CHAPTER 8: PLANT RESPONSES TO THE

ENVIRONMENT

Overview
Time allocation: 1 week (4 hours)

This chapter includes the following sections:

1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Plant hormones
4. Tropisms
5. Weed control
6. Plant defence mechanisms
7. Summary
8. End of topic exercises

Introduction
In this unit we discuss how plants respond to changes in the environment and how
plant growth is controlled by internal and external factors.
Learners will be introduced to various plant hormones which regulate plant growth.
Plant hormones are responsible for plant growth and dictate whether a plant grows
upward or downward in response environmental stimuli e.g. light and gravity.
We review the different types of plant hormones that promote and inhibit plant
growth, and look at how these hormones can be used in the control of weeds.
We will then discuss how plants defend themselves from being eating by insects and
other herbivores.

Key concepts and terminology

 Growth of plants are controlled by internal factors such as hormones and

by external factors such as sunlight, water, gases and touch.

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  Plant hormones affect how a plant grows by stimulating plant cells to divide,
to enlarge or to stop growing.
 Hormones such as auxin and gibberellins stimulate plant growth.
 The hormone abscisic acid inhibits (prevents) plants from growing and is
often used to control the growth of weeds.
 Tropism means 'to turn' and occurs when external stimuli affect the direction
in which a plant grows and develops.
 Phototropism is when plants grow either towards or away from the light and
is controlled by the presence of auxins.
 Geotropism is when plants grow roots downward in the soil due to gravity and
is controlled by the presence of abscisic acid.

Key terminology
a chemical messenger produced in one part of the plant and
hormone
has an effect on another part of the stem
growth or turning movement of a plant or part of a plant in
tropism
response to external stimulus
phototropism growth of part of a plant in response to the stimulus of light
geotropism growth of a plant in response to gravity
unilateral light light coming from one side or direction
a substance that is toxic to plants and destroy unwanted
herbicide
vegetation (weeds)
apical bud the growing point of the stem located at the tip of the stem
when auxins produced at the tip of the stem inhibit the
apical dominance
growth of the branches closer to the tip of the stem

Plant hormones

The learner is introduced to the idea that plants are able to respond to their
environment with the help of plant hormones. Learners need to know the three basic
plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins and abscisic acid and will need to be able to list
at least two basic functions of each hormone. Teachers should revise the basic parts
of a plant in order for learners to fully grasp the topic and terminology. A description
of each hormone is given, with a special emphasis on auxin, as this hormone plays a
significant role in tropism.

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Tropisms

Learners are introduced to tropisms - the response of a plant to a particular

stimulus. While plants respond to a number of stimuli, the teacher should focus on
phototropism and geotropism. Teachers need to explain the differences between
positive and negative tropisms. A brief discussion on phototropism and geotropism
is given together with some experimental examples of how each process works.
Learners will need to understand the biological significance behind why plants bend
toward the light and gravity and how this is achieved.

Activity 1: Phototropism

Lerato, a learner in Grade 12, is investigating how shoots respond to light. She used
the following method.

Method
 Two shoots, labelled shoot A and shoot B were used.
 Both shoots were from the same plant species.
 The tip of shoot A was covered with a tin foil cap.
 The sides of shoot B were covered with a tin foil sleeve.
 Both shoots were exposed to unilateral light using two lamps.
 The lamps were placed at the same distance from the shoots.
 The apparatus was left for 2 weeks.
 After 2 weeks, she observed what happened to shoot A and shoot B.

The results of Lerato’s investigation are shown in the diagram below.

shoot A shoot B

tin foil cap

tin foil
sleeve

setup result after 2 weeks setup result after 2 weeks

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 1. Identify the
a) independent variable (1)
Position of the tin foil on the shoot 
b) dependent variable (1)
Shoot growth 
2. State three planning steps that Lerato considered in this investigation. (3)
the duration of the investigation 
the plant species to use 
the method of recording the results 
the apparatus to use  (any three - mark first three only)
3. Explain the results observed on shoot B. (4)
Since the tip of shoot B was not covered , the auxins produced at the tip
moved to the shaded side . This stimulated cell elongation on the shaded
side . The shaded side grew faster and bent towards the light source 
4. How did Lerato ensure validity in this investigation? (4)
by using the same plant species 
by placing the shoots the same distance from the lamp 
by ensuring that the shoots were both exposed to unilateral light 
by ensuring that both shoots were exposed to the light for the same length of
time 
5. State three ways in which the reliability of the investigation can be improved.(3)
repeating the investigation 
increasing the number of shoots used for each setup 
increasing the period of the investigation 
(16)

Activity 2: Geotropism

The pot plant in the diagram below was placed onto its side in a dark cupboard. After
2 weeks, the stem had started to grow upwards.

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 1. Give the term used to describe this phenomenon. (1)
Geotropism 
2. Define the phenomenon identified in question 1. (1)
Geotropism is the growth of a plant in response to gravity 
3. Discuss the role of auxins in the phenomenon mentioned in question 1 in
respect of the roots of the plant. (6)
The role of auxins in geotropism
 When the root is placed horizontally, the auxin concentration will be
high on the lower side of the root 
 gravity attracts auxins 
 More growth occurs on the upper side of the root 
 because auxins on the lower side inhibit growth 
 As a result the upper side of the root grows faster 
 causing the root to bend downwards 
(8)

Weed control

Discuss the role of plant hormones in inhibiting the growth of weeds whilst not
affecting other plant or the plant itself. Teachers should remind the learners that
weeds are harmful to commercial and subsistent farmers and that they need to be
safely killed in order to improve crop yields. A description on how plant hormones are
selective killers to weeds is given. No further information is required.

Plant defence mechanisms

Discuss the mechanisms by which plants are able to protect themselves from
getting damage and eaten by insects and other larger herbivores. A brief
discussion on how plants use both chemical and physical defences to deter
herbivores. Teachers should not go in to too much detail, as this topic can be quite
broad.

Summary

 Plants are able to respond to their environment with the help of chemical
messengers called plant hormones.

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 There are hormones that promote growth (auxin and gibberellins) and those
that inhibit growth (abscisic acid).
 Plant hormones can be used to effectively kill weeds without damaging
the commercially important crops.
 The response to a stimulus is call tropism.
 When parts of a plant grow towards a stimulus it is referred to as positive
tropism.
 When parts of a plant grow away from a stimulus it is referred to as negative
tropism.
 Shoots also grow towards the sun and against gravity, ensuring the leaves
of a plant get maximum sunlight in order to photosynthesis.
 Roots always grow with gravity and away from the sun, ensuring the roots
grow deep into the soil to absorb water and nutrients that plant needs for
photosynthesis.

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End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A- D) next to the
question number (1.1.1 – 1.1.5) on your answer sheet, for example 1.1.6 D

1.1.1 Which ONE of the following plant hormones is responsible for the
germination of seeds?

A Growth hormone
B Abscisic acid
C Gibberellin 
D Auxin

1.1.2 A gardener removes the apical buds from a rose bush in her garden
regularly. As a result the rose bush will…

A produce more lateral branches 

B grow taller.
C remain the same size.
D produce fewer roses.

1.1.3 Which plant hormone promotes seed dormancy?

A Gibberellin
B Auxin
C Abscisic acid 
D Growth hormone

Questions 1.1.4 and 1.1.5 are based on the information and diagrams
below:
Two identical potted plants X and Y, of the same age and size were placed
in the light, but plant Y was placed in a box with a hole on one side. The
diagram below shows the plant after 5 days.

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 plant X plant Y

1.1.4 Which combination of the following statements is correct?

i) The shoots of both plants have grown towards moisture.
ii) The shoot of plant Y has grown more than the shoot of plant X
iii) The shoot of plant Y has grown against the force of gravity
iv) The shoot of plant Y has grown towards light from one side but
the shoot of plant X grew in response to uniform light.
v) The shoots of both plants have grown in the direction of the force
of gravity.

A (ii) and (iv) 

B (i) and (ii)
C (iii) and (v)
D (i) and (v)

1.1.5 The reaction of plant Y is caused by growth hormones that…

A form only in the presence of light.

B cannot function in the dark.
C stimulate cell elongation on the shaded sides. 
D Inhibits cell division of the lighted side.
(5 x 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 The plant hormone that causes leaves to fall off trees in autumn.
Abscisic acid 

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 1.2.2 The movement of a part of a plant in response to gravity.
Geotropism 
1.2.3 A chemical substance that helps to coordinate the growth,
metabolism or development of the plant.
Hormone 
1.2.4 Plant growth responses to external stimuli.
Tropisms 
1.2.5 A substance containing plant hormones used to kill unwanted plants.
Herbicide 
1.2.6 Animals that eat the leaves and twigs of trees.
Herbivores / Browsers
1.2.7 Plant hormones that promote the development of fruit.
Auxins 
1.2.8 The plant hormone that promotes seed dormancy.
Abscisic acid 
1.2.9 The response of a plant stem in reaction to light.
Phototropism 
1.2.10 Inhibition of the growth of lateral buds by the auxins present in apical
buds.
Apical dominance 
(10 × 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: thorns
1.3.1 Plant defences
B: chemicals
A: herbicides
1.3.2 Chemicals used to kill weeds.
B: fungicides
1.3.3 Tropism involving movement of A: phototropism
a plant in reaction to gravity. B: hydrotropism
1.3.4 The young stem bearing leaves A: shoot
is called the… B: radicle
1.3.5 A stimulus coming from ONE A: omnilateral
direction only. B: unilateral
(5 x 2) = 10

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 1.3.1 Both A and B 
1.3.2 A only 
1.3.3 None 
1.3.4 A only 
1.3.5 B only 

1.4 Thobeka investigated the effect of auxins on the growth of three plant shoots
(A, B and C). The plant shoots were treated as follows:
 Shoot A – Not treated in any way
 Shoot B – Tip removed and agar plate with auxins placed on top.
 Shoot C – Tip removed and agar plate without auxins placed on top.

All shoots were exposed to the same light conditions. Note: Agar is a jelly-
like substance that allows auxins to diffuse through it. The diagram below
illustrates the set-up at the beginning of the investigation.

agar plate agar plate

with auxins without auxins

A B C

1.4.1 Identify the independent variable in this investigation. (1)

Presence or absence of auxin  in the plant shoot
1.4.2 State two factors that must be kept constant in this investigation. (2)
 Same type of plant 
 Placed in the same environment 
 Same amount of treatment time 
 Tip removed at the same length 
 Same type of agar 
 Shoot of equal length (mark first two only)

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 1.4.3 Explain the results observed in:
a) Shoot B after a few days (3)
Shoot B would show upward growth 
Auxins in the agar gel diffused downwards  into the shoot
leading to cell elongation 
b) Shoot C after a few days (2)
No growth in shoot C 
Shoot tip contains no auxins 
1.4.4 Suggest two ways in which Thobeka could have improved the
reliability of her investigation. (2)
Repeat the investigation 
Use more than one plant shoot per treatment / increase sample size

(10)

1.5 A Grade 12 learner performed an investigation to determine the effect of light

on the growth of plant shoots. The learner divided the plants that were used
into three groups as follow:
Group A: The tip of the shoot was intact.
Group B: The tip of the shoot was removed.
Group C: The tip of the shoot was covered by a cap that does not allow light
to pass through.
The diagram in each group (A, B, C) below shows each shoot at the start of
the investigation and next to each, the shoot at the end of the investigation.
The arrows indicate the direction of light to which each of the shoots A, B
and C were exposed.

cap
unilateral light

Start | End Start | End Start | End

A B C

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 1.5.1 Name the dependent variable in this investigation. (1)
Growth of plant shoots  / growth response / bending of the tip
1.5.2 Which plant hormone is being investigated in this experiment? (1)
Auxins 
1.5.3 State one factor that must be kept constant during this investigation.
(1)
 Same environment in which shoots are placed  / same
intensity of light
 Same type of shoot used 
 Same age of shoot  (any one – mark first one only)
1.5.4 Explain the results observed in:
a) investigation A (3)
 Light from the right  / from one side / unilateral light
 Caused auxins to move to shaded side of the shoot 
 Leading to increased cell elongation and division  on the
shaded side / There was therefore greater growth of the
shaded side.
 Thus bending the shoot in the direction of the source of light 
(any three × 1; mark first three only)
b) investigation C (3)
 Since there is no light stimulus  from the side (because of
the cap)
 there is no influence on the distribution of auxins  / auxins
evenly distributed below the cap
 therefore the shoot grew upright 
1.5.5 State one way in which the learner could improve the reliability. (1)
Repeat the investigation 
Use more than one plant shoot per treatment / increase sample size
     (any one × 1; mark first one only)
(10)
Section A: [50]

Section B
Question 2

2.1 A group of Grade 12 learners investigated the influence of different

concentrations of auxins on plumule growth. A plumule is a young stem that
grows from a seed.

