3.1 How many family members have dimples?

10  (1)
3.2 What is the genotype of the individuals?
a) 3 Dd  (1)
b) 4 Dd  (1)
3.3 State whether the following individuals are homozygous or
heterozygous for having dimples:
a) 2 homozygous  (1)
b) 9 heterozygous  (1)
3.4 State the family relationship between individual 12 and individual 2. (1)
Individual 2 is the grandmother  of individual 12 or
Individual 12 is the grandson  of individual 2.

Mutations

A mutation is caused by a permanent change to the DNA of a cell. Mutations can be

harmless, harmful or useful.
You will need to start this section by revising the gene mutations from Chapter 1.1 as well
as the chromosome mutations from Chapter 1.2. Then elaborate on the genetic
diseases that are required namely the autosomal recessive diseases: haemophilia (gene
mutation), sickle cell anaemia (gene mutation), albinism (gene mutation) AND the
chromosomal mutation: Down syndrome.

Biotechnology

It is important to stress that Biotechnology is a broad spectrum of technologies of which

FOUR are required to know:
 DNA profiling (from Chapter 1)
 Genetic Engineering (e.g., recombinant DNA technology)
 Stem Cell technologies
 Cloning

This is a VERY wide field and it is developing very rapidly so new techniques and
breakthroughs are constantly being developed. To keep up to date, you will need to
Google regularly!

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Learners struggle to distinguish between stem cells and cloning. They also mix up IVF
(in vitro fertilisation) with cloning so you have to teach this section carefully.
 Link stem cells to mitosis because these cells are able to GROW into new
tissues by mitosis.
 Cloning is divided into two types:
1. Therapeutic cloning involves stem cells.
2. Reproductive cloning involves making a new organism from a BODY cell
rather than two gametes.
IVF is NOT CLONING because it involves a male and a female gamete and is therefore
sexual reproduction. Fertilisation in IVF takes place in a petri dish (vitro meaning glass)
and not in the body of a female

Activity 8: Biotechnology
1. Read the section of an article below taken from [Link].

In the 1950s, the media were full of information about the great new scientific
miracle that was going to kill all harmful insects in the world, wipe out insect-borne
diseases and feed the world's starving masses. That was DDT.
There are claims that genetic engineering will feed the starving and help eliminate
disease. The question is the price tag. As has been with most technologies, such
as DDT and nuclear energy, the promise of benefit in the short-term is
overwhelmed by long-term disasters.
As more human genes are being inserted into non-human organisms to create
new forms of life that are genetically partly human, new ethical questions arise.
What percent of human genes does an organism have to contain before it is
considered human?
The Chinese are now putting human genes into tomatoes and peppers to make
them grow faster. You can now be a vegetarian and a cannibal at the same time!
What about the mice that have been genetically engineered to produce human
sperm? How would you feel if your father was a genetically engineered mouse?
[Link]

1. What did present day scientists learn from using DDT in the 1950s? (2)
They learnt that what one thinks  will happen is not likely to happen in
reality.
2. Explain what is meant by “the question is the price tag”. (2)
Genetic engineering is expensive  so only rich countries can use it. 

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 3. Explain two short term benefits and one long term disaster of GMO food. (6)
Short term:
 greater yield  therefore better food security. 
 enhanced nutrient content  e.g. vitamin A in rice.
 easier to grow  as the crop is less likely to get a disease and can grow
in harsh conditions.  (any 2 + 2)
Long term:
 possible health  issues due to excessive use of herbicides  or allergic
to ‘new’ gene.
 loss of biodiversity. 
 using genetic engineering for experiments  which push the limits of
ethics and morality  e.g. human genes in mice. (any 1 + 1)
4. What is meant by “you can now be a vegetarian and a cannibal”? (2)
If a human gene is incorporated into a vegetable (tomatoes / peppers) and
you eat it , you are actually also eating a very small part of a human cell .
5. What method could be used to insert human genes into mice? (1)
Recombinant DNA technology 
6. How would you feel if you father was a genetically engineered mouse? (2)
BAD : “Playing God with nature” in this way could lead to psychological
and social problems.  or GOOD: Could feel special  because you
were created by a unique scientific experiment 
(15)

Mitochondrial DNA and tracing genetic links

This section is dealt with in the Evolution chapter. It is based on mutations to the
DNA carried by the mitochondria.

Summary

 Genetics is the study of inheritance.

 Characteristics are passed on from parents to offspring in the form of genes
(sections of DNA).

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 Each characteristic is controlled by one or more pairs of genes found at
particular positions (loci) on the chromatids: one allele is found on the
maternal chromosome and the corresponding allele on the paternal
chromosome. These two chromosomes make up a bivalent (two homologous
chromosomes).
Homologous chromosomes are the same size and shape and carry alleles for
the same characteristics (genes). If both alleles are the same, it is referred to
as homozygous. If the alleles are different, it is heterozygous.
If one allele of a gene pair “overshadows” the other allele, it results in
complete dominance whereby only the dominant allele is expressed in the
phenotype. The recessive allele is only expressed if both alleles are recessive
(homozygous). Examples: tall/short plants, wrinkled/smooth seeds.
If the two alleles “blend” when they occur together to form a NEW phenotype,
it is called incomplete dominance. Example: pink flowers coming from red
and white-flowering plants.
If the phenotype of BOTH alleles are seen in the offspring, it is called co-
dominance. Examples: blood types, spotted cattle.
 Gregor Mendel is the Father of Genetics. His Law of Segregation explains
how the two alleles carried on the homologous chromosomes are separated
into daughter cells (gametes) during meiosis.
 A genetic diagram is a representation of how alleles of a gene are separated
during meiosis and the possible ways in which they COULD combine during
fertilisation to form the offspring. The parents are called the P1 generation.
They produce possible offspring called the F1 generation. If the F1 offspring
breed with each other (inbreeding/self-pollination), they are called the P2
generation (parents of the next generation) and produce offspring called the
F2 generation.
 Sex is determined by a pair of gonosomes. If they are the same (XX), the
individual is female. Males carry one X and a small Y chromosome.
A few characteristics (e.g. hairy ears) and sex-linked diseases are carried on
the gonosomes. Most of the diseases are carried on the X chromosome with
no corresponding allele on the Y chromosome. This makes males more likely
to have a sex-linked disease e.g. haemophilia and red-green colour blindness.
 Genetic diagrams for blood types are very specific: the alleles MUST be
written correctly, i.e. blood group A is controlled by the allele IA, blood group B
by IB and blood group O is i.
Blood groups A and B are co-dominant and group O is recessive to both A and B.

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 Phenotype: Blood group Genotype: possible alleles
A IAIA or IAi
B IBIB or IBi
AB IA IB
O ii

 Pedigree diagrams are used to show the inheritance of a particular

characteristic or disease over a number of generations.
 Dihybrid crosses involve TWO pairs of alleles. It is important to remember
that the diagram will have FOUR gametes and the Punnett square will have 16
possible offspring.
 Mutations arise when there is a change in the DNA strand. These could be
harmless, harmful or useful. Useful mutations could possibly lead to evolution.
Mutations can affect genes or whole chromosomes.
Gene mutations can cause diseases such as haemophilia, sickle cell and
albinism.
Chromosome mutations can occur during Anaphase 1 when bivalent
chromosomes do not separate (non-disjunction). Down’s syndrome is an
example of non-disjunction of chromosome pair 21.
 Biotechnology is the use of organisms or biological processes to improve the
quality of human life. DNA profiling, genetic engineering, stem cells and
cloning are examples of biotechnology.
 Genetic engineering involves moving a gene from one chromosome in one
organism to a chromosome in a second organism. This results in a genetically
modified organism (GMO).
One method which can be used to move the gene is called Recombinant
DNA Technology. This process uses restriction enzymes to cut the DNA
strand and ligase enzymes to attach the gene into the new DNA strand.
 Genetically modified plants and transgenic animals have a number of
advantages most of which concern food security. The disadvantages include
health safety and expense.
 Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to form any type
of tissue. Embryonic stem cells are taken from embryos and have the
potential to form any tissue.
Adult stem cells are mainly found in bone marrow and cord blood but can only
form certain tissues.

126
 Cloning occurs naturally when organisms reproduce asexually or when
identical twins are formed.
Medically, there are two forms of cloning:
 Therapeutic cloning, which uses stem cells to grow a specific tissue e.g.
skin cells.
 Reproductive cloning, which involves the formation of a baby which is an
exact replica of the parent. The baby is made from a somatic cell and not
the fusion of two sex cells.
 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a short section of DNA found in all
mitochondria. Analysis of mutations in mtDNA is useful in tracing the genetic
lineage of the human race. It has been used as proof that humans originated
in Africa and then migrated northwards to other continents.

127
End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A – D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 If a recessive allele on the X-chromosome is passed on to the

offspring it is an example of…

A sex-linked inheritance 
B incomplete dominance
C multiple alleles
D co-dominance

1.1.2 The diagram below shows the DNA profiles of a child, her mother
and four males. There is uncertainty about who the biological father
is. To establish paternity, DNA profiling was conducted.

Child Mother Male 1 Male 2 Male 3 Male 4

Which male is the biological father of this child?

A Male 1
B Male 2
C Male 3 
D Male 4

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 1.1.3 The advantage of cloning is that it…

A will reduce the variation within a population.

B produces genetically identical individuals with desirable
characteristics. 
C will enable offspring to survive under any unfavourable
conditions.
D Is the only scientific technique that is accepted by all religious
denominations and faiths.

1.1.4 In humans, brown eye colour is dominant over blue eye colour. A
mother with blue eyes has two children; a boy with brown eyes and a
girl with blue eyes. The eye colour of the father is…

A brown, because the allele for brown eye colour is sex-linked.

B brown, because at least one of the parents must have brown
eyes. 
C blue, because at least two other members of the family have blue
eyes.
D blue, because at least one of the parents must be heterozygous
for eye colour.

1.1.5 An extra finger in humans is rare, but is due to a dominant gene.

When one parent is normal and the other parent has an extra finger
but is homozygous for the trait, what is the chances that their
children will be normal?

