Unit 5 Engine

Contents

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Petrol Engine
5.2 Diesel Engine
5.3 Parts of an IC Engine
5.3.1 Cylinder Block
5.3.2 Cylinder Liner
5.3.3 Cylinder Head
5.3.4 Crank Case
5.3.5 Oil Sump
5.3.6 Gasket
5.3.7 Piston
[Link] Methods to avoid expanding
[Link] Functions of piston
[Link] Types of piston
[Link] Piston arrangement
5.3.8 Connecting Rod
5.3.9 Crank Shaft
5.3.10 Vibration Damper
5.3.11 Timing Gear
5.3.12 Cam Shaft
5.3.13 Valve
5.3.14 Manifold
5.3.15 Fly Wheel
5.3.16 Silencer
5.4 Four Stroke Petrol Engine
5.5 Two Stroke Petrol Engine
5.6 Comparison of Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engine
5.7 Four Stroke Diesel Engine
5.8 Two Stroke Petrol Engine

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 Learning Objectives

• To learn about Internal and External combustion engines.

• To learn about the engine parts, manufacturing procedure and the material used.
• To learn about the thermal energy produced in two stroke and four stroke engines.

5.0 INTRODUCTION this engine is also called as spark ignition

Thiruvalluar quotes “When water fails, engine. This engine was invented by Nichloas
functions of nature cease”. In modern world Otto, German scientist in 1876. The engine is
“When automobile fails, functions of world working based on otto cycle which is constant
cease”. The mobility of the people and world volume cycle. To burn a fuel, four operations
will ceases when there is no automobile. Thus is required namely, intake of fuel air mixture,
Automobile plays a vital role in transporta- compression of fuel air mixture, burning of
tion of people and goods from one place to furl air mixture and sent out the burnt air fuel
another, even in between the continents. mixture from the engine. Each operation is
completed in each stroke of the piston and
The driving force required to drive the four stroke is required to complete a cycle.
vehicle is provided by the Engine. Engine is Hence it is called as four stroke engine.
considered to be the heart of an automobile.
Based on Law of conservation of Energy, i.e., 5.2 DIESEL ENGINE
Energy can be transformed from one form In diesel engines, the heat energy is
to another form, engine is used to convert obtained by burning the diesel with air and
heat energy obtained by burning of fuel into this heat energy is converted into mechanical
mechanical energy and therefore they are energy. In 1897, Rudolph diesel invented the
called as Heat Engines. Diesel engine and hence the engine was called
by his name “Diesel engine”. This engine is
5.1 PETROL ENGINE working based on constant pressure cycle. In
In petrol engines, the heat energy is diesel engine, the air alone is intaken during
obtained by burning the petrol with air and suction stroke and it is compressed during
this heat energy is converted into mechanical the compression stroke. At the end of the
energy. Since petrol is also called as gasoline, compression stroke, diesel fuel is injected
this engine is also called as Gasoline engines. at high pressure which automoise the diesel
fuel. The temperature of the compressed air
The liquid state of petrol fuel is is sufficient enough to start the combustion.
converted into vapour and it is mixed with Since air alone is compressed at high pressure,
atmospheric air. This air-fuel mixture is it will liberate more energy than petrol engine.
inducted into the engine, and it is burnt with Hence this engine is used on trucks, buses
the spark introduced by the spart plug. Hence, and heavy vehicles.

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 Since the cost of the diesel fuel is less 10. Timing Gear, Timing Chain
and high energy is available, this engine is 11. Vibration damper
widely used for transportation, though the
12. Cam shaft
maintenance cost is more.
13. Valve and Valve mechanism
14. Inlet Manifold and Outlet Manifold
5.3 PARTS OF AN IC ENGINE
15. Flywheel
1. Cylinder Block
16. Silencer
2. Cylinder Liner
Other components like oil pump, fuel
3. Cylinder Head
pump, carburetor, distributor, water pump,
4. Crank Case air filter, oil filter etc are also attached to the
5. Oil Sump engine. The major components of IC Engine
6. Gasket is shown in Fig 5.3.
7. Piston
The Material of the major components
8. Connecting rod are shown in Table 5.1.
9. Crank Shaft

Cylinder Block Cylinder Head Crank Case

Silencer

Cam Shaft

Piston Assembly
All Types of Valves

Vibration Damper Manifold Flywheel

Figure 5.3 Major Components of IC Engine
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 Table 5.1 Major Parts of an IC Engine and Its Material
Part Material
Cylinder Block Grey cast iron or Aluminum alloy
Cylinder Liner Steel alloy containing Nickel, Manganese, Chromium, Silicon
Cylinder Head Grey cast iron or Aluminum alloy
Crank Case Grey cast iron or Aluminum alloy
Oil Sump Pressed steel
Gasket Alloy Steel containing copper, asbestos
Piston Aluminum alloy
Piston Pin Special steel
Piston Ring Cast iron
Connecting Rod Forged Alloy steel
Crank Shaft Heat treated alloy steel
Vibration Damper Aluminum alloy or wrought iron
Timing Gear, Timing Chain Special alloy steel
Cam Shaft Heat treated alloy steel
Main Bearing Steel containing phosphor cronze, lead, bronze, tin, antimony
and aluminum
Valve Alloy steel containing silicon, chromium, nickel
Manifold Cast iron or Aluminum
Flywheel Pressed steel / cast iron
Silencer Cast iron or hardened steel