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 The procedure was as follows:
 35 bean seeds were germinated.
 The seedlings were then divided into five groups of seven seedlings.
 In each group the seven seedlings were attached with Prestik to filter
paper on which a 10 mm x 10 mm grid was drawn.
 The filter paper with seedlings was then glued to the inside of a petri
dish.
 Each of these five petri dishes was placed in a beaker containing a
different concentration of auxins.
The diagram below shows the set-up of a single beaker.

petri dish

seedlings

filter paper with

10×10 mm grid

beaker

auxin solution

 All five beakers were placed inside a dark cupboard for three days.
 After three days the increase in length of each plumule was
measured.
 The average increase in length of the plumule in each beaker was
calculated and recorded in the table below.
The table below shows the results of the investigation after three days.

Beaker Auxin concentration in Average increase in

number parts per million (ppm) plumule length (mm)
1 0.1 1.5
2 1 3.2
3 10 4.8
4 50 2.3
5 100 0

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 2.1.1 For this investigation identify the:
a) independent variable (1)
Auxin concentration 
b) dependent variable (1)
Plumule growth 
2.1.2 State the purpose of the grid that was placed inside each
petri dish. (1)
For measurement of plumule length 
2.1.3 Explain why the beakers were placed in a dark cupboard. (2)
To eliminate the effect of light  so that only gravity is can affect the
distribution of auxins 
2.1.4 State one way in which the learners ensured the reliability of
this investigation. (1)
 They used seven seedlings in each group  / 35 seeds in total /
a large sample
 They calculated the average  increase in plumule length
(any 1 × 1, mark first one only)
2.1.5 State three factors, not indicated in the procedure, that should
be kept constant during this investigation. (3)
 Same species of beans 
 Seedlings of the same age 
 Seedlings of the same size 
 Same temperature 
 The same investigator 
 Identical apparatus (beakers / petri-dishes / graph paper / grid /
volume of solution) 
(any three × 1, mark first three only)
2.1.6 State the conclusion that can be made from the results in the
table. (2)
An increase in auxin concentration up to an optimum stimulates the
growth rate of the plumule / stem. With further increase in auxin
concentration there is an inhibition of plumule / stem growth. 
(11)

2.2 An experiment was conducted by a learner to investigate growth movements

in plants. A seedling was placed horizontally in the dark as shown in diagram
A. Diagram B shows the results after 5 days.

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 diagram A diagram B

gravitational force gravitational force

2.2.1 Give the term for the movement of part of a plant in response to
a stimulus. (1)
Tropism 
2.2.2 Which plant growth hormone stimulates the growth movement
shown in diagram B? (1)
Auxins 
2.2.3 Give any other two functions of the hormone mentioned in question
2.2.2. (2)
 Brings about bending reaction in plants known as tropism 
 Promote cell division 
 Responsible for cell elongation 
 Responsible for apical dominance 
 Promote root development 
(any 2 × 1; mark first two only)
2.2.4 Does the accumulation of the hormone mentioned in question 2.2.2
inhibit or promote cell elongation in the growing tip of a stem? (1)
It promotes cell elongation  at the growing tip of the stem
2.2.5 Explain why the part of the plant which showed a response as
illustrated in the diagram B, will react as shown. (6)
• Under the influence of gravity  the auxins tend to accumulate
on the lower side of the root 
• The growth on the lower side is inhibited  by the increased
concentration  of auxins
• On the upper side of the root the auxin concentration is less, 
these cells therefore elongate more  causing
• The root to bend and grow downwards. 
(any 6 × 1)
(11)
[22]

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Question 3

3.1 A learner conducted an investigation to determine the effect of auxins and

the effect of gravity on the root growth in pea seedlings. He used the
following procedure:

 He germinated pea seeds for seven days.

 He then took a sample of 15 seedlings and divided them into 3 groups
(A to C) of 5 seedlings each.
 In each group the 5 seedlings were placed horizontally on 3 different
clinostats.

A clinostat is a device which has a disc that rotates at a constant speed. A

diagram of a clinostat is shown below.

rotating clinostat

seedlings

 He removed the root tips of all seedlings at the same length in group B.
 In groups A and B the clinostats were left stationary (no rotation).
 In group C the clinostat was allowed to rotate.
 All 3 clinostats were placed in a dark cupboard.

A summary of the learner’s procedure is shown in the table below.

Group A Group B Group C

root tips present no root tips root tips present
stationary clinostat stationary clinostat rotating clinostat

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 After two days the direction of root growth was observed.

3.1.1 Which two groups were used to obtain information about:

a) The effect of auxins on root growth. (1)
A and B 
b) The effect of gravity on root growth. (1)
A and C 
3.1.2 Define the term tropism. (1)
Bending reaction of plants or parts of plant in response to an
external stimulus.
3.1.3 Explain why the apparatus was placed in a dark cupboard. (2)
• To ensure that the results are attributed to gravity 
• And not to light  / to eliminate the effect of light
3.1.4 Describe the expected results for each of groups B and C in this
investigation. (2)
A – No growth will be observed 
B – Roots will grow horizontally / not change direction 
3.1.5 Explain the expected results for group A. (3)
• Auxins will move to the lower side of the root  / attracted by
gravity
• And a high concentration of auxins will inhibit growth on the
lower side of the roots 
• While growth occurs faster on the upper side of the root 
• Causing the root to bend downwards 
(any 3 × 1)
3.1.6 State three ways in which the learner ensured a high level of validity
for this investigation. (3)
• Used same type of plant / pea only
• Seedlings were the same age  / germination period was 7 days
• All groups were exposed to the same environment  / light
intensity / placed in a dark cupboard
• Same number of seedlings in each group 
• Root tips were all cut at the same length 
• All seedlings placed in the same position  / horizontally
• Allowed same amount of time for the 3 groups 
• Appropriate controls were set up 
(any 3 × 1; mark first three only)
(13)

3.2 Weeds are problematic to farmers because they invade farm fields and
outcompete crop plants for space. This reduces crop yield.

213
Farmers spray their fields with chemicals, known as herbicides, to kill the
weeds. Some weeds, however, have evolved to be resistant to herbicides.
Scientists investigated the time it took for a species of weed to develop
resistance to five types of herbicides. The results are shown in the table
below.
Types of herbicide Time taken for weeds to develop
resistance (years)
2,4 – D 9
Dalapon 9
Picloran 25
Dicloflop 7
Trifluralin 26

3.2.1 Refer to the passage above and state how weeds act to reduce crop
yield. (1)
They outcompete crop plants for space 
3.2.2 Identify the:
a) independent variable (1)
The type of herbicide 
b) dependent variable (1)
Time taken for weed to develop resistance 
3.2.3 Name the herbicide:
a) to which the weeds developed resistance the fastest. (1)
Dicloflop 
b) that remained effective for the longest period of time. (1)
Trifluralin 
3.2.4 The scientists used the same weed species when investigating
resistance to the different herbicides.
a) Describe how the scientists would have determined the
resistance of the weeds to the herbicides. (2)
They would count the number of weeds that survived over a
period of time.
b) Explain how the use of the same weed species improved the
validity of this investigation. (2)
No other variable could have affected the weed species’
survival.
3.2.5 Draw a bar graph to show the time taken for the evolution of
resistance to the herbicides. (6)

214
 Time taken for weeds to develop resistance to
various herbicides

30

25

20

15

10

0
2,4 - D Dalapon Picloran Dicloflop Trifluralin
Type of Herbicide

Guidelines for marking graph

Criteria Mark
Type of graph 
Caption 
Scale: Correct scale for X-axes (equal

width of bars) and Y-axes
Labels: Correct label for X-axes and

correct label and unit of Y-axes)
Plotting : 1 – 4 bars correctly drawn
: All bars correctly drawn
NOTE:
 If the wrong type of graph is drawn, 1 mark will be lost for: “Correct
type of graph”.
 If labels of the axes are transposed then 2 marks will be lost for: “
Correct label AND scale for x-and y-axes.
(15)
[28]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [100]

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Cognitive levels distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1   2
1.1.2   2
1.1.3   2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
8 2 10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  2
1.4.3 a - b  5 (3+2)
1.4.4  2
8 2 10
1.5.1  1
1.5.2  1

216
 1.5.3  1
1.5.4 a - b  6 (3+3)
1.5.5  1
1 9 10
2.1.1 a - b  2 (1+1)
2.1.2  1
2.1.3  1
2.1.4  2
2.1.5  3
2.1.6  2
11 11
2.2.1  1
2.2.2  1
2.2.3  2
2.2.4  1
2.2.5  6
5 6 11
3.1.1 a - b  2 (1+1)
3.1.2  1
3.1.3  2
3.1.4  2
3.1.5  3
3.1.6  3
1 2 10 13
3.2.1  1
3.2.2 a - b  2 (1+1)
3.2.3 a - b  2 (1+1)
3.2.4 a - b  4 (2+2)
3.2.5  6
3 8 4 15
28 50 20 2 100

217
CHAPTER 9: EVOLUTION BY NATURAL
SELECTION

Overview

Time allocation: 2 weeks (8 hours)

This chapter consists of the following sections:
1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Origin of ideas of evolution and evidence for evolution
4. Theories of evolution
5. Evolution by natural selection
6. Formation of a new species
7. Artificial selection
8. Mechanism for reproductive isolation
9. Evolution in present times
10. Summary
11. End of topic exercises

Introduction

Learners will be introduced to one of the greatest ideas in science: the theory of
evolution by natural selection, formulated independently by Charles Darwin and
Alfred Russel Wallace.
You will explain that species are not static but have changed over time through the
process of evolution. Learners will review the various lines of evidence that support
the theory of evolution, and investigate the mechanisms that drive evolution, such as
natural selection.
They will develop an understanding of how a new species can arise (speciation)
through genetic mutations, presence of geographic barriers and mechanisms of
reproductive isolation.
Learners will learn that evolution requires a lot of time (often millions of year) in
some populations and can occur relatively quickly in others, such as bacteria.

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Key concepts and terminology

 Lamarck, Darwin and Wallace were the first to acknowledge that species are
not static but change over time and therefore must have come from a
common ancestor.
 There are multiple lines of evidence, from the fossil record, genetics,
comparative anatomy and biogeography, to support that species have
changed over time.
 Natural selection is one of the mechanisms that drive evolution and explains
that individuals best adapted to their environment will leave the most offspring
 Variation due to gene mutations is central to the process of natural selection
and natural selection only works on variation within a population.
 Humans have been changing organisms through selective breeding and
artificial selection which mimics natural selection.
 New species are formed through a process called speciation by either being
separated geographically or reproductively. When organisms of the same
species do not mate with one another, they then become two different
species.
 Speciation happens quickly followed by long periods of stasis (equilibrium)
when no changes occur. This is referred to as punctuated equilibrium.
 Evolution is a very slow process but can happen quickly in microorganisms
which rapidly reproduce resulting in many pathogens becoming resistant to
pesticides and drugs, making it difficult to fight those infections.

biological any genetic change in a population that is inherited over

evolution several generations
a group of organisms with similar characteristics that
biological species
interbreed with one another to produce fertile offspring
a group of individuals of the same species occupying a
population
particular habitat
punctuated evolution characterised by long periods of little or no
equilibrium change followed by short periods of rapid change
mechanism of evolution - organisms survive if they have
natural selection
characteristics that make them suited to the environment
human-driven selective force, e.g. breeding of plants and
artificial selection
animals to produce desirable traits
inbreeding mating of individuals that are closely related

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 outbreeding mating of individuals that are not closely related
speciation the formation of a new species
geographic formation of a new species when the parent population
speciation separated by a geographical barrier
reproductive a mechanism that prevents two species from mating with
isolation one another and making fertile hybrids

Origin of ideas about origins

A brief history of how the theory of evolution was determined should be taught.
Teachers should explain that religious explanations do not form part of the
discussion on evolution.
Learners will be introduced to the main lines of evidence supporting the idea that
species have changed and how they have changed. Learners should be made
aware that the theory of evolution emerges from multiple lines of evidence e.g.
fossils (taught in grade 10), genetics, biogeography, and comparative anatomy
together with other forms of evidence.