A 0% 
B 25%
C 50%
D 75%
(5 x 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.
1.2.1 Undifferentiated animal cells that can form any type of tissue.
Stem  cells
1.2.2 Type of inheritance where none of the two alleles is dominant over
the other and an intermediate phenotype is produced.
Incomplete dominance 

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 1.2.3 The breeding of organisms by humans to achieve a desirable
phenotype.
Artificial selection  / Selective breeding
1.2.4 The physical appearance of an organism.
Phenotype 
1.2.5 A genetic disorder characterised by the absence of blood clotting
factor.
Haemophilia 
1.2.6 Organisms that have different alleles at a given locus.
Heterozygous 
1.2.7 A human disorder caused by the non-disjunction of chromosome
pair 21.
Down Syndrome 
1.2.8 The type of genetic cross involving two different characteristics.
Dihybrid cross 
1.2.9 The organelle involved in making a spindle.
Centrosome 
(9 x 1) = (9)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 A specific pattern of bands representing
A: DNA profiling
a unique sequence of nucleotides that
B: DNA replication
resemble bar codes
1.3.2 The number, shape and arrangement of all
A: Karyotype
the chromosomes in the nucleus of a
B: Genome
somatic cell
A: Heterozygous
1.3.3 Identical alleles for a trait
B: Homozygous
1.3.4 An allele that is not shown / expressed in
A: Dominant
the phenotype when found in the
B: Recessive
heterozygous genotype
A: Cloning
1.3.5 An example of biotechnology
B: Genetic modification

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 Note: the wording must be exact
1.3.1 A only 
1.3.2 A only 
1.3.3 B only 
1.3.4 B only 
1.3.5 Both A and B 
(5 x 2) = 10

1.4 Read the extract below and answer the questions that follow.

Genetic engineering involves a process whereby a gene is isolated from one

organism and transferred into another organism. This gene can become part
of the new host’s genome. Usually the gene transfer takes place between
organisms from different kingdoms.
For example, a gene from a certain bacterium codes for an enzyme that
deactivated a herbicide (a weed-killer). This gene is isolated from the
bacterium and inserted into the chromosome of a crop plant. The resulting
plant will now be herbicide-resistant.
Before the products of genetic engineering can be sold, many tests must be
done.
Some seed companies have exclusive rights to sell the seeds that they have
genetically engineered. Farmers cannot use seeds harvested from the crops
that they have grown. Farmers must buy seeds from the seed companies
every time they want to plant the crop.
Adapted from Microbiology and Biotechnology, 1994

1.4.1 What is meant by the term genome referred to in the extract.

An organism’s complete set of genes.  (1)

1.4.2 State one way in which genetic engineering described in the

extract differs from selective breeding.
Genetic engineering: involves transfer of genes  from one
organism to another. / (manipulation of DNA)
Selective breeding: Parents with desirable phenotypes are selected
to mate / breed to produce offspring with desirable phenotypes. 
OR
Genetic engineering can involve gene transfer between organisms
from different kingdoms. 

131
 Selective breeding can occur using organisms from the same or
different species within a kingdom.  (2)
1.4.3 Give one reason why the products of genetic engineering must
undergo many tests before they can be sold.
 To assess the risks to human health  / the environment
 To determine if the presence of the transferred gene will affect
the expression of other genes 
 To test the effectiveness  of the product
(Mark first one only) (1)

1.4.4 Explain the value of growing herbicide-resistant crops.

 The spraying of herbicide will kill the weeds  without killing the
crops 
 thus reducing the competition  and increasing the yield. 

(Any three) (3)

1.4.5 State THREE advantages of genetic engineering in crop production

other than those mentioned in the extract above.
 Produce crops that are resistant to adverse conditions  /
drought / disease / pests
 Increase crop yield 
 Change the time for the ripening of fruits 
 Increase shelf life of plant products 
 Improve nutritional value of food 
 Improve the taste  of food
 Developing fruit / plants with desirable characteristics 
(Mark first three only) (3)

1.4.6 Give a reason why seed companies insist that they must have the
exclusive rights to the selling of seeds.
The companies have invested  a lot of time  / money to make the
GM seeds
OR
The companies want to control the seed market  thus increasing
their profit 
(Any one x 2) (2)
(12)

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1.5 Gregor Mendel conducted breeding experiments with pea plants to study the
inheritance patterns of four different traits (plant height, seed shape, seed
colour and seed coat colour).

For each trait, for example plant height, he crossed homozygous tall plants
with homozygous dwarf plants. The offspring in the F1 – generation were
then interbred to form the F2 – generation. He did the same for each of the
other traits.
The results obtained for the F2 – generation are shown in the table below.
Trait Results of F2-crossing Ratio
Plant height Tall: 787
2,84 : 1
(Tall or dwarf) Dwarf: 277
Seed shape Round: 5 474
(Round or X
wrinkled) Wrinkled: 1 850
Seed colour Yellow: 6 022
Y
(Yellow or green) Green: 2 001
Seed coat colour Grey: 705
3,15 : 1
(Grey or white) White: 224
[Adapted from Basic Concepts in Biology, 3rd edition., [Link], 1997]

1.5.1 What is the expected phenotypic ratio for the trait involving two
heterozygous parents?
3:1 (1)
1.5.2 From the results, calculate X and Y. Also state which trait
provided a ratio closest to the expected phenotypic ratio
mentioned in QUESTION 1.5.1. Show all working.
X: Seed shape = = 2,96 : 1  / 2,95 : 1

Y: Seed colour = = 3,01 : 1 

Closest: Seed Colour  / (Y) (3)

1.5.3 Give a possible reason why the ratio selected in QUESTION 1.5.2
was closest to the theoretical ratio.
Y has the largest  sample size  (2)
1.5.4 Using the results, state whether the allele for round seeds or for
wrinkled seeds is dominant.
Round  seeds (1)
1.5.5 State ONE factor that Mendel controlled during these breeding
experiments.
 All plants must be homozygous in P1 

133
  All plants must be heterozygous in P2 
 Same type of plant / species
 Same environmental conditions 
 Same method of pollination 
(Mark first ONE only) (1)
(8)
Section A: [49]
Section B
Question 2

2.1 The diagram shows the pattern of inheritance of deafness in a family. The
letter H represents the allele for hearing and h represents the allele for
deafness.
Hh hh

Jon Linda

Gabby Paul Fiona

2.1.1 How many of each of

Mieke Lyall
the following are
represented in the
diagram?
a) Males 3 (1)
b) Generations 3 (1)
2.1.2 Give the
a) phenotype of Jon Normal hearing  (1)
b) genotype of Paul Hh  (1)
2.1.3 Both Lyall’s parents can hear, yet he is deaf. Explain how deafness
is inherited.
Lyall inherited one recessive allele  from each parent  (2)
2.1.4 Lyall marries a woman is homozygous dominant for hearing. Use a
genetic cross to show the percentage chance of them having a deaf
child.

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 P1 Phenotype Hearing x Deaf 
Genotype HH x hh 
Meiosis
Gametes H H x h h

Fertilisation

F1 Genotype Hh Hh Hh Hh 

Phenotype All hearing 

0% deaf *

P1 and F1 
Meiosis and fertilisation 

1* Compulsory mark + Any 6

OR

P1 Phenotype Hearing x Deaf 

Genotype HH x hh 

Meiosis Gametes H H

Fertilisation h Hh Hh

h Hh Hh

1 mark for correct gametes

1 mark for correct genotypes

F1 Phenotype All hearing 

0% deaf *

P1 and F1 
Meiosis and fertilisation 
1* Compulsory mark + Any 6

(7)
(13)

2.2 Tom and Maria have three children. One of the three children was adopted.
A DNA profile for each member of the family was prepared to determine if
Tom is the father of all three children (Anne, Mary and Steve). The DNA
profiles are given below.

135
 2.2.1 Which one of the children was adopted?
Mary  (2)
2.2.2 Explain your answer to question 2.2.1.
There are no matching bands / bars / patterns  common to Mary
and both of the parents  (2)
(4)

2.3 Humans have different blood groups which are coded for by a number of
alleles. Mary has genotype IAi and her son Joseph has blood type AB.
2.3.1 How many alleles code for blood groups?
3 (1)
2.3.2 Give all the possible genotypes for Joseph’s father.
IAIB  IBIB  IBi  (3)
(4)
2.4 Haemophilia is a genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele on the
X-chromosome. A haemophiliac female marries a normal male. Explain why
all their sons will be haemophiliacs.
 An individual inherits one allele from each parent 
 The Y-chromosome was inherited from the father 
 And the recessive allele / Xh was inherited from the mother 
 Since the mother has two recessive alleles / XhXh
 A son only needs to get one recessive allele to be haemophiliac 
 since the Y-chromosome does not carry any allele to mask  the h allele
(any four × 1) (4)
[25]

136
Question 3

3.1 Coat colour in mice is controlled by two alleles, black (B) and grey (b). Tail
length is controlled by two alleles, long (T) and short (t).

The Punnett square below shows a part of the cross between two mice.
Genotype (i) has been left out.

Parent 1

Parent 2

3.1.1 Give the

a) genotype of parent 1 BbTt  (2)
b) phenotype of parent 2 Black coat  short tail  (2)
c) genotype of offspring (i) BbTt (1)
3.1.2 What percentage of the offspring above is grey with short tails?
0%  (1)

3.1.3 State the genotypes of two gametes from the table above that will
result in offspring that are heterozygous for both tails if fertilisation
occurs.
Bt  bT  (2)
(8)

3.2 A class of Grade 11 learners conducted an investigation to determine the

frequency of dominant and recessive characteristics in their school. The
characteristic investigated was the ability to roll one’s tongue.

The results obtained were recorded in the frequency tree as shown below.

137
 Roll tongue - 800

Learners - 1000

Cannot roll tongue - 200

Frequency tree for tongue rolling

3.2.1 List three steps that the learners need to follow while planning
this investigation.
 Ask permission from the participants and the school principal to
conduct the investigation 
 Determine the sample size 
 Decide on how data will be recorded 
 Decide on data capturers to collect data 

(Mark first three only) (3)

3.2.2 Use the data given in the frequency tree to plot a bar graph.

Number of individuals able to roll tongue

vs those who cannot roll tongue
Number of individuals

roll tongue cannot roll

tongue

Guidelines for marking graph

Criteria Mark
Type of graph (T) 
Caption (C) 

138
 x-axis (equal width of bars AND correct label) 
y-axis (appropriate scale and correct label) 
 (both bars
Plotting (P)
plotted correctly)
(5)
3.2.3 Would you classify the ability to roll one’s tongue as a continuous or
discontinuous variation?
Discontinuous  (1)
3.2.4 Explain your answer to question 3.2.4
There is no range of different phenotypes for tongue rolling  /
there are no intermediates between phenotypes, either one can
roll their tongue or they cannot  (2)
(11)

3.3 The diagram below is a representation of the chromosomes in a human cell.

3.3.1 How many autosomes are in this cell?

45  (1)
3.3.2 This individual is a female. Explain why this conclusion is made.
There are two X chromosomes  / XX / The gonosomes are the
same (1)

139
3.3.3 What evidence is there to show that this individual has a genetic
disorder?
3 chromosomes present in chromosome pair 21  (1)
3.3.4 Identify the genetic order mentioned in question 3.3.3.
Down Syndrome  (1)
3.3.5 Name the process that resulted in this genetic disorder.
Non-disjunction  (1)
(5)

Section B: [24]

Total Marks: [98]

140
Cognitive level distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
2 6 2 10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
9 9
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  2
1.4.3  1
1.4.4  3
1.4.5  3
1.4.6  2
1 10 1 12
1.5.1  1
1.5.2  3
1.5.3  2

141
 1.5.4  1
1.5.5  1
4 4 8
2.1.1  (1 + 1)
2.1.2  (1 + 1)
2.1.3  2
2.1.4  7
2 2 9 13
2.2.1  2
2.2.2  2
4 4
2.3.1  1
2.3.2  3
1 3 4
2.4  4
4 4
3.1.1 a - c   (2+2+1)
3.1.2  1
3.1.3  2
2 6 8
3.2.1  3
3.2.2  5
3.2.3  1
3.2.4  2
1 3 8 11
3.3.1  1
3.3.2  1
3.3.3  1
3.3.4  1
3.3.5  1
4 1 5
20 47 29 2 98

142
CHAPTER 6: HUMAN RESPONSES TO THE
ENVIROMENT

Overview

Time Allocation: 4 Weeks (16 Hours)

This chapter consists of:
1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Human responses to the environment
4. The human nervous system
5. Disorders, injuries and effects of drugs
6. Sense organs – the human eye and the human ear
7. Summary
8. End of topic exercises

Introduction

Humans respond to the environment in various ways to maintain homeostasis,

function efficiently and protect themselves from danger. The human nervous system
as well as receptor organs allows the body to respond.

