features of nutrient cycles or biogeochemical cycles
are:

1. All the subdivisions of the biosphere provide nutrients to the biotic

components.
2. Materials involved in these cycles do not come from outside.
3. There is a specific rate of exchange of each biogenetic nutrient between
biotic and abiotic components.
4. No amount is permanently lost from the biosphere.
 I. Nitrogen cycle:
“Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen
present in the atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.”

Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is

converted into many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the
soil to organism and back into the atmosphere.

It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, de-

nitrification, decay and putrefaction.

Nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen exists
in living organisms, and they get passed through the food chain by the
consumption of other living organisms. Inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in
abundance in the atmosphere. This nitrogen is made available to plants by
symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen into a usable form –
such as nitrites and nitrates.
Stages of Nitrogen Cycle
4. Nitrogen Fixation Process
It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2)
which is primarily available in an inert form, is converted into the usable form -
ammonia (NH3).

During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is
deposited into soils from the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through
precipitation.

The entire process of Nitrogen fixation is completed by symbiotic bacteria.

Nitrogen fixation can occur either by atmospheric fixation- which involves
lightening, or industrial fixation by manufacturing ammonia under high
temperature and pressure conditions. This can also be fixed through man-made
processes, primarily industrial processes that create ammonia and nitrogen-rich
fertilisers.

5. Nitrification
In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria
in the soil. Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help
of Nitrosomonas bacteria species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into
nitrates by Nitrobacter. This conversion is very important as ammonia gas is
toxic for plants.

6. Assimilation
Primary producers – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with
the help of their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions,
nitrate ions or ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and
animal proteins. This way, it enters the food web when the primary consumers
eat the plants.

7. Ammonification
When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is
released back into the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present
in the soil, convert the organic matter back into ammonium. This process of
decomposition produces ammonia, which is further used for other biological
processes.

8. Denitrification
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds make their way
back into the atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen
(N). This process of the nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the
absence of oxygen. Denitrification is carried out by the denitrifying bacterial
species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain
oxygen and gives out free nitrogen gas as a byproduct.

Importance of Nitrogen Cycle

The importance of the nitrogen cycle are as follows:

1. Helps plants to synthesise chlorophyll from the nitrogen compounds.

2. Helps in converting inert nitrogen gas into a usable form for the plants
through the biochemical process.
3. In the process of ammonification, the bacteria help in decomposing the
animal and plant matter, which indirectly helps to clean up the
environment.
4. Nitrates and nitrites are released into the soil, which helps in enriching
the soil with the necessary nutrients required for cultivation.
5. Nitrogen is an integral component of the cell and it forms many crucial
compounds and important biomolecules.

II. Carbon Cycle:

Carbon in the form of CO2 is taken up by green plants as a raw material for
photosynthesis, through which a variety of carbohydrates and other organic
substances are produced. It moves through the food chain and ultimately
organic carbon present in the dead matter is returned to atmosphere as CO2 by
micro-organisms during decomposition. Respiration by all organisms produces
CO2. Plants reuse this CO2 during the process of photosynthesis, thus
completing the cycle.

In recent years co2 levels have increased in the atmosphere due to human
activities such as burning of fossil fuels which has caused an imbalance in the
natural cycle and the world today is facing the serious problem of Global
warming due to enhanced CO2 emissions.