Theories of evolution

In this section, a brief history of the development of the theory of evolution is

discussed, including how long it takes for species to change (punctuated
equilibrium).
Learners will be introduced to the two major contributors to the theory evolution,
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin. Teachers should reiterate that there
were a few other naturalists that had similar ideas, but Lamarck and Darwin
developed their ideas further. It is important to remember that Lamarck did not
provide any mechanisms of evolution (how the changes in species occurred)
whereas Darwin's mechanism of evolution was natural selection (discussed in a
separate section).
Teachers should focus the differences and similarities in Lamarckism and
Darwinism. It is important that learners are able to apply ideas about how species
changed to different scenarios according to different theories of evolution – the
chapter activity is there to help build the learners understanding of how each theory
works. Learners should also be taught why Lamarckism is not accepted today.

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Evolution by natural selection

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection explains that organisms have

evolved from previous organisms by natural selection. This section links very well to
the Genetics chapter.
Teachers must emphasize the fact that natural selection only operates on variation in
inherited characteristics and that most species are unable to survive in a new
environment and become extinct, but some species have traits suitable to the new
environment and thus go on to reproduce.
Teachers must ensure that learners are familiar with how natural selection works and
should be taught how to apply the same steps to a different scenario – the activity on
natural selection will help guide learners in applying what they have learnt to an
unfamiliar organism.
Only one example of natural selection has been given. The peppered moth is a
simple yet iconic example of how there is natural variation within a population and
when the environment changes, the variation within the population allows it to
survive.

Activity 1: Natural selection

Question 1
A scientist used guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in an investigation to test Darwin's
theory of natural selection. Male guppies have brightly coloured spots to attract
females, but these spots also attract predators.
It was previously observed that males living in streams where there were many
predatory fish tended to have fewer spots. This reduced their risk of being eaten.
Those males living in streams with fewer predators had more spots.

Guppy showing spots (adapted from [Link])

The procedure for the investigation was as follows:
 Equal numbers of male and female guppies were put into two ponds (pond 1
and pond 2).

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  In pond 1, predatory fish that prey on guppies were introduced.
 In pond 2, predatory fish that do not feed on guppies were introduced.
 The guppies were allowed to breed for 20 months, representing several
generations of guppies. (Guppies reproduce when they are about three
months old.)

The result of the investigation:

The male guppies in pond 2 had significantly more spots than the male guppies in
pond 1.
1.1 How could the validity of this investigation be increased? (2)
By ensuring that both ponds in an experiment have identical  environmental
conditions  ; by ensuring that there were equal numbers  of predatory fish
in both ponds  (any one correct answer)
1.2 Identify the:
(a) independent variable (1)
the type of predators 
(b) dependent variable (1)
average number of spots on each male guppy 
1.3 Explain why the scientist included pond 2 in this investigation. (3)
as a control  , to compare the results between the ponds
to ensure that any changes that occurred  were due to the presence of
predators  and not other environmental factors.
1.4 Describe how Darwin's theory of natural selection can be used to explain why
the guppies in pond 1 had fewer spots. (5)
there is variation  amongst the male guppies
some have more spots  while others have fewer spots 
the ones that have more spots attract predators  and are eaten  by the
predators.
the ones with fewer spots survived  and reproduced to pass the gene for
fewer spots on to the next generation  (any five)

Question 2
2.1. What type of characteristics does nature select during evolution? (1)
Those that will benefit an organism and make it more successful 

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 2.2 In nature, there is always a fight for survival due to competition, predation
and adverse weather conditions. Suggest a collective term for all these
factors. (1)
Selective forces 
2.3 Why is the concept of natural selection so important? (2)
It provides a mechanism for evolution  , explaining that animals are able to
change to a changing environment and that these small changes over time
can result in a new species being formed  that is different to ancestral
species.
2.4 Why is natural selection not a random process? (2)
The environment actively selects  which organisms are best suited to their
environment  . The ways by which variation arises in a population may be
random but natural selection is a very selective process.
2.5 In a population of mice, half were light in colour and half were dark.
a) If an owl, hunts in the area at night, which mice have the more
favourable characteristic? Explain your answer in terms of natural
selection. (3)
The dark coloured mice  – they will be difficult to spot in the dark  as
they will be well camoflauged at night  in their surroundings
b) If the predator was a snake that detects the body heat of its prey, which
mice would probably have the more favourable variation? Explain your
answer. (3)
The light coloured mice  – lighter colours absorb less heat than darker
colours  . Darker coloured mice will absorb more heat and therefore
will be more “visible” to the snake  .

Question 3
Before the industrial revolution, light-coloured moths were far more common in
England than dark-coloured moths. Trees were covered by a pale lichen which
provided camouflage for the lighter moth. Dark moths were much more visible and
were eaten by birds.
Due to pollution from factories in the 19th century, the environment changed. Lichen
was killed off, and a black soot covered the bark on the trees. This provided good
camouflage for the dark-coloured moths, but the light-coloured moths stood out from
their background and were ready prey for birds.
The following is a graph showing the changes in the percentage of dark-coloured
moths over a number of years.

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Changes in the percentage of dark-coloured moths in relation to pollution over a
period of time.
Percentage dark-coloured moths

Pollutants in air (μg/m )

3
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985

Key: dark-coloured moths pollutants in the air

3.1 What is the general relationship between the dark-coloured moth

population and the pollution from 1965 to 1985? (1)
Direct relationship 
3.2 Explain the relationship mentioned in question 3.1 (1)
As the air pollution decreased over time, the percentage of dark coloured
moths also decreased 
3.3 Why did the population of the light-coloured moths decrease during the 19th
century? (2)
The pollution caused a black ash to cover the lichen on the birch trees which
made the light coloured moths more visible to predators  and therefore the
population numbers would decrease as predation increased 
3.4 Once the air pollution had decreased, what do you think happened to the
population of the light-coloured moths? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
The light coloured moth population would have increases since lower
pollution levels resulted in less ash on the birch trees, allowing the lichen to
grow again  . Lighter coloured moths are more difficult to see on a light
background and so would not be predated upon .
(30)

Activity 2: Punctuated equilibrium

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The graph below shows the speed at which evolution occurs in a species of butterfly.

B
evolution

time

1. Explain the trend in evolution represented by:

a) phase A (2)
No evolutionary change takes place in phase A  – the species is in
equilibrium with its environment .
b) phase B (2)
Phase B points to an accelerated evolutionary change  due to rapid
environmental changes .
2. In view of the trend represented by A and B, what type of evolution is
represented by the graph? (1)
Punctuated equilibrium 
3. Explain why the chances of speciation are great during phase B. (2)
During phase B, species with advantageous characteristics, i.e. suitable to
the new environment, survive and reproduce.  Species that do not have
advantageous characteristics die out. Thus the chances of speciation during
phase B are much greater than during phase A .
(7)

Activity 3: Theories of evolution

1. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was a French naturalist who proposed his theory
of evolution in 1809.
a) Name the two ideas on which Lamarck’s theory was based. (2)
The more a part was used, the larger and more dominant the trait
became – the Law of Use and Disuse  .
Acquired changes were passed down to offspring – Law of Inheritance

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 of Acquired characteristics 
b) Why was his theory considered incorrect and therefore subsequently
rejected? (1)
Lamarck’s ideas were rejected since he suggested that the acquired
characteristic which an organism gained through its life experience was
transferred to it’s offspring, which is not possible, since the acquired
characteristic does not bring any change to an individuals set of genes
.
c) Was Lamarck’s work entirely without value because his theory had
been rejected? (2)
No  , it laid the foundation that traits could be passed on to offspring
and he attempted to explain how and why species had changed from
those in the fossil record  .

2. Charles Darwin, a British naturalist, made his most important observations

regarding evolution on the Galapagos islands.
a) List four observations his evolutionary theory was based on. (4)
 Populations can produce far more offspring than needed 
 Sizes of most natural population and resources remain relatively
constant  .
 Natural variation of characteristics among members of the same
species are evident 
 Some characteristics are inherited and so are passed on to the next
generation 
b) Describe how Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection would have
explained the development of long necks in giraffes. (7)
Organisms produce a large number of offspring  .
There is a lot of variation among offspring as offspring differ from their
parents in minor random ways – for example, in the length of their
necks  .
The offspring with traits / characteristics that make them better suited
to the environment – i.e. with long necks to get to food sources others
can’t get to – will be most likely to survive and reproduce  .
The organisms without the trait are less able to get to the food and so
will die  .
This means that more offspring in the next generation will have longer
necks, a helpful difference. The next generation will have a higher
proportion of individuals with the new trait – long necks  .
These differences – the long necks – accumulate and eventually all

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 individuals in a population have the new trait 
Over time, together with other minor changes, this process leads to an
entirely new species and evolution by natural selection will have take
place  .
c) Tabulate two differences between the theories of Charles Darwin and
Lamarck. (5)
one mark for table, plus any two differences
Lamarckism Darwinism
Members of a population are all Natural variation within the same
the same  population 
Individuals are able to transform Populations transform over time and
during a life time  only through genetic means 
Individual chooses which traits Natural selection – the environment is
to pass on to offspring; changes the selective pressure causing
are directed to meet survival  change 

3. Below are statements referring to the evolution of species. Decide if the

statement applies to Darwin, Lamarck or to both scientists.
a) Only the fittest individuals with the most advantageous characteristics
survive in a changing environment. (1)
Darwin 
b) All members are slightly different and these differences accumulate
over time, changing their appearance. (1)
Both 
c) A whale’s hind limbs were severely reduced because they no longer
used legs in the water. (1)
Lamarck 
d) Species acquire bigger and better structures by the increase in their use
and pass these structures on to their offspring. (1)
Lamarck 
(25)

Formation of a new species (Speciation)

This section introduces learners to the concept of speciation (how a species is

made). Teachers should ensure that learners understand the difference between a
biological species and a population. The biological species concept defines a
species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature
producing fertile offspring, not according to similarity of appearance. Teachers must

227
explain that although appearance is helpful in identifying species, it does not define
species. Organisms may appear to be alike and be different species genetically.
Two main causes of variation in organisms 1 - mutations cause by changes in
genes, and 2 - recombination of genes during prophase 1 of Meiosis and sexual
reproduction. Teachers should ensure that learners understand that not all mutations
in the genetics of an organism results in a physical change.
The two main mechanisms of speciation are sympatric speciation and allopatric
(geographic) speciation. Learners must be taught that in order for change to occur,
individuals of a population need to be isolated from one another. This is done either
through a geographic barrier (allopatric speciation) or through reproductive strategies
of different species, ensuring that two difference species do not interbreed with one
another.

Activity 4: Speciation

Question 1
1. Bontebok are antelope that are found in the Western Cape. Two main
populations exist, one at the Bontebok National Park and the other at Table
Mountain National Park. These two national parks are hundreds of
kilometres apart. Scientists believe that due to geographical separation,
speciation may occur.
1.1 Define the term “speciation”. (2)
the formation of a new species  
1.2 Define the term ‘species’. (3)
A group of organisms  that are closely related to each other  , and
are able to interbreed and produce viable offspring 
1.3 Name the type of speciation that may occur in the bontebok
populations. (2)
Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation  

2. For each of the statements below, state whether the statement is TRUE or
FALSE. Where false, correct the statement so that it is true.
2.1 Genetic barriers cause divided populations to remain the same. (2)
False – causes populations to diverge  
2.2 Reproductive isolation prevents two or more populations from changing
genes. (2)
True  

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 2.3 Populations that become isolated by means of a geographic barrier will
not differ from their ancestral species. (2)
False – they will differ from ancestral species  
2.4 Competition, predation, climatic factors and disease are all
selective forces / environmental pressures. (2)
True  

Question 2
Darwin discovered two different species of tortoises on two different island in the
Galapagos. One had a domed shell and short neck, the other had an elongated shell
and a longer neck. The two islands had very different vegetation. One of the islands
(island X) was rather barren, dry and arid. It had no grass but rather short tree-like
cactus plants. On the other island (island Y), there were no cactus plants but it had a
good supply of water and grass grew freely. The diagram below shows the two main
species of tortoise.