Key concepts and terminology

 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. These
delicate structures are protected by the meninges which are membrane layers
as well as bone structures.
 The brain contains various sections such as the cerebrum, cerebellum and
medulla oblongata. Each section of the brain performs a different function.
 The spinal cord is an extension of the brain which passes through the
vertebral column. It plays a very important role in reflex actions which protects
the body from harm.

143
  The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerve tissue outside of the
central nervous system. It consists of different types of neurons which are
sensory, connector and motor neurons.
 The peripheral nervous system can be somatic (voluntarily controlled) or
autonomic (automatically controlled).
 A sensory neuron detects changes in the environment and a motor neuron
brings about a response to that change. Neurons are connected by synapses.
 A reflex action is the quick, automatic response of the body to a change in the
environment. A reflex arc is the pathway taken to achieve the reflex action.
 A reflex arc is vitally important to protect the body from harm.
 Receptors are the organs which detect stimuli in the environment.
 The human eye has various structures which each perform a different function
to enable the eye to see. The eye can adapt to the amount of light present
(pupillary mechanism) and the distance at which an object is viewed
(accommodation).
 The ear has various structures which each perform a different function to
enable hearing and balance. The receptor cells within the ear are the organ of
Corti for hearing and the macula and crista for balance.

Key terminology
structure that receives a stimulus and converts it into an
receptor
impulse
gland or organ that brings about a response to stimuli received
effector
by the body
stimulus detectable change in the internal or external environment
electrical signal created by receptor organs in response to
impulse
stimuli
transmit to send something from one place to another
autonomic controls our involuntary bodily functions; it is divided into the
nervous system parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system
peripheral the system of nerves connected to the outside of the central
nervous system nervous system, part of which is under involuntary control

Human responses to the environment

Learners are required to know that humans have two systems that respond to the
environment. The human nervous system and endocrine system function together to

144
enable responses. The nervous system is discussed in this chapter, the endocrine
system is discussed as a separate topic in chapter 7.
This section is an opportunity to use models and diagrams as well as perform
dissections. Learners should be actively involved during their learning of this topic as
they often find it a difficult and detailed section of work to study.
This section can be quite challenging for learners, so teachers should try to teach in
a simple fashion and systematically to ensure learners have a good grounding of a
particular section before moving on. There is a vast amount of detail available,
however learners are only required to know the basics and teachers should bear this
in mind during their presentation of the work, both through visual aids used and
information relayed to learners.

The human nervous system

Key terminology
cranium part of the skull that contains and protects the brain
meninges protective membranes surrounding the brain & spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid fluid around the brain and spinal cord to aid in protection
part of the brain and spinal cord consisting of cell bodies
grey matter
and dendrites
part of the brain and spinal cord consisting of myelinated
white matter
axons
neuron specialised nerve cells which transmits nerve impulses
dendrites fibres that transmit impulses to a cell body in a neuron
nerve bundle of neurons
the gap between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite
synapse
of another
neurotransmitter chemicals which carry impulses across the synapse
disease caused by nerve defects usually in older people
Alzheimer’s disease
and characterised by memory loss and confusion
disease cause by damage to the myelin sheath of neurons
multiple sclerosis
and characterised by physical and mental disabilities
the tendency of living organisms to maintain their internal
homeostasis environment constant within narrow limits irrespective of
changes in the external environments

It is important to focus on the location and function of the nervous systems. For
nerve structure and the reflex arc learners must focus on structure and function as
well as the structural suitability of the part to its function.

145
Learners must be able to identify the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and
the spinal cord in diagrams. The types of neurons must be clearly defined and
learners should be able to identify each type using diagrams. Learners are only
required to know neurons as motor, sensory and interneurons.
The reflex arc is often asked in external examinations. Learners must apply their
knowledge to the scenario laid out in examination.

Activity 1: The central nervous system

The diagram below represents a human brain. Study it, then answer the questions
that follow.

B
F

C
E
D

1. Give the names of the parts labelled A to C. (3)

A – cerebrum , B – corpus callosum , C – cerebellum 
2. Give the letter and the name of the part responsible for:
a) co-ordinating all voluntary movements (2)
C – cerebellum 
b) memorising a cell phone number (2)
A – cerebrum 
3. Give two functions of parts:
a) E (2)
controls breathing, peristalsis, heart beat and swallowing 
transmits impulses from the spinal cord to the brain 

146
 controls less important reflexes such as blinking, coughing, sneezing,
vasodilation, vasoconstriction and salivating  (any two)
b) F (2)
control centre for things such as hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature
and emotions (- any two)
4. Provide two ways in which part D is protected. (2)
The spinal cord is protected by vertebrae with cartilage discs between them to
act as shock absorbers , by membranes called meninges , and
cerebrospinal fluid  (any two)
5. Which functions of the body might be affected if the lower back part of the
head receives a significant impact in a car accident? (2)
The medulla oblongata would be affected. This could lead to problems with ..
breathing , heartbeat , digestion , communication between the brain
and the spinal cord . (any two)
(15)

Activity 2: Neuron structure

The diagram below represents the structure of a neuron.

A B C D

1. Name the type of neuron shown in the diagram above. (1)

motor neuron 
2. Identify the parts A to E. (5)
A – dendrite , B – nucleus , C – axon , D – myelin sheath , E – cell
membrane 
3. Provide the functions of the following parts:
a) C (1)
transmits impulses away from the cell body 

147
 b) D (1)
speeds up the transmission of impulses 
4. Describe the pathway of an impulse through the neuron shown above. (1)
Dendrites receive the impulse and move them towards the cell body . They
pass through the cell body and are transmitted down the axon.
5. Draw a fully labelled diagram to show the structure of a neuron which
receives impulses and transmits them to the central nervous system. (4)
Mark allocation: correct type of neuron – title: a sensory neuron 
correct direction of
impulse 
any two correct labels receptor
cell


Sensory neuron axon

direction of
impulse
cell body

axon terminals

Activity 3: Reflex arc

The diagram below shows the reflex arc.

B C

D
A

148
 1. Give only the letter of the part that represents the:
a) effector (1)
E
b) interneuron (1)
A
c) sensory neuron (1)
C
2. State one function of each of the following parts:
a) D (1)
The receptor detects the stimulus, in this case a pin prick, and
generates impulses .
b) F (1)
transmits impulses from the central nervous system to the effector to
bring about a response .
3. Explain why the brain is not initially involved in the reflex action. (3)
The spinal cord shortens the reaction time by sending impulses directly to the
effector.  The brain delays the reaction as impulses must travel further, 
which could cause injury or even death. 
4. Explain the effect on the body if the following parts were cut:
a) C (4)
The receptor would detect the stimulus and generate impulses ,
however the impulses would not reach the central nervous system 
because the sensory neuron is cut . The sensation would not be felt
and the body would not be able to respond .
b) F (4)
The receptor would detect the stimulus and generate impulses  which
will reach the central nervous system . The sensation will be felt but
the body will not be able to respond  because the motor neuron is cut
so impulses cannot reach the effector .
(16)

Activity 4: Practical investigation on reaction times

Thando conducted an experiment to determine which gender has the faster reaction
time amongst his classmates. Out of 15 learners in his class he randomly selected a
sample of 5 girls and 5 boys. The following steps were followed for each member of
the sample during the experiment:
 Thando held a meter ruler between his thumb and index finger just above the
100 cm mark.
 The pupil placed the thumb and index finger on either side of the meter ruler
at the 0 cm mark, with only the thumb touching it.

149
  As Thando dropped the meter ruler the pupil caught it by closing the thumb
and forefinger.
 During each trial Thando recorded the distance at which the meter ruler was
caught.
 The procedure was repeated five times for each pupil.

The table below shows the average distance at which the meter ruler was caught by
5 boys and 5 girls over five trials.

Average distance at which the meter ruler was caught over 5 trials (cm)

Boys average distance (cm) Girls average distance (cm)

Boy 1 5,8 Girl 1 4,8
Boy 2 5,0 Girl 2 4,7
Boy 3 4,9 Girl 3 4,2
Boy 4 4,8 Girl 4 4,0
Boy 5 4,6 Girl 5 3,9
overall overall
5,02 4,32
average average
1. Identify the
a) independent variable of the experiment, and (1)
Gender 
b) dependent variable of the experiment. (1)
Reaction time 
2. Give two reasons why the results of this experiment may be regarded as
reliable. (2)
 Each trial was repeated 5 times for each of the participants 
 Relatively large sample size was taken 
3. Mention two factors which should be kept constant during the experiment.
(2)
 Same group of learners used 
 Same person dropping the ruler 
 Same meter ruler 
 Same time of day    (any two)

4. Thando’s initial hypothesis was rejected on the basis of the results obtained.
Suggest what Thando’s initial hypothesis could have been. (2)
Boys have faster reaction time than girls.  OR Girls have lower reaction
times than boys.  OR Both girls and boys have the same reaction time.


150
Disorders, injuries and effects of drugs

Learners are required to know the causes and symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and
multiple sclerosis. There are many other disorders which can be used for class
discussion but these are the two required for assessment purposes.
There are many injuries which could affect the nervous system and depending on
where the injury occurs the effects will differ. Learners must know that much
research is being done on stem cells and the possibility of repairing injuries by using
stem cells in the future. This can be linked to the chapter on genetics and
inheritance.
The effects of various drugs can be discussed with learners though this section is not
examinable. It is very useful though to make learners aware of the various effects of
drugs on the human body. They should be made aware that alcohol may be
considered a drug since it has similar effects on the body.

Sense organs

Sense organs contain a high concentration of receptor cells which are able to detect
stimuli to bring about a response. Learners only need to know the names and details
of the receptors for light and sound which are the eye and ear.

The human eye

Learners must know the structure and functioning of the human eye. Learners must
know the processes of accommodation and pupillary mechanism as these are often
asked and learners should apply their knowledge to the scenario laid out in the
question. The defects associated with the eye such as short-sightedness, long-
sightedness, astigmatism and cataracts must be understood with the aid of
diagrams.
Key terminology
receptor cells found in the retina of the eye which are sensitive to
rods
dim light and help to distinguish between black and white
receptor cells found in the retina of the eye which are sensitive to
cones
bright light and help to distinguish between different colours
pupil central opening within the iris which allows light to enter
regulation of the pupil size to control the amount of light
pupillary mechanism
entering the eye

151
 the ability of the lens of the eye to alter its shape for clear
accommodation
vision when viewing both near and distant objects
field of vision the area that one eye can see
a shape which curves outwards, thicker in the middle
convex
than the edges
a shape which curves inwards, thinner in the middle than
concave
the edges

Activity 5: The human eye

The diagram below represents a section through a human eye.

A
H

B
G

C
F

1. Identify parts C, D and H. (3)

C – pupil , D – iris , H – suspensory ligaments 
2. Explain how part B is adapted to perform its function. (2)
The cornea is transparent to allow light to enter  and it is curved to allow for
refraction of light .
3. Provide the functions of E and G respectively. (2)
E – contains rods and cones which are the receptors sensitive to light. These
allow for an image to form .
G – pigments absorb excess light to prevent reflection ; blood vessels
supply oxygen and nutrients (any one)
4. Write down the letter only for the part that
is able to change shape to refract light F (1)
provides structural support to the eyeball A (1)

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 5. Name and describe the process which involves the iris controlling the amount
of light entering the eye when a person is exposed to bright light. (5)
 pupillary mechanism 
 the circular muscles of the iris contract 
 the radial muscles of the iris relax 
 the pupil constricts 
 the amount of light entering the eye is reduced 
(14)

Activity 6: Accommodation

The diagram shows two eyes (X and Y) focused on objects (represented by arrows)
at different distances from the eye. Objects A and C were 3 metres away from the
eye. Objects B and D were 8 metres away from the eye. The diagrams below are not
drawn to scale.

eye X

object A object B

3 m away 8 m away
from the eye from the eye

eye Y

object C object D

1. Write down the letter of the object that:

a) eye Y is focussed on C (1)
b) eye X is focussed on B (1)
2. a) Name the eye defect which results in the inability of the eye Y to focus on
the object D. (1)
short-sightedness 
b) Name the type of lens used to rectify the defect in 2(a) above. (1)
concave lens 

153
 3. Identify and describe the process that allows eye Y to form a clear image on
the retina. (5)
accommodation
ciliary muscles contract while the suspensory ligaments become slack ;
tension on the lens decreases ; the lens becomes more convex (bulgy) ;
this causes light rays to bend more ; a clear image is formed on the retina


Activity 7: Case study on visual defects

Read the extract below and answer the questions that follow.

Kayise, age 60, had failed her vision test for her driver’s license. All her life she
had suffered from extreme near-sightedness. In fact, without her glasses she was
legally blind. When she was denied her license renewal, Kayise came to Dr
Nobadula for help. During an examination, it became clear that Kayise had
cataracts in both eyes. A cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye, which
reduces vision. The lens is inside the eye and focuses light onto the retina at the
back of the eye, where an image is recorded. The lens also adjusts the eye’s
focus. The lens is made of mainly water and protein. The latter is arranged so the
lens stays clear, allowing light to pass through it. Yet, with age, the protein may
form clumps that cloud the lens. This is a cataract. The best solution to Kayise’s
situation was surgery that removed the cataracts and implanted tiny artificial
lenses within the eye. Dr Nobadula conducted this procedure. Today, for the first
time in her life, Kayise enjoys 20/20 vision without glasses.

1. Explain what is meant by near-sightedness. (2)

The person is able to see near objects  but cannot see objects more than 6
metres away clearly 
2. Which type of lens can be used to correct this defect? (1)
Concave lenses 
3. What causes the clouding to form in the lens? (1)
The protein found in the lens forms clumps that cloud the lens .
4. In your opinion, what would happen to Kayise if she did not have surgery?(1)
She would eventually become totally blind .
5. Explain the cause of Kayise’s near-sightedness and why she did not need
glasses after surgery. (4)
Kayise’s near-sightedness is caused by a lens that cannot adjust adequately
to focus the incoming light (is no longer supple) , and is cloudy . During
surgery, the lens is removed and replaced with an artificial lens . As a
result, Kayise could see clearly without glasses .

154
 6. Describe what happens to light rays in the eye of a person with cataracts. (3)
Light rays enter through the cornea but are not able to be refracted through
the lens correctly . The clouding prevents the refraction of light  and the
light rays are not focused onto the yellow spot , which leads to vision
becoming blurry.
7. Name one other visual defect not mentioned in the extract above. (1)
Long-sightedness / astigmatism ( - any one)
(13)

The human ear

Key terminology

organ of Corti receptor for hearing

receptor which detects changes in speed and direction of
crista (plural: cristae)
the head
receptor which detects changes in the position of the
maculae
head
semicircular canals canals which are fluid filled and contain receptors
ampulla (plural: swelling at the base of the semicircular canals which
ampullae) contain the crista
structure made up by the sacculus and utriculus, these
vestibule
contain the maculae
small structure inserted into the tympanic eardrum; has a
grommet
hole through the middle to allow air flow

Learners must know the structure and functioning of the human ear.
Learners must have a good understanding of which receptors are responsible for
hearing and balance and know the structures of each.
Learners should be able to apply their knowledge to various scenarios.
The defects associated with the ear such as middle ear infection and deafness must
be understood and the treatment thereof must be discussed. The side effects of
these defects such as needing speech therapy and using sign language should be
discussed with learners.

Activity 8: The human ear

The diagram below represents a part of the human ear.

155
 C
D

B
E
A

1. Identify:
a) part A Eustachian tube  (1)
b) part B round window  (1)
c) part E cochlea  (1)
2. Provide the collective name for the bones found at C. State two functions of
these bones. (3)
ossicles ; transmits vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner
ear ; amplify the vibrations 
3. The structure labelled D contains receptors.
a) Name the receptors found in this structure. (1)
crista 
b) Give the stimulus to which these receptors respond. (2)
they detect changes  in speed and direction of the body 

Activity 9: Balance, hearing and defects

Study the diagram below, then answer the questions that follow.

A B

E D

156
1. Write down the letter only of the part which:
a) amplifies the vibrations from the tympanic membrane B  (1)
b) contains the receptors for hearing C (1)
2. Otosclerosis is a genetic form of hearing loss caused by the stirrup becoming
immovable. Explain how this conditions may cause hearing loss. (3)
The stirrup cannot vibrate  and the vibrations will not be transmitted to the
inner ear . The organ of Corti will not be stimulated  resulting in hearing
loss.
3. Two devices used to treat deafness are hearing aids and cochlear implants.
The way in which they function is given in the table below:

Device Method of functioning

hearing aid receives, transmits and amplifies sound vibrations
receives sound vibrations and converts them into an
cochlear implant electrical impulse which is transmitted directly to the
auditory nerve
By referring to the diagram above, give the letters of the parts where the
defect may occur:
a) when a hearing aid is used (2)
E – tympanic membrane , or B – ossicles 
b) when a cochlear implant is used (1)
C – the cochlea 
4. The vestibular branch of the auditory nerve transmits impulses from the semi-
circular canals to the cerebellum. Explain the consequence if this nerve is
infected by a virus. (2)
A virus or inflammation of the inner ear disrupts the transmission of sensory
information from the ear to the brain . This may result in dizziness,
difficulties with balance, with hearing, and lead to a ringing in the ears
(tinnitus) .

157
Summary

 The brain is protected by the cranium and the meninges.

 The brain is divided into different regions, each of which have their own
functions.
 The cerebrum, which is the largest part of the brain, functions to control
voluntary actions, detects the five senses and allows for higher thought
processes.
 The structure which divides the cerebrum into left and right hemispheres is
the corpus callosum which allows for communication between the
hemispheres.
 The cerebellum functions to control the co-ordination of voluntary actions and
maintains balance, posture and muscle tone.
 The medulla oblongata, which is found as the lower part of the brain stem, is
surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. It is the relay centre of impulses between
the brain and spinal cord and functions to control breathing, swallowing, heart
beat and peristalsis as well as less important reflexes such as coughing,
blinking, salivating and sneezing.
 The spinal cord is protected by 33 individual vertebrae, the meninges with
cerebrospinal fluid and cartilage. It extends from the medulla oblongata to the
lower back and allows for the attachment of spinal nerves.
 Each spinal nerve has a dorsal root and a ventral root.
 The spinal cord contains reflex centres which function automatically and allow
for impulses to be transmitted between receptors, the brain and effectors.
 The peripheral nervous system is found outside of the central nervous system
and is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary) and the autonomic
nervous system (involuntary). It consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31
pairs of spinal nerves.
 The peripheral nervous system functions to transmit impulses from receptors
to the central nervous system via the sensory neurons and from the central
nervous system to effectors via motor neurons.
 The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into the sympathetic nervous
system and the parasympathetic nervous system. These function
antagonistically to maintain homeostasis.
 Nerves are made up of neurons. There are three types of neurons: sensory,
interneuron and motor.

158
 The sensory neurons respond to stimuli and generate impulses which are
transmitted to the central nervous system. In the central nervous system, the
impulse is interpreted. The motor neurons transmits impulses from the central
nervous system to the effector to bring about a response.
 All neurons are made up of a dendrite, a cell body and an axon. The dendrites
receive impulses, the cell body contains a nucleus and controls the
metabolism of the neuron, and impulses are then directed down the axon.
 Neurons are in contact with each other via synapses.
 A reflex action is a quick, automatic response to stimuli. A reflex arc is the
functional unit of the nervous system and is the pathway taken by impulses to
bring about a response.

Stimulus → Receptors → Sensory neuron → Enters dorsal root of the spinal

nerve → Interneuron → Motor neuron → Exits ventral root of the spinal
nerve → Effector → Response

 This allows for the body to respond quickly, protecting it from harm.
 There are many diseases which affect the nervous system, Alzheimer’s
Disease and Multiple Sclerosis are two such diseases with severe symptoms
and side effects.
 Depending on where an injury may occur in the nervous system, the effect will
vary. Scientists hope that in the future, stem cells may be used to repair nerve
tissue that has been damaged.
 The eye contains cones and rods which respond to the stimulus of light. The
vision from each eye overlaps allowing for three dimensional imaging.
 The eye is adapted to allow for vision at different distances (accommodation)
and to have vision under different light conditions (pupillary mechanism).
 There are many defects associated with the eye, including short-sightedness,
long-sightedness, astigmatism and cataracts.
 The ears contain the organ of Corti which responds to sound to allow for
hearing and the maculae and crista which are receptors for balance.
 There are many defects associated with the ear including middle ear
infections and deafness.