Tortoise 1 Tortoise 2

1.1 Which tortoise (1 or 2) would have been found on:

a) Island X Tortoise 2  (1)
b) Island Y Tortoise 1  (1)
1.2 Describe how the two tortoise species became different species. (5)
 The ancestral tortoise population was separated by a geographic barrier
(the ocean) as they were found on the mainland and an islands 
 There was no gene flow between the populations 
 Each population was exposed to different climatic conditions and different
vegetation types, so that natural selection occurs independently in both
populations 
 The individuals in the populations become very different to each other
both in their genes (genotypically) and their appearance (phenotypically)

 Even if the populations were to mix again, they will not be able to

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 reproduce with one another  , since they are now two different species.
1.3 Scientists believe that the variation in populations lead to the formation of
new species. List four sources of variation in populations. (4)
crossing over during Prophase I of meiosis  ; the random arrangement of
maternal and paternal chromosomes  ; random fertilisation of egg cells  ;
random mating 
(26)

Artificial selection

Artificial selection has been practiced by farmers since the first domesticated crops
of maize and learners should be reminded about what they learnt about genetic
engineering and how Mendel’s laws allow farmers to manually manipulate genes.
Teachers should make the learners aware that artificial selection and natural
selection are the same process, carried out by different drivers and results in slightly
different levels of variation.

Activity 5: Artificial selection and domestication

Question 1
1.1 List four ways in which artificial selection has been used in agriculture. (4)
any four, one mark  each
 produce disease resistant crops
 improve yield of crops
 adapt old crops to grow in adverse conditions
 develop special breeds for particular purposes
 enhance nutritional value and flavour of crops
1.2 Copy the table below and complete it showing the differences between
artificial selection and natural selection. (9)

Artificial selection Natural Selection

Driven by... man  nature 
Rate of change... faster  slower 
Amount of variation achieved less  more 
improved crops suitable to changed
End result
and livestock  environment 
1.3 Humans have been domesticating plants for years and today, most
agricultural species come from domesticated varieties.

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 a) Define the term “domestication”. (2)
the selecting and breeding of organisms  with desirable characteristics

b) What was one of the first crops to be domesticated in the world? (1)
maize (Zea mays) 
c) Name two characteristics that were selected for in the domestication of
the crop mentioned in (b) above. (2)
any two: reduced covering of the seed  ; retention of seeds (kernels)
on the cob  ; erect habit with a single stalk  ; larger ear structure 

Question 2
Decide if the statements below are TRUE or FALSE.
2.1 Cultivated plants show higher degrees of phenotypic variation than wild
plants (1)
True 
2.2 Natural selection is a random process. (1)
False 
2.3 Artificial selection is similar to natural selection, except the process is driven
by man and is a quicker process. (1)
True 
2.4 The final product of artificial selection is the adaptation of populations of
organisms to their environment. (1)
False 
2.5 All hybrids are infertile. (1)
False 
2.6 Artificial selection has been used by humans to speed up evolution. (1)
False 
(24)

Mechanism for reproductive isolation

A brief discussion on various reproductive strategies in plants and animals is

provided and how these strategies prevent different species from interbreeding. A
short description is provided for various reproductive isolation strategies together
with simple examples of each.

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Evolution in present times

Evolution is always happening, however most of the time it is impossible to observe

changes in population and species because evolution happens very slowly. This
section demonstrates that evolution is constantly happening, even in this day and
age. Learners should understand how gene mutations and sexual reproduction in
organisms, such as viruses and bacteria, allow them to evolve very quickly over a
short period of time. This has resulted in the evolution of many drug resistant
pathogens, which is having negative impacts on communities in South Africa and the
world. Teachers should facilitate a class discussion on the importance of finishing a
course of antibiotics.

For enrichment

Evolution 101 - Understanding evolution (Berkley Education)

[Link]

Summary

 Evolution is a constant change that takes place slowly.

 The process of change is called natural selection and the combined long-term
change is called evolution.
 There is significant evidence that certain species have changed over time and
yet share similar characteristics. This suggests that these species must have
originated from a common ancestor.
 Evolution by natural selection is driven by changing environmental factors.
 Natural selection states that only those individuals with traits suitable to a new
environment will survive and reproduce.

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 Natural selection is one mechanism of evolution and only works on variation
within a population that already exists. It does not explain how new structures
appeared or why.
 Variation in a population arise due to gene mutations and through sexual
reproduction.
 The process by which species change is call speciation and there are two main
types – geographic (allopatric) speciation and sympatric speciation.
 Allopatric speciation is commonly known as geographic speciation. When a
population is split by a geographical barrier and the populations are exposed to
different environmental conditions and selective forces, natural selection will
work independently on both populations simultaneously such that they become
different from the original population, becoming different species.
 Sympatric speciation is which two species become separated in the same area
through isolation in reproductive strategies and timings.
 Evolution takes a long time and it is impossible to observe changes in a species
in one lifetime, however, in rapidly reproducing pathogens, evolution can
happen quickly.
 Pathogens develop resistant to drug and pesticides because some of the
pathogens are naturally resistant to the drugs. When the drugs kill the non
resistant pathogens, only the resistant pathogens remain, resulting in a
population of pathogens that cannot be killed by conventional drugs or
pesticides.

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End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write the letter (A – D) next to the question
number (1.1.1–1.1.5) for example 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 The theory of evolution by natural selection was first described by …

A Gregor Mendel
B Watson and Crick
C Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
D Charles Darwin 

1.1.2 The reason that Lamarck would have provided for the long beak of
the hummingbird is that:

A all hummingbirds have the same beak length

B there is natural variation in beak length and some birds are
therefore better suited to feed on nectar
C the more the hummingbird used its beak, the longer it grew

D hummingbirds with shorter beaks were more fit for survival

1.1.3 Lamarck's 'laws' of use and disuse and inheritance of acquired

characteristics were:

A rejected, because only characteristics that benefit offspring can

be inherited.
B not rejected, because evidence shows that acquired
characteristics can be inherited

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 C rejected, because only characteristics that are coded for in
the DNA can be inherited 
D not rejected, because Darwin's theory supports Lamarck's

1.1.4 During an investigation, researchers measured the beak size of a

certain species of finch on the Galapagos Islands. The type of food
available before and after a drought was a factor in the study of the
evolution of the beaks of finches.

drought
mean beak depth

1975 1976 1977 1978

Which factor is the dependent variable?

A the amount of rain
B the type of food available
C the beak size of finches 
D the year
(4 x 2) = (8)

1.2 Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.
1.2.1 The permanent disappearance of a species from earth.
Extinction 
1.2.2 A tentative explanation of a phenomenon that can be tested.
Hypothesis 
1.2.3 The distribution of species in different parts of the world.
Biogeography 

235
 1.2.4 Variation that results in distinct phenotypes.
discontinuous variation 
1.2.5 The explanation that species experience long periods without
physical change, followed by short periods of rapid physical change.
Punctuated equilibrium 
1.2.6 An explanation for something that has been observed in nature and
which can be supported by facts, laws and tested hypotheses.
Theory 
1.2.7 Formation of a new species when a physical barrier has divided a
population.
Allopatric speciation 
1.2.8 The breeding of plants and animals to produce desirable
characteristics.
Artificial selection 
1.2.9 The process whereby organisms better suited to their environment
survive and produce more offspring.
Natural selection 
1.2.10 A group of similar organisms which interbreed successfully with each
other to produce fertile offspring.
Species 
(10 × 1) = (10)

1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B

ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 The selection and breeding of organisms A: natural selection
with desirable characteristics by humans B: artificial selection
1.3.2 An example of discontinuous variation in A: skin colour
humans B: height
A: breeding at the same time
1.3.3 Example of a reproductive isolating of the year
mechanism B: adaptation to different
pollinators
1.3.4 A group of similar organisms that can A: species
interbreed to produce fertile offspring B: genus

236
 1.3.5 Desired characteristics are passed on A: artificial selection
from parent to offspring B: natural selection
(5 x 2) = (10)
1.3.1 B only 
1.3.2 None 
1.3.3 B only 
1.3.4 A only 
1.3.5 Both A and B 

1.4 Since 1972, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant from Princeton University
in the USA have studied finch populations in the Galapagos. The table below
shows their data collected on one island (Daphne Major), for a period of 7
years. They studied one finch population on Daphne Major.

Year 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

rainfall (mm) - - 130 20 130 70 50
number of finches 1100 1300 1100 200 350 300 250
small seeds (mg/m2) - 800 600 90 300 70 50

1.4.1 In which year were the largest drop in rainfall, number of seeds and
number of finches recorded? (1)
1977 
1.4.2 Explain how the three events mentioned in question 1.4.1 are related
to each other. (3)
A drop in rainfall causes a drop in seeds / plants  because of
drought that causes a lack of seeds / food for finches , therefore,
fewer finches 
1.4.3 When the number of finches decreased, there were still plenty of
large seeds on the island. What does this tell you about the seed-
eating habits of the finches that died? (1)
These finches were not able to eat the large seeds 
(5)

1.5 Many dog breeds exist today as shown in the diagram below.

237
 (a) Explain why all breeds of domestic dogs belong to the same
species. (2)
They are able to interbreed with each other  to produce fertile
offspring 
(b) Describe how artificial selection has led to different breeds of
domestic dogs. (3)
Humans chose characteristics that they like and bred dogs with
those phenotypes and genotypes  to create dogs that suit
their needs, e.g. hunters, companions, helpers.  The different
breeds are bred for the different needs and therefore selected
characteristics. 
(5)

1.6 This question applies to the diagram on the next page.

The ancestor of the modern horse had very differently shaped foot bones.
Scientists believed that the structure of the foot bones evolved as the
environment changed from swampy areas with soft mud to drier and harder
soil. This allowed the animals to move effectively in each habitat.

ankle bones

foot bones

Eohippus Mesohippus Merychippus Equus

50 35 25 5 - millions of year ago

Key: the shaded bones are the ones that touched the ground

238
 1.6.1 Describe two changes to the bones that have taken place over the
past 50 million years. (2)
Bones became larger / longer / thicker , there were fewer bones
, fewer bones touched the ground  (any two)
1.6.2 Eohippus lived in swampy areas with soft mud. Explain one
advantage to Eohippus of the arrangement of bones in its feet. (2)
Large/r surface / area in contact with the ground  *compulsory
low / less pressure on the ground , less likely to sink into ground /
mud , could run faster , easier to escape predators 
(* compulsory + any one)
1.6.3 The changes in the arrangement of the foot bones of horses support
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. Explain how the
arrangement of the foot bones of Eohippus could have evolved into
the arrangement of the foot bones of Equus. (6)
There was a great deal of variation in the size, number, arrangement
of foot bones 
some had larger / fewer bones and were suited to run faster on
harder / drier ground 
some had smaller / many bones could not run fast and were more
easily caught by predators / they died 
the ones that could run faster survived and reproduced 
passed the allele for larger / fewer bones to the next generation 
the next generation therefore had a higher proportion of individuals
with larger / fewer bones. 
(10)
Section A: [48]

Section B
Question 2
2.1 An investigation was conducted by a scientist to determine if two plant
populations, Population 1 and Population 2, belonged to the same species.
The scientist collected seeds from each of the populations.
The procedure followed was :
 He planted 20 seeds from Population 1 and 20 seeds from
Population 2 in two separate plots close to each other.
 The stamens of all the flowers of Population 1 were removed.
 Pollen from the flowers of Population 2 was used to pollinate the

239
 flowers of Population 1.
 The scientist harvested the seeds of the plants in Population 1.
 He grew these seeds under ideal conditions in a laboratory.

Result: None of the seeds germinated.

2.1.1 Explain the advantage of removing the stamens from the flowers of
Population 1. (2)
Stamens contain pollen grains in the anthers 
Removing stamens prevents self-fertilisation of Population 1. 
2.1.2 What evidence indicates that the two populations do not belong to
the same species? (1)
Inability to produce fertile seeds / infertile seeds did not germinate 
2.1.3 State two factors that the scientist would have kept constant in the
laboratory. (2)
Amount of water used on both populations must be the same 
Distance between the planted seeds must be the same 
The type of soils used must be the same 
The amount of light must be the same for both populations 
(any two)
2.1.4 State one way in which the scientist could have increased the
reliability of his results. (1)
Increase the sample size (more seeds) for each of the populations 
Repeat the investigation, and if the results are the same, it is reliable
 (any one)
(6)

2.2 Study the diagram below of the moth species that originally belonged to a
single population but was later separated by a mountain into two groups.

240
 Species A

Mountain
range

Species B Species C

2.2.1 Name the process which is illustrated in the diagram above. (1)
Speciation 
2.2.2 Explain the importance of the process you identified in question 2.2.1
above. (2)
Increases diversity of species / biodiversity 
Introduces reproductive isolation mechanisms 
Eliminates gene flow between different populations 
Decreases extinction rates of species 
(any two)
2.2.3 Why is species A the ancestor of species B and C? (2)
Species B and C  evolved from species A. 
Species A existed prior to species B , and species C evolved at the
same time as species B  (any one x 2)
2.2.4 Explain the above illustrated process in relation to the three species
indicated in the diagram. (6)
Moth in species A belonged to a single population. The population
of species A moths was split into two groups, one on each side of
the mountain range. 

241
 Gene flow / interbreeding between the two groups was completely
eliminated / impossible 
Each group was exposed to unique environmental factors / selection
pressures 
Natural selection occurred independently in each group on either
side of the mountain. 
Each population became genotypically and phenotypically different
from the other population. 
If the two groups were to mix again and attempt to interbreed, the
offspring would be infertile. Thus two new species will then have
been produced. 
(11)
2.3 Tabulate two differences between natural selection and artificial selection.
(3)
Natural selection Artificial selection
Nature is the selective force Humans are the selective force
Selection is based on adaptation to Selection is based on what is
the environment desirable to humans
Selected individuals may survive
Selected individuals are able to only under controlled conditions
survive in the wild since they are since their characteristics were not
adapted to the environment selected according to adaptations
to the environment.

 - for table,  - for each of two differences provided

(3)
2.4 Study the extract below which describes the evolution of the snake

How snakes lost their limbs has long been a mystery to scientists: New
research on a 90-million-year-old snake fossil suggests that snakes
evolved to live and hunt in burrows as many snakes still do today.
It is generally accepted that snakes and lizards are closely related,
although very few transitional fossils have been found to support this
generalisation.
(adapted from [Link]

a) Explain one characteristic that you would expect a transitional

snake fossil to have. (1)
Smaller limbs than the ancestor compared to no limbs of
modern snakes 

242
 More vertebrae than the ancestor but less than the modern
snake  (any one)
b) Describe how Jean Baptiste de Lamarck would have explained
the loss of limbs in snakes? (4)
Lizards crawled into burrows to find food / escape from
predators 
They did not use their limbs anymore 
The limbs became smaller and eventually disappeared 
They passed on this characteristic to their offspring 
(5)
[25]

Question 3
3.1 Lizards of a certain species on an island are usually brown in colour. A
mutation in one gene for body colour results in red or black lizards. Black
lizards camouflage well against the dark rocks and warm up faster on cold
days which will give them energy to avoid predators.
Scientists investigated the relationship between the colour of lizards in a
population and their survival rate on an island.
They conducted the investigation as follows:
 They selected a group of lizards of a certain species in a habitat.
 They recorded the percentage of each colour (brown, red or black) in
the selected group.
 They repeated the investigation over a period of 30 generations of
offspring.
The results of the investigation are shown in the table below.

Colour of Percentage (%) of each colour

lizards In the population
Initial 10th 20th 30th
population generation generation generation
Brown 80 80 70 40
Red 10 0 0 0
Black 10 20 30 60
(adapted from https//[Link]/bioInteractive)

3.1.1 State the:

a) independent variable (1)
colour of lizard 
b) dependent variable (1)

243
 survival rate of the lizards 
3.1.2 Explain the effect of the mutation on the survival of red lizards. (2)
It decreases survival / lizards may die / is harmful / is lethal to the red
lizards  since they will be seen on the black rock by the predators 
OR They could not escape predators / catch prey on cold days 
as red lizards did not warm up fast on cold days  (any one × 2)
3.1.3 Explain why the scientists had to conduct this investigation over 30
generations. (2)
To allow enough time for reproduction and survival  to be able to
calculate the percentage to ensure reliability of results 
OR A change in population proportions will not be seen over a
shorter time period  to ensure reliability of results  (any one × 2)
3.1.4 State two ways in which the scientists could have improved the
validity of the investigation. (2)
Conduct the investigation in the same habitat / environment 
Use the same sampling technique 
Capture the same number of lizards in each sampled generation 
Take each sample at the same time of day / weather conditions 
(Mark first two only – any 2)
3.1.5 Use the theory of natural selection to explain the higher percentage
of black lizards in the population of the 30th generation. (6)
There is variation in colour amongst the lizards
* Red and brown lizards have a disadvantageous characteristic /
trait and 
* are not camouflaged / cannot warm up fast enough to have energy
to run away 
and are killed by predators 
* The black lizards have the advantageous trait and 
* are better camouflaged / warm up faster to have energy to avoid
predators 
and survive / reproduce 
The allele for black colour is passed on to the next generation
to produce more black lizards in the next generation 
(any 2 + * 4 compulsory marks)
3.1.6 Draw a bar graph to compare the percentage of the brown and the
black lizards in the initial population and the 30th generation. (6)

244
 Comparison of percentage of brown and
th
black lizards in the initial and 30 generation
Percentage (%) of population
80
Initial population
60
th
30 generation
40

10

Brown Black
Colour of lizards

Guideline for assessing graph

Bar graph for the required data 
Title of graph 
Correct label and scale for X-axis 
Correct label and scale for Y-axis 
: 1 – 3 bars plotted correctly
Drawing of bars
: All 4 bars plotted correctly
If wrong type of graph, marks lost for Bar graph, and Drawing of bars.
(20)
3.2 The diagram shows the distribution of various camels on the different
continents. The arrows indicate the current distribution of the animals.

245
 llamas
dromedary bactrian

(adapted from [Link]

Explain how speciation of camels may have occurred. (6)

The common ancestor / original camel population was separated into
different populations by the sea / due to continental drift 
There was no gene flow between the populations. 
Each population was exposed to different environmental conditions
/ selection pressures 
Natural selection occurred independently in each of the populations 
The individuals of each of the separated populations became different from
each other over time genotypically and phenotypically 
Even if the three populations were to mix again they would not be able to
interbreed to produce fertile offspring. 
[26]

Section B: [51]

Total Marks: [99]

246
Cognitive level distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
2 8 8
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
10 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  3
1.4.3  1
2 3 5
1.5 a  2
1.5 b  3
5 5
1.6.1  2
1.6.2  2
1.6.3  6
2 8 10
2.1.1  2
2.1.2  1
2.1.3  2

247
 2.1.4  1
4 2 6
2.2.1  1
2.2.2  2
2.2.3  2
2.2.4  6
1 8 2 11
2.3  3
3 3
2.4 a  1
2.4 b  4
5 5
3.1.1 a - b  2
3.1.2  2
3.1.3  2
3.1.4  2
3.1.5  6
3.1.6  6
16 4 20
3.2  6
6 26
19 72 9 99

248
CHAPTER 10: HUMAN EVOLUTION

Overview

Time Allocation: 4 weeks (16 hours)

This chapter consists of the following sections:
1. Introduction
2. Key concepts and terminology
3. Our place in the animal kingdom
4. Characteristics that we share with African apes
5. Lines of evidence that support the idea of common ancestors for living
hominids including humans
6. 'Out of Africa' hypothesis
7. Fossil sites in Africa and South Africa
8. Alternatives to evolution
9. For enrichment
10. Summary
11. End of topic exercises

Introduction

This chapter focusses very specifically on human evolution by considering three

major phases of hominin evolution starting from approximately 6 million years ago to
the present day. As a first step, we consider the place of humans in the animal
kingdom, as part of the Order Primates, and the Family Hominidae, which includes
us modern humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans.
We consider the notion of a common ancestor for the Family Hominidae, by exploring
what we share with other hominids, represented by chimpanzees. We also look at
differences between us and chimps - anatomical differences as a result of bipedalism
and a larger brain
The next step is to the lines of evidence supporting the notion of a common
ancestor. We consider the fossil evidence, genetic and cultural evidence.
This leads us to the consideration of the Out of Africa hypothesis - the theory that
early humans evolved in Africa, and over time, spread all across the world. This will
be done by evaluating the fossil evidence in eastern and southern Africa and what
mitochondrial DNA studies have shown.
249
We briefly delve into South Africa's contribution to an understanding of human
evolution by considering our numerous fossil sites, e.g., the Cradle of Humankind.
And in the last section to this chapter, we briefly consider some of these
alternatives.

Key concepts and terminology

 In the fossil record, there is considerable evidence for a common ancestor for
living hominids, including humans.
 There are distinct similarities between African apes and humans, as there are
clear anatomical differences.
 There is genetic evidence linking modern humans to a common ancestor in
East Africa approximately 60 000 years ago.
 According to the Out of Africa hypothesis, modern humans originated in Africa
and then migrated out of Africa into the rest of the world.
 South African fossil sites, particularly the area known as the Cradle of
Humankind, are rich in fossil records that together with the Rift Valley fossils,
trace a 6 million-year-long evolutionary development from an ape-like
ancestor to modern humans.
 The theory of evolution is not universally accepted, and a number of
alternative theories have been developed to account for the diversity of life.

Key terminology
Hominids are a biological group that includes modern humans,
hominids our early human ancestors, chimpanzees and bonobos, gorillas
and orangutans, sometimes collectively referred to as apes.
Hominins are a sub-group of the hominids, and includes only
hominins
modern humans and early human ancestors.
homo This is a Latin term meaning ‘human’.
Homo sapiens means ‘wise human’. All humans living today
Homo sapiens
belong to the same species of Homo sapiens.
A biological grouping that includes lemurs, baboons,
primates chimpanzees, apes, and humans. Primates share a number of
characteristics as will be detailed shortly.
phylogenetic A branching diagram or "tree" showing the evolutionary
diagram relationships among various biological species

250
Our place in the Animal Kingdom

Discussing the scientific theory of evolution, and particularly human evolution,

can quickly lead to very defensive reactions based on a misunderstanding of
what human evolution is actually saying. This is minimised when placing the
human within a classification of living things (the Kingdom Animalia), and part of
a large family, the Family Hominidae.
Learners must be able to situate the Family Hominidae within the Order
Primates using a phylogenetic tree, and to interpret it.
They must be able to determine the position and dating of a common ancestor
for a particular taxon, and be able to explain what a 'common ancestor' is in the
context of the scientific study of human evolution.

Activity 1: Phylogenetic trees

1. To what Order and what Family do modern humans belong? (2)

The Order Primates  and the Family Hominidae 
2. Name two species that belong to the same Family humans belong to. (2)
Gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos  any two
3. According to the phylogenetic tree in Figure 2, when did the most recent
common ancestor for humans and gorillas exist? (1)
About 10 million years ago 
4. Distinguish hominids from hominins. (4)
Hominids are members of the Family Hominidae  and include humans and
early humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas and orangutans .
Hominins form a sub-group (tribe) within the Family Hominidae , and
include only modern humans and early human ancestors .
5. Study the phylogenetic tree below.

Which ONE of the following is a reasonable conclusion based on the

phylogenetic tree?