159
End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A- D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 Which one of the following pathways represents a reflex arc?

A Muscle → spinal cord → brain

B Effectors → spinal cord → receptor
C Receptor → spinal cord → brain
D Receptor → spinal cord → muscle 

1.1.2 The process in the eye which allows a person to adapt to see at
different distances:

A Pupillary mechanism
B Astigmatism
C Accommodation 
D Cataracts

1.1.3 Which one of the following is a function of the medulla oblongata?

A Controls voluntary muscular activities.

B Processing all sensory information.
C Balance and co-ordination.
D Controls heartbeat and breathing. 

1.1.4 A patient experiences slight visual and speech disturbance after a

serious head injury. Which section of the brain has possibly been
damaged?

A Cerebrum 
B Cerebellum
C Hypothalamus
D Medulla oblongata

160
 1.1.5 A person can feel pain in his legs but cannot move his legs. This is
as a result of damage to the…

A sensory neuron.
B sensory and motor neuron.
C motor neuron. 
D sensory and interneuron.
(5 × 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 The part of the neuron that conducts impulses away from the cell
body.
Axon 
1.2.2 The part of the autonomic nervous system that tends to slow down
organ activity.
Parasympathetic 
1.2.3 A disorder of the nervous system that is characterised by the
breakdown of the myelin sheath of neurons.
Multiple sclerosis 
1.2.4 A group of nerve cell bodies of neurons that form a swelling outside
the spinal cord.
Ganglion 
1.2.5 The part of the nervous system that is made up of cranial and spinal
nerves.
Peripheral nervous system 
1.2.6 A collective name for the membranes that protect the brain.
Meninges 
1.2.7 The part of the brain that maintains muscle tone, balance and
equilibrium.
Cerebellum 
1.2.8 The division of the nervous system that controls involuntary actions
and has a homeostatic function.
Autonomic nervous system 
1.2.9 The structure that connects the left and right hemispheres of the
brain, allowing communication between them.
Corpus callosum 
1.2.10 A disorder of the central nervous system that leads to memory loss
in humans.
Alzheimer’s disease  (10 x 1) = (10)

161
1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B
ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 The part of the brain that A: corpus callosum
connects the two hemispheres B: cerebellum
1.3.2 A brain disorder that results in A: Alzheimer’s disease
memory loss B: Multiple sclerosis
1.3.3 A structure in the nervous system A: effector
that detects a stimulus. B: receptor
1.3.4 The part of the autonomic
A: sympathetic
nervous system that controls
B: parasympathetic
involuntary actions.
1.3.5 The central nervous system is A: cranial and spinal nerves
made up of the… B: brain and spinal chord

(5 x 2) = (10)
1.3.1 A only 
1.3.2 A only 
1.3.3 B only 
1.3.4 Both A and B 
1.3.5 B only 

1.4 The diagram below represents the structure of the human eye

B D

A
E

162
 Give the letter and name of the part which:
1.4.1 Regulates the amount of light entering the eye (2)
A – Iris 
1.4.2 Supplies food and oxygen to the eye (2)
C – Choroid 
1.4.3 Transmits impulses to the brain (2)
E – Optic nerve 
1.4.4 Contains cones and is the area of clearest vision (2)
D – Yellow spot 
1.4.5 Assists in the refraction of light rays (2)
B – Cornea  (10)

Section A: [40]

Section B
Question 2

2.1 An experiment was conducted to investigate the diameter of the pupil to

change in light intensity. A lamp was placed at various distances from the
face of a person as shown. Study the diagram and the table of data below to
answer the questions.

2.1.1 Suggest a possible hypothesis at the start of the investigation. (2)

An increase / decrease in light intensity will cause the diameter of
the pupil to decrease / increase. 
OR

163
 The diameter of the pupil will increase / decrease as the light
intensity increases / decreases 
OR
An increase in light intensity will have no effect on the diameter of
the pupil. 
2.1.2 Which two factors should be kept constant during the investigation?
(2)
The same person’s eyes should be tested 
The same lamp should be used 
The experiment should be done at the same time of day 
The experiment should be done in the same environment 
(Any two × 1)
2.1.3 Identify the:
a) Independent variable (1)
The light intensity 
b) Dependent variable (1)
Diameter of the pupil 

The table below shows the diameter of the pupil when the light was placed at
various distances from the person’s face.
Position of lamp Diameter of the pupil (mm)
1 1,2
2 1,8
3 2,4
4 3,0
5 3,6
6 4,2
7 4,8

2.1.4 Based on the available data would you accept, or reject the initial
hypothesis? (1)
Accept / Reject based on learners initial response in question 2.1.1 
2.1.5 What conclusion can be deduced from the available data? (2)
As light intensity decreases, the diameter of the pupil increases 
2.1.6 Suppose the lamp was moved from position 7 to position 2. Describe
the mechanism that caused the change in the diameter of the pupil.
(4)

164
 Pupillary mechanism
 The circular muscles of the iris contract 
 The radial muscles relax 
 The pupil constricts  / becomes smaller
 The amount of light entering the eye is reduced 

2.1.7 Name the process mentioned in question 2.1.6. (1)

Pupillary mechanism 
2.1.8 Plot a bar graph to represent the data gathered during this
investigation. (7)

Bar graph representing the diameter of the

pupil at various distances from a lamp
Diameter of the pupil (mm)

Position of lamp

Guidelines for assessing graph

Correct type and drawing of graph 
Title of graph 
Correct label of x- and y-axes 
Correct scale of x- and y-axes 
Plotting of points  for plotting 1 to 3 bars
 for plotting 4 to 5 bars correctly
 for plotting 6 to 7 bars correctly
NOTE:
 If the wrong type of graph is drawn, 1 mark will be lost for: Correct type of graph.

165
 If labels of the axes are transposed then 2 marks will be lost for: Correct label AND
scale for x-and y-axes.
(21)
2.2 Read the extract below and answer the questions that follow.

A LINK BETWEEN CONCUSSION AND BRAIN DAMAGE

In 2002 a former American football player was found dead in his truck. The
doctor who handled the autopsy discovered that the football player had
severe brain damage and that his death was caused by repeated blows to
the head or repeated concussions. He called this disorder chronic traumatic
encephalopathy (CTE).
A more recent study was conducted that involved the brains of 165 people
who played football at high school, college or professional level. The study
found evidence of CTE in 131 of the brains.
(adapted from [Link] and [Link])

2.2.1 The part of the brain affected by CTE is the cerebrum. State two
possible symptoms of this disorder. (2)
 Loss of higher thought processes  memory / judgment /
problem solving / any example
 Loss of one or more of the senses  / loss of smell / hearing /
any example
 Loss of voluntary actions  / paralysis (any two × 1)
2.2.2 State one way in which the brain is protected. (1)
 The skull  / cranium
 The meninges  / name of ALL three i.e. pia mater, arachnoid
mater and dura mater
 The cerebrospinal fluid    (any one × 1)
2.2.3 Explain why CTE does not usually affect essential life processes
such as breathing or heart rate. (2)
 CTE mainly affects the cerebrum 
 Therefore, the medulla oblongata  which controls breathing
and heart rate
 Is generally not damaged. (any two)
(5)
[26]

166
Question 3
3.1 Study the diagram of a reflex arc below.

D C

3.1.1 What is a reflex action? (1)

A reflex action is a rapid , automatic response  to a stimulus.
3.1.2 Label the following:
a) The functional connection at D. (1)
Synapse 
b) Neuron B (1)
Interneuron  / connector neuron
3.1.3 State the significance of the microscopic gap indicated by D (1)
It ensures that the impulse moves in one direction only 
It prevents continuous stimulation of neurons 
It ensures that the impulse is transmitted from the sensory neuron to
the motor neuron.    (any one)
3.1.4 Write down in the correct order, the letters only of the neurons
involved from the time a stimulus is received until a response takes
place. (2)
A → B→ C 
3.1.5 Explain the consequences for a reflex action if neuron C is
damaged. (2)
The person will be able to receive a stimulus  / feel pain but will not
be able to respond to it 

167
 3.1.6 Draw a labelled diagram to represent the structure of neuron A. (5)

sensory neuron

cytoplasm
dendrite cell body axon
nucleus

myelin sheath

Guidelines for marking:

Criteria Mark allocation
Caption 
Any THREE labels 3×
(13)

3.2 Read the article below and answer the questions that follow.

The discovery of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irreversible brain disease that slowly
destroys brain cells, causing loss in memory and thinking skills
serious enough to interfere with daily life. The symptoms first appear
after the age of 60, making it the most common cause of dementia
among older people.
It is a neurological brain disorder named after a German physician,
Alois Alzheimer, who first described it in 1906. He noticed changes in
the brain of a woman who had died after an unusual mental illness.
Her symptoms included memory loss, language problems and
strange behaviour. After she died he inspected her brain and found
many clumps and tangled bundles of nerve fibres.
Abnormal clumps, tangled-bundles of nerve fibres and the loss of
connections between brain cells are all symptoms of the disease. AD
gets worse over time, with death due to organ failure usually
occurring two to eight years after the start. At present there is no
cure.
adapted from: [Link]. Fischer Centre for Alzheimer’s Research
Foundation.

168
The table below presented by the World Health Organisation shows the
percentage of people in the general western population affected by AD in
different age groups.

Age groups (years) Percentage patients with AD (%)

65-69 1,4
70-74 2,8
75-79 6,6
80-84 11,1
85+ 23,6

3.2.1 What was the percentage increase of patients with AD, between
the oldest two age groups? Show all calculations. (1)
(23,6 – 11,1) / 11,1 = 112,6% 
3.2.2 What seems to be the earliest symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?(1)
Memory loss 
3.2.3 Describe what the person’s brain looked like when it was
dissected. (2)
It had abnormal clumps  and tangled nerve fibres 
3.2.4 What is the main cause of death in a person with AD? (1)
Organ failure  / infections
3.2.5 Use the table to plot a histogram to show the occurrence of AD. (6)

Percentage of patients with AD over different

age groups
23,6
Patients with AD (%)

11,1

6,6

2,8
1,4

65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84 85+
Age groups (years)

169
 Guidelines for assessing graph
Correct type 
Title of graph 
Correct label of x- and y-axes 
Correct scale of x- and y-axes 
Plotting of points  for plotting 1 to 3 bars
 for plotting all 5 bars correctly
NOTE:
 If the wrong type of graph is drawn, 1 mark will be lost for: Correct type of graph.
 If labels of the axes are transposed then 2 marks will be lost for: Correct label
AND scale for x-and y-axes.