251
 A 1 and 2 belong to the same species
B 3 is more closely related to 4 than to 5 
C 1 and 5 do not have a common ancestor
D The DNA of 1 will be more similar to 4 than to 2 (2)

6. Study the phylogenetic tree below and answer the questions that follow.

Phylogenetic tree showing human evolution

average cranial capacity (cm )

Homo sapiens
3

Homo erectus

Homo habilis
Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus afarensis

4,5 4,0 3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5

0 million years ago

a) Define a phylogenetic tree. (2)

a branching diagram or "tree"  showing the evolutionary relationships

among various biological species 
b) Which organism is considered to be the common ancestor of all species
shown above? (1)
Australopithecus afarensis 
c) Which organism has the biggest cranial capacity? (1)
Homo sapiens 
d) Name TWO species that lived between 1,5 and 2 million years ago. (2)
Homo habilis  , Australopithecus africanus  and Homo erectus  (any
two)
e) Calculate the time difference between the evolution of Homo erectus and
Homo sapiens. (Show your working.) (3)
Homo sapiens: emerges around 0,5 mya  ; Homo erectus emerged
around 1,8 mya  . Time difference = 1,8 – 0,5 = 1,3 million years ago 

252
 f) Which organism – Homo erectus or Homo habilis − is more closely related
to modern day humans? (1)
Homo erectus 
(21)

Characteristics that humans share with African apes

Having a common ancestor that lived 10 million years ago implies that the
descendants of that ancestor will, to a greater or lesser extent, share some of
the ancestor's characteristics. We explore the characteristic shared by humans
and other primates (i.e. how we are alike), by humans and the other members of
the Family Hominidae (having a more recent common ancestor 6 mya).
But the process of evolution is an ongoing process, so there will be significant
differences that have developed in the interceding years. We explore these
differences as they apply to:
 bipedalism and related anatomical adaptations,
 increasing brain size and its morphological implications,
 dentition and palate shape,
 prognathism, cranial ridges and brow ridges.
This is done by comparing the above characteristics in a modern human with those
in chimpanzees. Learners should be able to identify the characteristics and their
changes, and apply these to make relevant judgements about what type of fossil
they are looking at.

Key terminology
a thumb that can be placed opposite the fingers of the same
opposable thumb
hand
sexual distinct differences in size or appearance between the sexes of
dimorphism an animal in addition to the sexual organs themselves
bipedalism ability to walk on two legs
quadrupedalism use of four limbs for locomotion (quadrupeds)
foramen magnum hole in the base of skull through which the spinal cord passes
ridge running across the top of the skull that served to attach
cranial ridge
large jaw muscles to the head
prognathous protruding (projecting forward) upper / lower jaw

253
A summary of the differences between modern humans and African apes …

Feature Humans (Homo sapiens) African apes

cranium large cranium / brain small cranium / brain
brow ridges not well developed well developed, prominent
spine more curved (S-shaped) less curved (C-shaped)
pelvic girdle short and wide long and narrow
canines small large
arrangement of
small gaps between teeth big gaps between teeth
teeth
palate shape small, semi-circular long, rectangular
jaws small, less prognathous large, more prognathous
cranial ridges none across top of cranium
foramen magnum in a forward position in a backward position

Activity 2: Anatomical differences and similarities between African

apes and modern humans

1. Name five characteristics that all hominids share, and name three differences
between humans and chimpanzees. (8)
Shared characteristics: Large brain, eyes in front of head, opposable thumbs,
bare fingertips / nails instead of claws, upright posture, freely rotating arms,
sexual dimorphism  for any five
Differences (human vs chimpanzee): Forward vs backward position of
foramen magnum, curved vs straighter spine, short, wide vs long, narrow
pelvis, no vs prominent brow ridges, C-shaped or semi-circular vs long,
rectangular palate, small vs large canines, orthognathic vs prognathous jaws
 for any three
2. Explain the meaning of the term ‘opposable thumb’ in your own words. (2)
The thumb is opposable if it can touch and exert pressure on the finger pad
of another finger  on the same hand 
3. Explain bipedalism in your own words. Is bipedalism simply the ability to
stand on two feet? (3)
Bipedalism or habitual bipedalism is the ability to stand erect and walk
comfort-ably on two feet  , placing one foot in front of the other, slight apart
. It is more than simply standing on two feet  – many animals can do that
for a short period
4. Name four advantages of bipedalism. (4)

254
  for any four: Hands are free to pick or carry food, to use tools or weapons;
Standing upright, with eyes higher off the ground, gives a better and wider
view of surroundings, a timelier warning of approaching predators or of
potential prey; Movement becomes easier and more energy-efficient; A more
vertical posture reduces the body’s exposure to sunlight when in an open
area; In courtship behaviour, the sex organ is readily displayed
5. Explain the meaning of binocular vision and depth perception. (4)
Binocular vision: having two eyes  in the front of the head  to view an
object. Depth perception is a function of the brain  that interprets what the
eyes see and recognises shape, distance, etc.  – this is known as
stereoscopic vision
6. Use a sketch to illustrate the meaning of the term ‘prognathous’. (3)
prognathous means protruding, as in sketch, the jaws
of the chimpanzee skull extend far beyond the vertical
line running through the eye-socket.
 - for sketch,  - showing jaws protruding

7. Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the evolution of

the palate shape and teeth from chimpanzee to
modern human. The diagram should include at least three visible
differences. (6)
Diagram illustrating the evolution of palate shape 
change in canines , smaller human teeth , changing palate shape 

Canines – humans canines differ

Changing palate shape

Humans have smaller

teeth generally

Chimpanzee vs human palate

255
8. The diagram shows the
skulls of two different
primate species.
The arrows point to the
position of a crucial part
of the skull. Answer the
questions below.

a) What part of the skull are the arrows pointing to in both cases? (1)
foramen magnum 
b) Which species, A or B, is more likely to be a quadruped? Explain. (3)
Species B  . When walking as quadruped, on all fours, the back is
almost horizontal  . To look forward comfortably, the spine needs to
go into the skull towards the back of the base 
c) Tabulate 4 directly observable differences between the two skulls. (5)
 - for table, each observable difference – any four
Skull A (human) Skull B (gorilla)
Brain size large Much smaller
Jaws Orthognathous / flat face Prognathous
Teeth Small, small canines Large, large canines
Cranial ridge none Present
Brow ridge none prominent
d) Explain how the change in the skulls pictured above might indicate a
change in intelligence. (3)
The larger the cranium  , the larger the brain is can house /
accommodate  . A larger brain suggests greater intelligence 
9. The diagram below gives parts of the skeletons of a human and an ape.
a) Which letter, A or B, best represents a bipedal organism? (1)
A
b) Explain how the shape of the pelvis contributes to bipedalism. (2)
The pelvis is A is shorter and wider (more cup-shaped) than the pelvis
in B  . It is better able to support the weight of vertically stacked
organs  , as in a human.

256
 c) Which other characteristic shown in the diagram below contributes to
bipedalism? (2)
The shape of the pelvis in A and the direction of the hip socket angle

the femur inwards  for maximum load bearing and an efficient,

comfortable bipedal gait 
(47)

Lines of evidence that support the idea of common

ancestors for living hominids including humans

In this section learners explore very specifically human evolution - the development
of modern humans from a very early human-ape-like organism, Ardipithecus
ramidus. From there, the process of human evolution is traced through the genus
Australopithecus and early Homo species.
Learners should be able to name / identify the various species mentioned, and give
information about them with regard to the fossil sites where they were found, the
scientists who discovered them, and discuss the evolutionary trends provided by the
fossils of the three genera.
Learners should be able to interpret and draw a time-line for the existence of the
three genera, and be able to tabulate the most significant changes that took place in
the evolution of modern humans.
As part of this, learners are encouraged to explore various phylogenetic trees, and
recognize that such trees are hypotheses, not definitive answers. Relationships
between fossilised species are inferred, and often strongly debated / argued about.

257
Key terminology
hominin The group consisting of modern and early humans
pithecus Greek word of ‘ape’
Biological classification ranking between family and
genus species, consisting of structurally or phylogenetically
related species
A group of organisms that are genetically similar, can
species
interbreed and produce fertile offspring
For all entries below, the first name: Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo
refers to the genus, the second name, e.g. ramidus, refers to the species.
Ardipithecus – ardi means ‘ground’, or ‘floor’, and
Ardipithecus ramidus ramidus means ‘root’: the name refers to the closeness
of this species to the roots / origins of humanity
Australophitecus Australis is the Latin for ‘southern’, thus southern ape.
A. afarensis afarensis – from Afar, a location in Ethiopia
A. africanus africanus – from Africa (thus southern ape of Africa)
A. sediba Sediba – Sotho word, meaning ‘natural spring’ or ‘well’
A. robustus robustus – meaning robust, strong, sturdy, heavy set.
Homo Latin word for human
H. habilis habilis – meaning skilful, or handy
H. erectus erectus – meaning erect, walking upright
Sapiens – wise, thus H. sapiens the wise human (a
H. sapiens
reference to the large brain)
H. ergaster* ergaster – the Greek word for ‘work’, thus working man
H. heidelbergensis* The names of these species are derived from two towns
H. neanderthalensis* in Europe where these species were first discovered
H. naledi* naledi – meaning star.

Phylogenetic trees of hominin evolution

Phylogenetic trees seek to provide some order into the story of human evolution. To
generate a phylogenetic tree, scientists analyse characteristics of the species
involved. This may include anatomical similarities and differences evident in the
fossil record. But given the scarcity of fossils and other data, “phylogenetic trees are
hypothesis, not definitive answers” (Khan Academy, Phylogenetic trees).
Here are two alternative phylogenetic trees.

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This phylogenetic tree emphasizes the fact that the story of human evolution is very
complex. Paleo-anthropologists infer relationships between different hominin
species based on shared traits. In some cases, identified by the question mark,
there is significant debate among scientists about the exact nature of the
relationships.

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Activity 3: Fossil evidence

1. Explain why our understanding of the sequence of human evolution based on

fossil evidence might change in the future. (2)
While numerous fossils have been found, most have only been discovered in
the last 50 years or so. Every fossil find requires study and interpretation, to
find out how it fits into the overall picture  . This is not an easy task,
particularly if you have few pieces of the puzzle  . New discoveries can
change our understanding radically, as has happened in the past already.

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2. The image below is of Mrs. Ples.

a) Name three ape-like features of this skull.(3)

Brow ridge , strongly projecting upper jaw
bone , smaller cranium / brain size  - for
any three
b) What clues are there in the image to the brain size of
Mrs. Ples. (2)
the size of the cranium 
c) Where was Mrs. Ples found, and by whom? (2)
by Robert Broom  , in 1947, near Sterkfontein 
d) What species did Mrs. Ples belong to, and when did this
species live? (2)
Australopithecus africanus  , lived in Africa between 3,2 and 2 million
years ago 
e) The species Mrs. Ples belonged to is extinct. What does this mean? (1)
Extinct means to no longer exist, no member of the species is still alive 
3. Which genus of early human lived on Earth for the longest time span? How
does this relate to the time span for the other two genera considered? (3)
The genus Australopithecus lived on Earth between 4 and 1,2 million years
ago – a total of 2,8 million years  , much longer than the genus Homo
(about 2,2 million years)  , and very much longer than the Homo sapiens
species (200 000 years)  . The genus Ardipithecus probably lived for about
1,5 million years.
4. Name three Australopithecine species that lived. For each species, give the
timeframe in which they lived, an example / specimen of the species, and
where, when and by whom the specimen were found. (12)
Australopithecus afarensis  : 3,9 – 2,8 million years ago  , Lucy –
discovered 1974  , by Donald Johansen at Hadar, Ethiopia 
Australopithecus africanus  : 3,2 – 2 million years ago  , Taung child –
discovered by Raymond Dart in 1924  , at Taung, North West Province,
South Africa  .
Australopithecus sediba  : 2 – 1,7 million years ago  , Karabo –
discovered in 2009  , by Lee Berger, at Malapa, South Africa 
5. If asked to decide whether a complete skull with jaw-bones was that of
Ardipithecus or Australopithecus, what four features would you examine? (8)
Cranium size / brain size  : Ardipithecus had a smaller brain size (350 mL
as against 435 – 530 mL) 
The position of the foramen magnum  : for Ardipithecus, it would not be as
forward as for Australopithecus  .

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 Considering the dentition, examine palate shape, and the size of canines  .
Australopithecus would have a slightly rounder arch  .
The size of the canines  : larger in Ardipithecus than in Australopithecus 
6. Study the skulls shown in the image below.

a) Identify the species represented. Species include: H. habilis, A.

afarensis, A. robustus, H. sapiens, H. erectus. (5)
1 – A. afarensis, 2 – A. robustus, 3 – H. habilis, 4 – H. erectus, 5 – H.
sapiens – one mark  for each correct specification
b) List four characteristics of the skull and brain size that you used to
make your selection. (4)
Brain size: the larger the brain, the further the species in the stage of
evolution, generally speaking; brow ridges / the shape of the forehead /
how prognathous the jaw is / the size of the jaw – one mark  for each
correct specification
7. Draw a line graph to show the development of brain size from Ardipithecus
through to Homo sapiens. Use the following data.

Species Time frame (mya) Brain size (mL)

Ardipithecus ramidus 5 350
Australopithecus afarensis 3,4 460
A. afarensis 2,6 520
A. sediba 1,9 420
Homo habilis 2 650
H. erectus 1,2 950
H. sapiens 0,2 1500

What conclusion/s can you draw from the graph? (8)

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 Brain size (cm )
3

5 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 present

Time (million years ago)
Conclusion: the initial brain size development is slow, and then speeds up
exponentially as one approaches the present.  
(this is clearly illustrated by the two lines of best fit drawn through the scatter
plots: the line representing a gradual, more linear brain size development,
and the line showing accelerated development)
 - for correctly drawn graph – scatter plot, position of dots/crosses
 - for correct labelling, axes
8. The diagram below shows possible relationships between members of the
family Hominidae. Study the diagram, then answer the questions that follow.

a) What is the name given to this type of diagram? (1)

phylogenetic tree 
b) How many genera, and how many species, are represented? (2)

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 two genera Australopithecus, Homo  and seven species 
c) Explain why A. robustus and A. boisei are more closely related than A.
boisei and A. afarensis. (2)
[Link] and A. boisei share a more recent common ancestor 
(57)

‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis

In this section, the evidence supporting the Out of Africa hypothesis is examined.
We explore the evidence presented by mitochondrial DNA studies. We examine the
fossil evidence: fossils of Ardipithecus found only in Africa, fossils of
Australopithecus (including Karabo, Little Foot, Taung child, Mrs Ples) also only
found in Africa, of Homo habilis (Africa only) and the oldest fossil of modern Homo
sapiens.
Learners should be able to argue for this hypothesis, and list the various reasons for
it in some detail.

Fossil sites in Africa and South Africa

The Cradle of Humankind is a veritable treasure trove of hominin fossil, and as

such, has played a very significant part in elaborating the evolution of humans. We
explore the various cave complexes in the Cradle, what was found there, and by
whom and when. Learners should be able to explain the significance of the Cradle,
and list some of the details shared in the text. Other South African sites are also
explored, highlighting South Africa's contribution. Finally the fossil evidence found
in other parts of Africa is explored.

Activity 4: Out of Africa hypothesis

1. State the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis. (3)

All modern humans (Homo sapiens)  originated in Africa  and migrated to
other parts of the world 
2. Explain why we speak of an ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis, not theory. (4)
It is a hypothesis, since it relies on currently available fossil evidence that has
been studied and from which relationships etc. are inferred  . Fossil
evidence yet to be discovered can contradict the presently generally
accepted Out of Africa hypothesis  . This has happened a few times in the

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 past. Some scientists argue for a multi-regional origin  . A theory is more
definitive than a hypothesis  , hence the Out of Africa hypothesis, not theory
3. What evidence is there to support the ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis? (9)
Genetic evidence  – mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother  .
Analysis of mutations / markers on the mtDNA shows the oldest female
ancestors  were living in Africa  , and that all currently living humans are
descended from her  .
Fossil evidence  – the fossils for Ardipithecus, for Australopithecus and for
Homo habilis, have been found only in Africa  . The oldest Homo erectus
fossil  and the oldest Homo sapiens fossil  have also been found in
Africa.
4. What is mitochondrial DNA? (3)
Mitochondrial DNA is the small circular chromosome  found inside
mitochondria  . The mitochondria, and thus mitochondrial DNA, are passed
only from mother to offspring through the egg cell 
5. What factors make mtDNA a useful tool in the exploration of human
evolution? (4)
Scientists look for mutations in the mtDNA  . The mutations (called
markers) occur at a steady and known rate  . Those with the greatest
number of markers are the oldest human populations (all from Africa)  .
Comparing markers allows scientists also to determined when populations
separated from each other 
6. In your own words, describe the importance of the Cradle of Humankind. (4)
The importance of the Cradle of Humankind derives from the abundance of
hominin fossil (40% of all world-wide)  found here. The fossil species found
only here  : Australopithecus africanus, Paranthropus  . The first African
fossils of Homo erectus were found here 
7. List two sites in South Africa, but not part of the Cradle of Humankind, where
important fossils remains were discovered. Provide some detail of the fossils
found. (4)
Makapansgat Valley  : this cave complex has a significant fossil record, and
40 individuals of the species A. africanus that is only found in South Africa .
Florisbad  : an almost complete skull of an early Homo sapiens (or of H.
heidelbergensis) – with a cranial volume of 1400 mL – was found there 
(31)

Alternative to evolution

This section of the chapter is not examinable in the final matric exam (see the Life
Sciences Examination Guidelines for Grade 12 published in 2017). As such, only a

265
period (or two) should be devoted to this section. Its purpose should not be to
argue for or against any religious convictions, but to emphasis the scientific nature
of the theory of evolution. Learners should learn how to argue in favour of
evolution without denigrating someone else's religious beliefs.

For enrichment

Watch some of these videos to further explore the concepts and materials dealt with
in this chapter on Human Evolution. Video length is given in brackets. Also explore
the websites listed below.

Family Hominidae
• Bonobo Chimpanzees: More human-like than you think:
https:[Link]?v=yEY15Tl_D4c

Bipedalism
• Why Do We Walk on Two Legs?
https:[Link]?v=G1iYLds2NcY
• Why Do We Walk Upright? The Evolution Of Bipedalism
https:[Link]?v=LzEOYgXodGI

Early Humans
• Early Humans...in five minutes or less:
https:[Link]?v=JLblq9ZvutE
• How 'Lucy' Got Her Name:
https:[Link]?v=SKYjpetqYWI
• Lucy IN SEARCH OF HUMAN ORIGINS PART ONE:
https:[Link]?v=PR_9_5gxvxg
• Laetoli Footprints: Protecting Traces of our Earliest Ancestors:
https:[Link]?v=0EZi_EAyIoQ

Out of Africa hypothesis

• First Peoples I PBS I Out of Africa
https:[Link]?v=2mpkn7AEAvU
• The Ancient World Unit: Multiregional Theory or Out of Africa Theory?
https:[Link]?v=zP2OhDOv7bE

Cradle of Humankind
• Introducing the Cradle of Humankind
https:[Link]?v=iqBtAunhQ04

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 • Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site
https:[Link]?v=HZ442VxB15A

Homo naledi
• New Human Ancestor Discovered: Homo naledi
https:[Link]?v=oxgnlSbYLSc

Modern humans
• DNA Research Show Modern Humans Benefit From Neanderthal DNA
https:[Link]?v=0dLaOdveDGs

Alternative theories
• 5 Theories On The Creation Of Humans
https:[Link]?v=11hJal7qAtU

Longer videos
• The First Human (Evolution Documentary) I Timeline
https:[Link]?v=vJybfmbrOCE
• Evolution The Evolution of humans documentary 2014
https:[Link]?v=MsHEAnPX59Y

Websites worth exploring

• Australian Museum (Human Evolution)
https:[Link]-evolution
• The Knowledge Project: Evolution
https:[Link]-13228138
• Smithsonian: National Museum of Natural History: Introduction to
Evolution
http:[Link]-human-evolution
• Bradshaw Foundation (extensive review of human evolution)
http:[Link]

Summary

Our place in the Animal Kingdom

 Humans are part of the Animal Kingdom in the Family Hominidae.
 A common ancestor to the Family Hominidae lived about 10 mya, while the
common ancestor to humans and chimpanzees lived about 6 mya.
 The term hominid refers to all members of the Family Hominidae. Hominin are
modern day humans and all early human ancestors.

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Lines of Evidence for a Common Ancestor for Living Hominids.
 Similarities – with primates, humans share …
o An opposable thumb, nails on fingers with sensitive pads, hind limbs
stronger than forelimbs (arms), two eyes in the front of the head, a
brain relatively large in proportion to body size.
o With other hominids, humans share a diurnal character, the ability to
raise forelimbs above the head, and the absence of a tail.
 Differences
o Modern humans stand erect and have a bipedal gait (bipedalism).
o Advantages to bipedalism: hands are free to pluck, carry or hold; it is
more energy efficient, and reduces exposure to sunlight.
o Bipedalism resulted in the following anatomical changes: Humans have
 the foramen magnum in a forward position, a short, wide pelvis,
a more curved spine.
 a larger brain, no brow ridges or cranial ridges, no prognathous
jaws, smaller teeth in a semi-circular palate.
 Genetic evidence points to a close relationship between humans and chim-
panzees, sharing 98,8% of genetic material. mtDNA studies suggest that the
most recent common ancestor for humans and chimpanzees lived 5 – 6 mya.
 Cultural evidence: Humans are distinguished from other hominids in that they
are the only species that have manufactured tools. The simplest stone tools
(Oldowan tools) appeared 2,6 mya, made by Homo habilis.

Out of Africa hypothesis

 The Out of Africa hypothesis – that modern humans originated in Africa, is
supported mitochondrial DNA studies and the fossil record.
 Evidence from the fossil record:
o Ardipithecines, Australopithecines, and Homo habilis , all ancestors of
modern humans, have only been found in Africa.
o Homo sapiens emerged in Africa. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils,
dated 195 – 160 000 years ago, were discovered in Ethiopia.

Major phases in hominin evolution from 6 mya to the present

 The 3 major phases are: Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo.
 Ardipithecus ramidus, the earliest hominin species, lived 4,5 mya. It was
mainly arboreal, and had a relatively small brain size at 350 mL.

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  Fossils of the genus Australopithecus have only been found in Africa. This
genus had larger brains (430 – 530 mL) than Ardipithecines and walked erect
most of the time.
 Species of Australopithecines include:
o A. afarensis (3,9 – 2,8 mya, Lucy was found in Ethiopia in 1974)
o A. africanus (3,2 – 2 mya, Taung child – by R. Dart in 1924 – Taung)
o A. sediba (2 – 1,7 mya, Karabo was found by Lee Berger in 2009)
o A. robustus, renamed Paranthropus, was found by R. Broom in 1938,
at Kromdraai.
 The genus Homo. Fossils for 15 – 20 different, extinct species of Homo have
been found. The only currently living species is Homo sapiens.
o Homo species stood erect, with a height between 1,3 and 2 m.
o Homo evolved a large brain, with average brain size for Homo sapiens
approximately 1500 mL.
 The phases of hominin development within the genus Homo are represented
by Homo habilis (2,4 – 1,6 mya), Homo erectus (2,0 – 1,4 mya) and Homo
sapiens (200 000 years ago to the present).

Important fossil sites in South Africa / Africa.

 The Cradle of Humankind is one of the most important fossil sites in the world.
Almost 40% of all hominin fossils found world-wide have been discovered
here. It has contributed greatly to our understanding of human evolution.
 The Cradle includes a number of caves complexes (specimen and date
found)
o Sterkfontein (Mrs Ples - 1947, Little Foot - 1997 and Naledi - 2013)
o Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Malapa (Karabo – 2009) and others
 Other SA sites:
o Taung (Taung child – 1924), Makapansgat Valley, Florisbad.
 Famous SA palaeontologists (or working in SA): Raymond Dart, Robert
Broom, Phillip Tobias, Ron Clarke, Lee Berger, Charles K. Brain.
 Sites in the rest of Africa – in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, explored by
Louis and Mary Leakey, Richard Leakey, Tim White and Donald Johansen.

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End of topic exercises

Section A
Question 1

1.1 Various options are provided as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write the letter (A–D) next to the question
number (1.1.1–1.1.5) for example 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 A possible explanation for an observation that can be tested is

known as a

A fact
B law
C theory
D hypothesis 

1.1.2 The most dramatic change in the evolution of Homo sapiens is

traced in

A loss of body hair

B shortening of the jaws
C shorter legs
D the increase in brain size 

1.1.3 How were the first modern humans (Homo sapiens) different from
any of the other hominid species?

A They lived outside Africa

B They lived longer in Africa than any of the other hominids
C They used tools
D They used symbolic thought, represented in language and
art. 

1.1.4 Which one of the following serves as evidence of cultural evolution in

early Homo species?