(11)
[24]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [90]

170
Cognitive levels distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
4 6 10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  2
1.4.2  2
1.4.3  2
1.4.4  2

171
1.4.5  2
10 10
2.1.1  2
2.1.2  2
2.1.3  2
2.1.4  1
2.1.5  2
2.1.6  4
2.1.7  1
2.1.8    7 (3+2+2)
1 7 7 6 21
2.2.1  2
2.2.2  1
2.2.3  2
1 4 5
3.1.1  1
3.1.2  2
3.1.3  1
3.1.4  2
3.1.5  2
3.1.6   5 (4+1)
3 1 6 3 13
3.2.1  1
3.2.2  1
3.2.3  2
3.2.4  1
3.2.5    6 (2+2+2)
4 2 3 2 11
33 19 26 11 90

172
CHAPTER 7: THE HUMAN ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM AND HOMEOSTASIS

Overview

Time allocation: 2 ½ weeks (10 hours)

This chapter consists of the following sections:

1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Endocrine glands
4. Negative feedback
5. Endocrine system disorders
6. Thermoregulation in humans
7. Summary
8. End of topic exercises

Introduction

In this chapter we look at some of the important human mechanism’s which enable
us to respond and react to the outside environment and with this to maintain a
constant internal environment. Our responses are controlled by the nervous and
endocrine systems and to an extent, the immune system. The working together of
these systems helps to maintain stability within the organism and ultimately this
protects us.
The human nervous system, covered in a previous chapter, responds to stimuli
rapidly, using electrical impulses and neurotransmitters. The endocrine response
tends to be slower and the effect is long lived. Endocrine glands are situated
throughout the body and each produce and release specific hormones into the blood
stream. An effector organ is targeted, and a response is initiated. When endocrine
organs are either over- or under stimulated, endocrine disorders are observed.
Tissue fluid in which our cells are bathed, constitute the internal environment. The
conditions within cells would therefore depend on the conditions within the internal
environment. When faced with changes from either the external or internal
environment the human body controls this impact and homeostasis is achieved.

173
Homeostatic control involves a negative feedback system. The basic elements of
these systems include a specific variable, a receptor, a control centre and an
effector. Without homeostasis, organs, systems and ultimately, the whole organism
can be negatively impacted. The important variables and homeostatic mechanisms
that will be discussed are: the maintenance of water, salts, thyroxin, glucose and
CO2 concentration, as well as the regulation of body temperature.

Key concepts and terminology

 Humans are constantly exposed to changes within their internal, and from
their external, environment
 The human body has internal mechanisms to try and regulate these changes
 This regulation is under central control
 The endocrine system is made up of ductless endocrine glands that secrete
chemical messengers called hormones directly into the blood stream
 The human body also has ducted exocrine glands that discharge their
chemical secretions into an organ or an area where they are needed
 Hormones are carried to target organs where a response is initiated
 Control is in most cases achieved using a negative feedback mechanism
 Negative feedback is the bodies attempt at returning to a ‘normal’ state
 It is a self-regulating mechanism which leads to adjustments within the body
 It enables humans to maintain homeostasis
 Important elements of this mechanism include receptors, a control centre and
effectors
 Hormones play an important role in maintaining homeostasis
 The osmotic balance of cells and tissue fluid is determined by water and salt
concentrations
 Metabolic reactions are affected by changes in the body temperature as well
as by changing concentrations of CO2, glucose, H2O and salt within the cells
and tissue fluid
 In cold and hot weather, the human body adjusts to maintain its internal
temperature at around 36,8°C.
 Situations where balance or homeostasis is not maintained leads to endocrine
diseases or disorders

174
Key terminology
a system responsible for chemical co-ordination and
endocrine system
regulation of various activities in the body
a process of maintaining a constant internal environment
homeostasis
(blood and tissue fluid) within the body.
chemical messengers in the body. they travel in the
hormones
bloodstream and cause an effect elsewhere in the body
operate in the human body to detect changes or
negative feedback imbalances in the internal environment and to restore
balance
osmoregulation regulation of the water balance in the internal environment
a measure of the concentration of solutes (e.g. salt,
osmotic pressure glucose) present in a solution; this may determine whether
a cell loses or gains water
to work in opposite ways; if one hormone causes an
antagonistically increase of a substance, the other hormone will cause a
decrease of that substance, e.g. insulin and glucagon
the control of the body temperature to keep it as close to
thermoregulation
37°C as possible
relates to an organism that generates heat internally
endothermic through a metabolic process to maintain a constant body
temperature
vasoconstriction narrowing of blood vessels
vasodilation widening of blood vessels
heat loss when sweat changes into water vapour on the
evaporation
surface of the skin
conduction transfer of heat between objects which are in contact
convection as warm air rises it is replaced by cooler air
radiation heat transfer between two objects which are not in contact

Endocrine glands

The learners must be able to distinguish between an exocrine and endocrine gland.
Ducts / ductless, secretions into organ or surface / secretions into bloodstream are
examples of each. Discuss the pancreas as an exocrine (digestive) and endocrine
(glucose regulating hormones) gland. Table 1 in the learner text shows the main
differences and Figures 1 and 2 represent these glands.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce hormones, organic
substances (proteins and fats) that travel in the bloodstream to a target area or
organ. Learners should be able to locate the most important endocrine glands in the

175
human body, state what hormones each gland secretes and what the function of
these hormones are. Figure 3 in the learner text is a summary.

Activity 1: Endocrine glands and their hormones

The diagram shows some of the human endocrine glands. Name the glands
labelled A to G, and list the hormone/s produced by each gland. (20)

A – hypothalamus ; ADH 
B – pituitary gland ; GH , TSH , FSH , LH , prolactin  – any four for a
total of 20 marks for Activity 1.
C – thyroid gland ; thyroxin 
D – adrenal gland ; adrenalin  and aldosterone 
E – pancreas ; glucagon , insulin 
F – ovaries ; oestrogen  and progesterone 
G – testes ; testosterone 

176
Activity 2: Effects of a hormone

heart

heart beats faster

gut
arteries to gut
hormone A become narrow

arteries to muscles widen

muscle

Effect of a certain hormone on the heart and blood supply to

certain body parts

1. Give the name of hormone A. (1)

Adrenalin 
2. State the position of the gland that secretes hormone A in the human body.(1)
On top of each kidney 
3. Explain the importance of the narrowing of the arteries to the gut under
emergency conditions. (4)
Less blood flow to the gut , as it is not involved in responding to the
emergency . Blood flow is redirected to organs involved in responding to the
emergency  such as: skeletal muscles to improve muscle tone  or heart
muscle, for the heart to beat faster so as to increase the transport of oxygen
and glucose needed for increased respiration .
4. Name the part of the human eye that is also affected by hormone A. (1)
Pupil 
5. Explain the influence of hormone A on the part named in question 4. (3)
The pupil dilates  to allow more light to enter the eye  for clear vision 
during the emergency situation.
(10)

177
Negative feedback
Negative feedback is a reaction that causes a decrease in function. It occurs in
response to some kind of stimulus. Often it causes the output of a system to be
lessened; so, the feedback tends to stabilize the system. This can be referred to as
homeostasis.
The following variables and homeostatic mechanisms are discussed.
 the maintenance of water levels
 the maintenance of salt levels
 the regulation of thyroxin levels
 the maintenance of glucose levels
 the regulation of the CO2 concentrations
 the regulation of body temperature

Table 5 in the learner text is a summary of the six important homeostatic controls’
humans possess to ensure stability within their internal environment.
Learners should have a good understanding of the various mechanisms for
maintaining homeostasis.

Activity 3: A negative feedback mechanism

The diagram below represents the interaction between two important endocrine
glands. The hypothalamus is found at the base of the brain while the gland labelled
B is present towards the front of the neck.

hypothalamus

178
 1. Provide a label for gland B. (1)
Thyroid gland 
2. Name hormone C. (1)
Thyroxin 
3. State one function of hormone A. (1)
Stimulate the thyroid gland 
4. Describe the negative feedback mechanism that operates when the level of
hormone C is higher than normal in the blood. (5)
High levels of thyroxin are detected  by the pituitary gland which leads to a
decrease  in the secretion of TSH. Thyroid activity is slowed down  / less
thyroxin is produced. Thyroxin levels drop to normal 
(8)

Endocrine system disorders

In certain situations, hormone secretions are disrupted, and this affects homeostasis.
Endocrine glands can either secrete too little (hyposecretion) or too much (hyper-
secretion) hormone. If this persists a person would be diagnosed with an endocrine
disorder.
The focus in this section is on disorders associated with the pituitary glands, the
thyroid glands and the pancreas. Learners should be able to identify the various
disorders, their causes and symptoms and for diabetes, possible treatment options.

Activity 4: Research task on endocrine disorders

You will need to research an endocrine disorder caused by the hypersecretion or

hyposecretion of an endocrine hormone. You will present your information in either a
PowerPoint Presentation or a poster format. The following needs to be covered:
1. What hormone is involved with this disorder?
2. Where is the hormone produced?
3. What are the target organs/structures of the hormone?
4. How is the secretion of the hormone regulated/controlled?
5. What is the normal function of the hormone?
6. How does the hormone contribute to homeostasis?
7. What are the causes of hypersecretion or hyposecretion
8. What are the symptoms and effects of hypersecretion or hyposecretion?

179
 9. What are the treatments for under or over activation of the hormone pathway?

Your teacher will provide you with a mark scheme. N.B.: Citation of at least 3
references.
Answers will depend on the hormone you choose to investigate. Your teacher will
provide you with a mark scheme. A possible rubric (mark scheme) is given here:
Learners Possible
Component
mark mark
Hormone? Where produced? Target area/organ/s 5
Regulation of hormone 5
Normal function of hormone (homeostatic level) 5
Cause of disease (hyper/hypo) 5
Symptoms/Effects 5
Treatment 5
References (at least 3 and correctly cited) 5
Presentation skills (Quality of PowerPoint or poster) 10
Knowledge in answering questions 5
TOTAL 50

Thermoregulation in humans

Teaching tools
Thermoregulation (54.40 minutes): [Link]
Thermoregulation in circulatory system: [Link]

We humans are endothermic. Our bodies can maintain a constant body temperature
of approximately 36,8°C even when outside temperatures are very high or very low.
It is vital that this happens to ensure that all metabolic functions continue. If body
temperature were to drop below 36°C, metabolic processes will slow down and if it
were to be raised above a safe level of 37,5°C, enzymes become denatured (cannot
function effectively) and many body functions will be disabled.
The body controls its internal core temperature in a process called thermoregulation.
The skin is a very important thermoregulator, and its reaction to hot or cold
conditions is explained in Table 14 in the learner text.

180
Activity 5: Body temperature

strenuous cold shower

exercise at 18°C
body temperature (°C)

Diagram I
A
normal
body temperature B
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
minutes
Diagram II

1. Which part of the brain responds to the temperature changes that occur at A
and B on the graph? (1)
Hypothalamus 
2. What was the maximum temperature reached? (1)
37,5°C 
3. For what period of time did the person engage in strenous exercise? (1)
10 minutes
4. Why should body temperature not be allowed to fluctuate too much? (2)
Most human activity is controlled by enzymes  and enzymes require
optimum temperatures to function 
5. Which diagram (I or II) would represent the condition of the skin after 15
minutes? (1)
Diagram I 
6. Explain your answer to question 5. (2)
Blood vessels dilated to bring more blood to the surface  and so more heat
will be lost  OR Increased sweat production  which will cool down the
body 
(8)

181
Summary

 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

 The hormones travel to their target organs.
 Hormones can have a stimulatory or inhibitory affect.
 Hormones have specific functions and influence only their target organs /
areas.
 The pituitary gland controls many of the other endocrine glands.
 Hypo- and hypersecretion of hormones leads to endocrine disorders.
 The human body is always striving towards maintaining a stable internal
environment.
 Homeostatic mechanisms are implemented to ensure that systems return to
normal levels.
 Many of these are negative feedback systems.
 Effective homeostatic mechanisms discussed in this section involve the
regulation of the levels of water, salt, CO2, thyroxin and glucose as well as the
regulation of body temperature.
 Slight changes in normal levels are detected by receptors.

 Impulses are sent to a central point.

 An effector is stimulated to respond.
 Hormones are an important part of homeostatic control.
 The factor or variable is then returned to the normal levels.
 If homeostasis is not maintained this can impact negatively on the health of an
individual.

182
End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are given as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A – D) next to the
question number (1.1.1–1.1.5). For example, 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 The outermost layer of the human skin is the

A hypodermis
B epidermis 
C adipose
D dermis

1.1.2 Which of the following CORRECTLY represents the events involved

in the secretion and action of ADH (antidiuretic hormone)?
Water level in Amount of ADH Amount of water
blood relative produced relative to reabsorbed by
to normal normal kidneys
A Increase Increase Decrease
B Increase Decrease Increase
C Decrease Increase Increase 
D Decrease Decrease Decrease

1.1.3 A worker spent about ten minutes in a walk-in freezer. Below are
some of the changes that occurred in his body in response to the
drop in external temperature.
(i) Blood vessels in the skin constrict
(ii) Brain reacts
(iii) Skin temperature changes
(iv) Temperature receptors in the skin detect changes

Which ONE is the correct sequence in which the changes occurred?

A (ii) → (i) → (iii) → (iv)

B (iii) → (i) → (iv) → (ii)
C (iv) → (ii) → (i) → (iii) 
D (iv) → (i) → (ii) → (iii)

183
 1.1.4 The graph below shows the relationship between the production of
growth hormone and age

A general conclusion can be drawn from the results is that …

A growth hormone is not secreted after the age of 50 years

B the amount of growth hormone secreted decreases with age 
C the amount of growth hormone secreted increases with age
D the amount of growth hormone secreted remains stable over time

1.1.5 Which ONE of the following hormones prepares the body to react to
emergency situations?
A Insulin
B Aldosterone
C Adrenalin 
D Growth hormone
(5 × 2 = 10)

1.2 Give the correct term for each of the following descriptions. Write only the
term next to the question number.

1.2.1 The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Homeostasis 

184
 1.2.2 The maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Thermoregulation 
1.2.3 Animals that control body temperature from within.
Endotherms 
1.2.4 Widening of blood capillaries in the skin.
Vasodilation 
1.2.5 Method by which most heat is lost through sweating.
Evaporation 
1.2.6 Control centre for temperature regulation in the brain.
Hypothalamus 
1.2.7 A hormone that stimulates milk production in human females.
Prolactin 
1.2.8 A disease that results from the bodies inability to produce insulin.
Diabetes  Type 1
1.2.9 An enlarged thyroid gland that is caused by a deficiency of iodine.
Goitre 
1.2.10 The secretions that are produced in small quantities by the
endocrine glands.
Hormones 
(10 × 1 = 10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: medulla oblongata
1.3.1 Carbon dioxide levels
B: cerebellum
A: 10°C
1.3.2 Vasodilation
B: 40°C
1.3.3 Increase the loss of heat in A: Sweating
mammals B: Shivering
A: internal environment
1.3.4 Cells and tissue fluid
B: external environment
1.3.5 A gland that has a duct to carry its A: sweat glands
secretion to where it is needed B: pancreas
(5 × 2 = 10)

185
 1.3.1 A only 
1.3.2 B only 
1.3.3 A only 
1.3.4 A only 
1.3.5 Both A and B 

1.4 Complete the table below

Stimulus/variable Receptor/s Control centre effector
osmoregulation 1.4.1 osmoreceptors hypothalamus 1.4.9
salts e.g. Na+ cells in
salt concentration 1.4.6 kidneys
(high and low) glomeruli
carbon dioxide CO2 (high and
1.4.4 1.4.7 lungs
concentration low)
thyroxin 1.4.2 pituitary gland thyroid gland body cells
blood glucose
glucose 1.4.5 pancreas 1.4.10
(high and low)
thermo-
thermoregulation 1.4.3 1.4.8 skin
receptors
(10 × 1 = 10)
1.4.1 H2O levels (high and low) 
1.4.2 high or low metabolic rate 
1.4.3 high or low core body temperature 
1.4.4 chemoreceptors 
1.4.5 islets of Langerhans 
1.4.6 adrenal glands 
1.4.7 medulla oblongata 
1.4.8 hypothalamus 
1.4.9 kidneys 
1.4 10 liver 

1.5 Read the following and answer the questions that follow:

South Africa’s very own mountaineer and adventurer

Sibusiso Vilane, became a South African hero after summiting the Earth’s
highest mountain, Mount Everest, in 2003. He started training in
mountaineering by climbing the peaks of the Drakensberg mountains.

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Ex-President, Thabo Mbeki, said the following on the summit day “In this, he
has shown the heights we can scale in life if we put our shoulder to the
wheel. Sibusiso you have done us proud”.
He continues to climb great peaks throughout the world and is actively
involved in humanitarian work.
Mountaineers like Sibusiso Vilane put their bodies under severe
physiological strain when climbing up to heights of 8000 metres. The higher
the altitude the greater the stress on the human body. The availability of
oxygen decreases and hypoxia (oxygen starvation) can set in. It literally
takes your breath away. Average temperatures are well below freezing.
Climbers can become disorientated, develop acute mountain sickness
(AMS) and get frostbite on their extremities. Many climbers have died on
Everest.
Athletes in extreme sports like this will try and acclimatize to these adverse
conditions by preparing the body for the physiological challenges. The
sherpas who assist climbers live at high altitudes all year around and their
bodies have adapted well to the low oxygen levels and to the adverse cold.
This leaves us with words from one of Sibusiso Vilane’s motivational
speeches: “Every person has their own ‘Everest’ to climb”.

1.5.1 With low oxygen levels what other atmospheric gas levels could
become a problem in the system of climbers like Sibusiso? (1)
High CO2 
1.5.2 How are the levels of the gas that you have given as your answer in
1.5.1 detected? (1)
In the respiratory centre of medulla oblongata / receptors in the
carotid artery
1.5.3 In a flow diagram show how their bodies will try and compensate and
adapt to the levels of the gas in their system. (3)
High CO2 (stimulus) > respiratory centre (receptor) > breathing
muscles > increased rate of breathing > normal levels of CO2
(sequence  and in a flow diagram )
1.5.4 The climbers will lose a lot of heat through radiation to the
environment. What conscious measures would you suggest they
take to reduce this loss? (1)
Cover as much skin as possible with clothes, hats, gloves 
1.5.5 Suggest a way in which climbers could prepare their bodies for the
challenges of high altitudes, i.e., how in their training could they
acclimatize to the conditions on Everest? (1)
Spend more time in places that are higher up and climb smaller
peaks e.g. Drakensberg 

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 1.5.6 What is the term used when the oxygen availability in the blood
decreases? (1)
Hypoxia 
1.5.7 During an expedition led by Sibusiso in 2016, to the highest peak in
Africa, Mount Kilimanjaro, one of our other famous sportsmen, Gugu
Zulu, a rally driver, tragically fell ill and died. It seemed that he
developed the onset of flu while on the climb. The fact that Gugu
was not 100% healthy would have worsened the impact of high
altitude and cold. One of the symptoms of a flu is fever. Which
homeostatic mechanism that has been covered in this section would
have been affected and briefly explain how the normal levels had
been altered by the flu? (2)
Thermoregulation . Flu causes high temperature  / fever.
Since it was cold outside, instead of retaining heat, Gugu lost heat to
the environment . This affected enzyme activity and metabolism 
leading to death. (any two)
(10)
[50]

Section B
Question 2

2.1 Study the table below that shows the volume of urine produced by six
different people on a hot day and on a cold day and answer the questions
that follow.
Volume of urine produced in cm3
Person
Hot day Cold Day
1 430 890
2 350 1060
3 270 930
4 560 1280
5 400 680
6 390 1 160
Average 1 000

2.1.1 Calculate the average volume of urine in cm3 produced on the hot
day. Show all workings. (2)

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 Average volume on hot day = (430+350+270+560+400+390) / 6 
= 400 
2.1.2 What can you deduce from the difference between the average
volume of urine produced on the hot day and the average volume of
urine produced on the cold day? (2)
600 cm3  more urine is produced on a cold day 
2.1.3 Explain why, on a hot day, less water is lost from the body as urine.
(2)
On a hot day a person would sweat. This loss of water would be
detected by osmosreceptors in the hypothalamus  and ADH levels
will rise to ensure that water reabsorption into the blood capillaries
around the kidneys 
2.1.4 The composition (make-up) of urine depends on several factors.
Name two factors that would affect the composition of urine. (2)
Water content of the blood (over-hydrated or dehydrated) . Salt
content of the blood .
(8)

2.2 The diagram below represents a negative feedback mechanism. X and Y

represent hormones secreted by the respective glands.

pituitary
gland
Y
X

thyroid
gland

2.2.1 What is the role of any negative feedback mechanism in the human
body? (1)
To establish homeostasis in an organism / to maintain a constant
internal environment
2.2.2 Identify hormone X. (1)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 
2.2.3 Explain the consequences for a person if hormone Y remained
abnormally high for extended periods of time. (3)

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 If thyroxin  levels remain high the basal metabolic rate (BMR) will
be high  and the person would get tired and the heart will be under
strain .
(5)

2.3 Triathletes competing in the Iron Man series are sometimes on the road and
in the water for a total of over 8 hours. They will get very hot and thirsty.
They will sweat profusely and will drink fluids continually through the race.
They often do not need to urinate. Which two mechanisms would these
athletes use to regulate their body temperature and fluid loss during the
race. (2)
Thermoregulation  and osmoregulation 

2.4 The picture below shows how important the skin is in controlling the core
body temperature in very warm conditions.

On a hot day, the hypothalamus is

stimulated and sends impulses to
the blood vessels

More sweat is released.