A The size of a Homo erectus cranium relative to a Homo sapiens

cranium.
B The presence of ancient stone tools 
C Male and female skeletons in the same area
D Animal fossils mixed with hominin fossils.

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 1.1.5 Three related species, X, Y and Z, share a common ancestor.
Species Y and Z share the most recent common ancestor.
Which phylogenetic tree most accurately represents their
evolutionary relationship?

C 
(5 × 2) = (10)

1.2 Give the correct term / phrase for each of the following descriptions. Write
only the term next to the question number.

1.2.1 Living primarily in tree

Arboreal 
1.2.2 The type of vision shared by apes and humans that allows for depth
perception
binocular vision (accept stereoscopic vision) 
1.2.3 The family to which humans belong
Family Hominidae 
1.2.4 The hypothesis which supports migration of human ancestors from
the point of origin
Out of Africa hypothesis 
1.2.5 The ability of an organism to walk on two feet
bipedalism 
1.2.6 Having a face with protruding jaws
prognathous 
1.2.7 The first hominin that used stone tools for cutting meat
Homo habilis 
1.2.8 The genus to which modern humans belong
Homo 
1.2.9 The permanent disappearance of a species from Earth
extinction 
1.2.10 Genetic material used to trace female ancestry.
mitochondrial DNA 
(10 × 1) = (10)

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1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B
ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none next to the question number.

Column I Column II
1.3.1 Found in apes and humans A: claws
B: nails and an opposable thumb
A: Mrs Ples
1.3.2 Fossils found in South Africa
B: Lucy
1.3.3 Fossil evidence found in A: Ardipithecus ramidus
Ethiopia B: Australopithecus africanus
A: fossilisation
1.3.4 Study of fossils
B: palaentology
1.3.5 Discovered the fossil called A: Raymond Dart
'Little Foot' B: Ronald Clarke

1.3.1 B only  – hominids (apes and hominin) don’t have claws

1.3.2 A only  – Lucy was discovered in Ethiopia
1.3.3 A only  – A. africanus only found in South Africa
1.3.4 B only  – fossilisation is the process of becoming a fossil (rare)
1.3.5 B only  – Raymond Dart discovered the Taung child
(5 × 2) = (10)

1.4 The diagram shows the skulls of two organisms; a human and a gorilla.
Study the diagrams (drawn to scale) and answer the questions that follow.

1.4.1 Which diagram (A or B), represents the skull of a gorilla? (1)

B  – humans don’t have brow ridges or a large jaw as in B
1.4.2 Which organism (A or B), is bipedal for most of its adult life? (1)
A  – modern humans are bipedal, except in early infancy

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 1.4.3 Name and explain two possible advantages of bipedalism for an
organism. (4)
Fast movement  – to get away from danger 
Ability to survey surroundings  – to see where the dangers are 
Freedom of forearm and hand – for tool use or for defence 
Exposed to less sunlight  – for temperature regulation 
Display of genitals  – to attract a mate 
(any two  for name,  for explanation)
1.4.4 Tabulate two observable differences between the skull of organism A
and B (5)
Skull A Skull B
non prognathous prognathous
no cranial ridge (accept no sagittal cranial ridge present
crest)
big cranium / brain cavity small cranium
small canines large canines

table - , any two differences 

1.4.5 Name one similarity between organism A and B which is a

characteristic of primates. (1)
anyone of: eyes in front, large brain, upright posture 
(12)

1.5 The diagram below shows possible evolutionary relationships between

hominids. A dotted line indicates the species is extinct.
Pan sp. (chimpanzee)
Ardipithecus ramidus
Australopithecus anamensis
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus africanus
Paranthropus robustus
Australopithecus garhi
Paranthropus aethiopicus
Paranthropus boisei

Time Homo

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 1.5.1 What is this type of diagram called? (1)
Phylogenetic diagram 
1.5.2 List the different hominin genera shown in the diagram. (4)
Ardipithecus , Australopithecus , Homo  and Paranthropus 
1.5.3 According to this diagram, which …
a) genus is most recently evolved? (1)
Homo 
b) genus of hominin is the oldest? (1)
Ardipithecus 
c) hominin species shares a common ancestor with
Australopithecus africanus? (1)
Paranthropus robustus 
1.5.4 Give two examples of an Australopithecus africanus fossil found in
South Africa. (2)
Taung child (Taung), Mrs Ples and Little Foot (both Sterkfontein) -
 - one mark each
1.5.5 Name two Homo species, besides Homo sapiens, that have been
found in Africa. (2)
H. erectus, H. habilis, H. ergaster, …  - one mark each
(12)
Section A: [54]
Section B: Question 2

2.1 Read the following passage, then answer the questions based on it.

Australopithecus sediba
According to those who discovered the fossil remains of Australopithecus
sediba, this species shared many characteristics with Australopithecus
africanus, from which it descended. The species however also reveals a
number of early Homo features, more so that any other Australopithecus
species. This suggests that A. sediba is possibly ancestral to Homo, though
it may also be an evolutionary dead end.
Like other species from the genus Australopithecus, A. sediba had a
relatively small brain size. The length of the legs, arms adapted for climbing
trees, and details of the teeth also resemble earlier Australopithecines. On
the other hand, the species’ hand with the precision grip of a toolmaker, and
its facial features closely resemble those of early Homo species.
Remarkably, A. sediba had a more human-like pattern of movement than a
fossil attributed to Homo habilis.

274
 The pelvic structure of A. sediba suggests this species walked upright on a
regular basis. The legs and feet however point to a previously unknown way
of walking upright. With each step, Australopithecus sediba turned its foot
inward with its weight focused on the outer edge of the foot.
(adapted from Australopithecus Sediba, [Link]

2.1.1 Who discovered Australopithecus sediba, and where? (2)

Lee Berger , at the Malapa caves 
2.1.2 A. sediba is described as having a relatively small brain size. What
was the average brain size for this species? (1)
420 mL
2.1.3 Define the term ‘transitional fossil’. (2)
Shows the characteristics of two different genera or species 
2.1.4 A. sediba is described as possibly an “evolutionary dead end”. What
is an evolutionary dead end? (3)
A dead end implies the species became extinct  and that this
species did not evolve any further 
2.1.5 According to the passage, Australopithecus sediba had a previously
unknown way of walking upright. What does this suggest for the
evolution of bipedalism? (2)
It suggests that upright walking (bipedalism) evolved on more than
one path during human evolution. 
2.1.6 What is the difference between bipedalism and standing upright?
Use examples to explain. (5)
No . Bipedalism means to habitually walk erect , on two feet,
the way a human being  normally walks. Many animals (e.g. a
chimpanzee ) can stand upright on two legs, but generally walks
on all fours 
(15)

2.2

275
 The diagram above shows the progression of human evolution. Study the
diagram of some early hominin A, B, C, D and E which represent Homo
erectus, Homo sapiens, Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homo
neanderthalensis, in no particular order.
2.2.1 Identify each of the above hominid members (A – E) correctly from
the list given above. (5)
A - Australopithecus, B - H. habilis, C - H. erectus, D - H. neanthal-
ensis, E - Homo sapiens ( for each correct answer)
2.2.2 Mention any three common characteristics which are shared by the
members represented in the above diagram. (3)
(Any 3 of these - 1 mark for each)
freely rotating (movable) long upper limbs
elbow joints allowing rotation of the forearm
flat nails instead of claws / bare, sensitive finger tips.
flexible wrists that are capable of rotating at least 180°
eyes in front
opposable thumbs for precision grip
larger brain than other hominids
binocular vision / stereoscopic vision
sexual dimorphism
upright posture / bipedal
2.2.3 Name the family the above group belongs to, and the collective
name for these members (2)
Family Hominidae  and the Tribe: Hominini 
2.2.4 Supply any three characteristics that make the organism, labelled E
different from other primates. (3)
(any three of these: one mark each)
bipedalism
curved spine
flat (non-prognathous) face
c-shaped / semi-circular dental palate
small teeth and canines (canines not large, pointed)
larger brain (average size 1450 – 1500 ml)
(13)
[28]
Question 3

3.1

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 3.1.1 A larger brain size is often associated with a greater intelligence.
Accordingly, Homo neanderthalensis, with a larger brain than Homo
sapiens, should have been more intelligent, and thus better able to
adapt to climate changes. Yet H. neanderthalensis is extinct, while
H. sapiens flourishes. What other factor related to the brain could
explain this? (2)
Intelligence is related to brain size. It is also related to the
complexity and structure of the brain.  The structure of the Homo
sapiens brain probably allowed the species to adapt better than the
H. neanderthalensis. 
3.1.2 Explain the relationship between the decrease in the jaw size of
evolving hominin species and their increasing brain size. (3)
The large jaws of early hominin species required strong jaw
muscles attached to the skull (particularly the cranial ridge). As the
need for large jaws slowly disappeared (due to cooked food) , so
did the need for strong jaw muscles . Freed from the muscle
constraints, the cranium could more easily expand in size .
(5)

3.2 Scientists use fossils as evidence for human evolution. The brain volume of
some extinct primates has been estimated from their fossils and have been
compared to the brain volumes of living primates. The results are shown in
the table below (figures in brackets give mid-point of existence).

Period of Existence Average Brain

Hominid
(million years ago) Volume (mL)

Ardipithecus ramidus 5,8 to 4,4 (5,1) 400

Australopithecus afarensis 4 to 2,7 (3,4) 450

Australopithecus africanus 3 to 2 (2,5) 450

Homo habilis 2,2 to 1,6 (1,9) 750

Homo erectus 2 to 0,4 (1,2) 1 000

Homo neanderthalensis 0,3 to 0,23 (0,27) 1 500

Homo sapiens 0,2 to present (0,1) 1 400

Modern apes 0,2 to present (0,1) 500

3.2.1 Apart from fossil evidence, give two other types of evidence for
human evolution? In each case, give a brief explanation of how the
evidence is used to support the notion of human evolution. (4)

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 Genetic evidence  - scientists use mitochondrial DNA to
determine the degree of relationship between species, and how
long ago the species separated. 
Cultural evidence, specifically tool making  - stone tools,
manufactured by various hominids, with more careful working
becoming sharper, is evidence of evolution. 
3.2.2 The brain of an organism is not preserved as fossil. How do experts
determine the average brain volume of extinct species? (2)
Scientists make a cast of the inside of a fossil cranium and measure
its volume . They do this for all fossil craniums of a particular
species to calculate the average size of the brain. 
3.2.3 Calculate the difference in brain volume (in mL) between the two
living primates. Show all calculations. (3)
Pick correct specimen : 1400 - 500  = 900 mL 
3.2.4 Draw a line graph to show the evolution of brain size across all
hominin species listed in the table. Use the mid-point of the period of
existence on one axis. Once the points have been plotted, interpret
the graph. (8)

Interpretation: for the period 5,5 - 2,5 million years ago (3 million
years), brain size develops very slowly. Thereafter, there is a
rapid increase in brain size, for various reasons.

Right vertical (brain size) & horizontal (time) axes 

Correct labels  Appropriate and correct scale 
Correct plotting of points  Interpretation 
(17)

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 [22]

Section B: [50]

Total marks: [104]

Cognitive levels distribution

Question Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Marks

1.1.1  2
1.1.2  2
1.1.3  2
1.1.4  2
1.1.5  2
10 10
1.2.1  1
1.2.2  1
1.2.3  1
1.2.4  1
1.2.5  1
1.2.6  1
1.2.7  1
1.2.8  1
1.2.9  1
1.2.10  1
9 1 10
1.3.1  2
1.3.2  2
1.3.3  2
1.3.4  2
1.3.5  2
10 10
1.4.1  1
1.4.2  1
1.4.3  4
1.4.4  5
1.4.5  1
3 9 12

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 1.5.1  1
1.5.2  4
1.5.3 a - c  3
1.5.4  2
1.5.5  2
12 12
2.1.1  2
2.1.2  1
2.1.3  2
2.1.4  3
2.1.5  2
2.1.6  5
4 2 8 2 15
2.2.1  5
2.2.2  3
2.2.3  2
2.2.4  3
7 3 5 13
3.1.1  2
3.1.2  3
5 5
3.2.1   4 (2 + 2)
3.2.2  2
3.2.3  3
3.2.4   8 (3 + 5)
5 7 5 17
42 30 20 12 104

280