Evaporation of the sweat
cools the skin. Blood vessels dilate
(become wider). This
is called vasodilation.
 More blood flows
to the skin.
Sweat gland
becomes more  More heat is lost
active. from the skin.
 More blood is sent
to the sweat
glands.

Using the information provided draw your own picture, alongside the one
given, showing how the skin controls body temperature in cooler conditions.
(5)

Cold day-hypothalamus stimulated , vasoconstriction – blood vessels

narrow , reduced blood flow to skin , sweat gland less active , drawing
showing constricted blood vessels 
[20]

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Question 3
3.1 Type 2 diabetes is often linked to body mass index (BMI). The higher your
BMI the greater your chances of developing Type 2 diabetes. The table
below shows the results of an investigation into the BMI of women and their
risk of developing diabetes (statistics from the American Diabetes
Association)

BMI (mass÷height) Relative risk of developing

(kg/m2) diabetes in females (%)

< 20 7,5
20 – 25 18,0
26 – 30 37,5
31 – 35 57,0
> 35 74,5
3.1.1 Draw a histogram using the data in the table. (5)

Effect of BMI on risks of developing diabetes

Percentage risk (%)

< 20 20 25 30 35 >35
2
BMI (kg/m )

Histogram heading – Effect of BMI on risks of developing diabetes

X-axis – BMI (kg/m2)
Y-axis -% risk.
Bars drawn together.  Scale 

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 3.1.2 Which hormone is deficient in people with diabetes? (1)
Insulin 
3.1.3 In which organ is this hormone produced? (1)
Pancreas 
3.1.4 Name another hormone that regulates the amount of glucose found
in the blood. (1)
Glucagon 
3.1.5 Write up your own conclusion from the data given in the table and
from your histogram. (2)
The higher the BMI the higher the risk of developing diabetes 
(10)

3.2 Lerato carried out an investigation to determine the effect of exercise on skin
temperature. She asked 100 learners in her school to participate in the
investigation. The sample consisted of 100 girls of the same age. The
investigation was done as follows:
 The learners were divided into two groups of 50 each (Group A and
B).
 The skin temperature was measured for all the participants.
 Group A was asked to run around the sports field for 10 minutes.
 Group B was asked to remain seated on the benches next to the field
for 10 minutes.
After 10 minutes the skin temperature of all participants was measured, and
the average was calculated for each group (A and B).

3.2.1 In this investigation, identify the:

(a) independent variable (1)
Level of exercise 
(b) dependent variable (1)
Skin temperature 
3.2.2 State two steps that Lerato took into consideration during the
planning of the investigation. (2)
Lerato decided on the …
 Gender to use (girls) 
 Age of the participants 
 Type of exercise 
 Duration of the exercise 
 Sample size to use  (any two)

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 3.2.3 What is the expected results for the participants in group A? (1)
Their skin temperature would rise 
3.2.4 Name the one factor that Lerato kept constant during the
investigation. (1)
The duration of activity / non-activity  / 10 minutes
3.2.5 Which of the two groups (A or B) will release more sweat? (1)
A
3.2.6 Explain why sweat production will increase in the group identified in
question 3.2.5. (3)
Vasodilation occurs . Warm blood comes to the surface of the skin
. The learners skin temperature would rise. Heat is lost to the
environment . More sweat is produced for cooling by evaporation 
(any three × 1)
(10)

3.3 The graph below shows a comparative glucose test on a healthy and a
diabetic person. (In the glucose tolerance test the people being tested would
have not eaten for at least 8 hours before the test. When they arrive at the
hospital/clinic/doctor’s rooms their blood is taken, and glucose levels are
tested. They then drink a glucose solution and their blood is taken and tested
every 30 minutes over at least a 3 hour period.)

Result of a glucose tolerance test on a healthy

person (Person A) and on a diabetic (Person B)
Blood glucose levels (mg/dL)

Normal

Person A

Person B

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210

Time (minutes)

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3.3.1 What values does the graph accept as normal blood glucose levels?
(1)
80 – 90 mg/dL 
3.3.2 What is the difference in blood glucose levels at time 0 between
person A and person B? (2)
200 – 80  = 120 mg/dL 
3.3.3 What do you think happened in person A to cause the glucose levels
to drop after 60 minutes? (2)
The pancreas started secreting insulin  and glucose was converted
to glycogen 
3.3.4 Name three lifestyle precautions should person B be taking? (3)
A diet with reduced sugar .
Exercise frequently .
Small meals taken frequently .
3.3.5 Besides lifestyle changes what treatment is available for diabetics to
regulate their glucose levels? (2)
Inject insulin . Have insulin pumps inserted .
(10)
[30]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [100]

194
Cognitive levels distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
4 66 1010
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
8 2 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  1
1.4.3  1
1.4.4  1
1.4.5  1
1.4.6  1
1.4.7  1
1.4.8  1
1.4.9  1
1.4.10  1
10 10
1.5.1  1
1.5.2  1
1.5.3  3

195
 1.5.4  1
1.5.5  1
1.5.6  1
1.5.7  2
3 2 3 2 10
2.1.1  2
2.1.2  2
2.1.3  2
2.1.4  2
4 4 8
2.2.1  1
2.2.2  1
2.2.3  3
1 1 3 5
2.3  2
2 2
2.4  5
5 5
3.1.1  5
3.1.2  1
3.1.3  1
3.1.4  1
3.1.5  2
3 7 10
3.2.1 a - b  2
3.2.2  2
3.2.3  1
3.2.4  1
3.2.5  1
3.2.6  3
1 2 7 10
3.3.1  1
3.3.2  2
3.3.3  2
3.3.4  3
3.3.5  2
5 2 3 10
TOTAL 41 23 26 10 100

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CHAPTER 8: PLANT RESPONSES TO THE
ENVIRONMENT

Overview
Time allocation: 1 week (4 hours)

This chapter includes the following sections:

1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Plant hormones
4. Tropisms
5. Weed control
6. Plant defence mechanisms
7. Summary
8. End of topic exercises

Introduction
In this unit we discuss how plants respond to changes in the environment and how
plant growth is controlled by internal and external factors.
Learners will be introduced to various plant hormones which regulate plant growth.
Plant hormones are responsible for plant growth and dictate whether a plant grows
upward or downward in response environmental stimuli e.g. light and gravity.
We review the different types of plant hormones that promote and inhibit plant
growth, and look at how these hormones can be used in the control of weeds.
We will then discuss how plants defend themselves from being eating by insects and
other herbivores.

Key concepts and terminology

 Growth of plants are controlled by internal factors such as hormones and

by external factors such as sunlight, water, gases and touch.

197
  Plant hormones affect how a plant grows by stimulating plant cells to divide,
to enlarge or to stop growing.
 Hormones such as auxin and gibberellins stimulate plant growth.
 The hormone abscisic acid inhibits (prevents) plants from growing and is
often used to control the growth of weeds.
 Tropism means 'to turn' and occurs when external stimuli affect the direction
in which a plant grows and develops.
 Phototropism is when plants grow either towards or away from the light and
is controlled by the presence of auxins.
 Geotropism is when plants grow roots downward in the soil due to gravity and
is controlled by the presence of abscisic acid.

Key terminology
a chemical messenger produced in one part of the plant and
hormone
has an effect on another part of the stem
growth or turning movement of a plant or part of a plant in
tropism
response to external stimulus
phototropism growth of part of a plant in response to the stimulus of light
geotropism growth of a plant in response to gravity
unilateral light light coming from one side or direction
a substance that is toxic to plants and destroy unwanted
herbicide
vegetation (weeds)
apical bud the growing point of the stem located at the tip of the stem
when auxins produced at the tip of the stem inhibit the
apical dominance
growth of the branches closer to the tip of the stem

Plant hormones

The learner is introduced to the idea that plants are able to respond to their
environment with the help of plant hormones. Learners need to know the three basic
plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins and abscisic acid and will need to be able to list
at least two basic functions of each hormone. Teachers should revise the basic parts
of a plant in order for learners to fully grasp the topic and terminology. A description
of each hormone is given, with a special emphasis on auxin, as this hormone plays a
significant role in tropism.

198
Tropisms

Learners are introduced to tropisms - the response of a plant to a particular

stimulus. While plants respond to a number of stimuli, the teacher should focus on
phototropism and geotropism. Teachers need to explain the differences between
positive and negative tropisms. A brief discussion on phototropism and geotropism
is given together with some experimental examples of how each process works.
Learners will need to understand the biological significance behind why plants bend
toward the light and gravity and how this is achieved.

Activity 1: Phototropism

Lerato, a learner in Grade 12, is investigating how shoots respond to light. She used
the following method.

Method
 Two shoots, labelled shoot A and shoot B were used.
 Both shoots were from the same plant species.
 The tip of shoot A was covered with a tin foil cap.
 The sides of shoot B were covered with a tin foil sleeve.
 Both shoots were exposed to unilateral light using two lamps.
 The lamps were placed at the same distance from the shoots.
 The apparatus was left for 2 weeks.
 After 2 weeks, she observed what happened to shoot A and shoot B.

The results of Lerato’s investigation are shown in the diagram below.

shoot A shoot B

tin foil cap

tin foil
sleeve

setup result after 2 weeks setup result after 2 weeks

199
 1. Identify the
a) independent variable (1)
Position of the tin foil on the shoot 
b) dependent variable (1)
Shoot growth 
2. State three planning steps that Lerato considered in this investigation. (3)
the duration of the investigation 
the plant species to use 
the method of recording the results 
the apparatus to use  (any three - mark first three only)
3. Explain the results observed on shoot B. (4)
Since the tip of shoot B was not covered , the auxins produced at the tip
moved to the shaded side . This stimulated cell elongation on the shaded
side . The shaded side grew faster and bent towards the light source 
4. How did Lerato ensure validity in this investigation? (4)
by using the same plant species 
by placing the shoots the same distance from the lamp 
by ensuring that the shoots were both exposed to unilateral light 
by ensuring that both shoots were exposed to the light for the same length of
time 
5. State three ways in which the reliability of the investigation can be improved.(3)
repeating the investigation 
increasing the number of shoots used for each setup 
increasing the period of the investigation 
(16)

Activity 2: Geotropism

The pot plant in the diagram below was placed onto its side in a dark cupboard. After
2 weeks, the stem had started to grow upwards.

200