5.3.1 Cylinder Block The bottom portion of the cylinder block is

called crankcase. A sump for lubricating oil is
The cylinder block is the main
fastened to the bottom of the crankcase.
supporting structure for the various
components. Cylinder block will have one
Cylinder blocks are two types
or more cylinders. For multicylinder engine,
the cylinders are cast as a single unit, called 1. Split block: Crank case and cylinder block
cylinder block. The cylinder block inner are manufactured as a separate unit and
surface is machined and finished accurately 2. Mono block: Crank case and cylinder
for the piston to reciprocate up and down. The block are manufactured as a single unit
cylinder head is mounted on the top of the The mono block and split block are
cylinder block. Cylinder head gasket is placed shown in Fig 5.3.1.
between the cylinder block and cylinder head.
The cylinder head and cylinder block are
5.3.2 Cylinder Liner
provided with water jackets or with cooling
fins. The crankshaft is mounted on bottom of The cylinder will wear with use,
the cylinder block with the help of bearings. and therefore there may be reduction in

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 Mono Block

Split Block
Figure 5.3.1 Mono Block and Split Block
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 performance as well as maintenance cost is Wet liners may have a cooling water
increased. In such cases, the use of a sleeve space between the engine block and liner, or
or liner can restore proper clearances to an they may have integral cooling passages. Lin-
engine. Due to prolonged use, the liner will ers with integral cooling passages are some-
wear and it can be replaced at lower cost. Cyl- times referred to as water-jacket liners.
inder liners are of two types namely dry liner
and wet liner. (b) Wet liner
The inner surface of wet liner are per-
fectly machined and honed. The outer sur-
face is not machined. They are referred to as
“wet liners” because their outer sides come
in direct contact with the engine’s coolant.
The thickness of the liner will be 3.0mm to
6.0 mm. It is sealed by a metallic sealing ring
from top and a rubber sealing ring at the bot-
Figure 5.3.2 Dry and Wet Liner tom. A wet liner cylinder block features cyl-
inder walls that are entirely removable, which
(a) Dry liner fit into the block by means of special gaskets.
The outer diameter of liner and inner
diameter of the cylinder wall are manufactured
to fit perfectly. Liners are assembled with the
help of hydraulic press or by cooling the liner.
The dry type liner is not in direct contact
with the coolant hence the name “Dry”. The
cylinder liner is surrounded by the cylinder
body. The cylinder body is contacted by the
cooling water so as to achieve heat dissipation.
Liner thickness would be 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm. Figure 5.3.2(b) Wet Liner
Flanges and seals are at top surface of cylinder.
5.3.3 Cylinder head
In an engine, the cylinder head
assembled above the cylinders on top of
the cylinder block with the help of studs. It
closes in the top of the cylinder, forming the
combustion chamber. This joint is sealed by a
head gasket. The head also provides passage
for intake of air and fuel and exhaust of burnt
gases, water cooling passage. The head can
Figure 5.3.2(a) Dry Liner also be a place to mount the valves, spark
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 plugs, and fuel injectors. In case of overhead Figure 5.3.4 Crank Case with Crank Shaft
valve engine, then oil passage for pushrod and 5.3.5 Oil sump
rocker arm are also available. Cylinder heads
The oil sump is attached below the
are classified as
crank case. It is used to store the lubricating
oil which is used for lubricating purpose. To
drain or replace the used lubricating oil a
drain arrangement is fitted.

Figure 5.3.5 Oil Sump

Figure 5.3.3 Types of Cylinder Head 5.3.6 Gasket

L – Head Engine When connecting two metal parts

directly, there musty be air tight connection
I – Head engine
between the parts or otherwise if there is a gap,
F – Head engine
it allows the gas or the liquid to leak. To arrest
T – Head engine and are shown in Fig 5.3.3. the leakage of gas or oil, the gasket is being
5.3.4 Crank case used. It makes the two metal components
air tight and close. Gaskets are placed in the
The crank shaft and cam shaft are
cylinder block, cylinder head crankcase and
placed on the crank case. It is formed as the
oil pump and in oil sump. For placing the inlet
portion of the cylinder block below the cyl-
and outlet manifolds on the cylinder head
inder bore and the oil sump at the bottom.
gaskets are being used.
Crank case and the cylinder block are made
as a single unit. The oil sump is connected
with the crank case by the studs. The Crank
case with Crank shaft is shown in Fig 5.3.4

Figure 5.3.6 Gasket

5.3.7 Piston
The piston is the most important
component of the engine. It is kept inside the

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 Fig 5.3.7 Parts of Piston

cylinder liner and allowed to move up and [Link] Methods to avoid expanding
down. It is used to suck the air fuel mixture
As the engine is being operated
inside the cylinder and transmits the engine
continuously at very high temperatures
power to the connecting rod which is obtained
the piston gets over heated than the engine
during the power stroke. It is used to convert
cylinder. Because the engine cylinder block is
the heat energy into mechanical energy. The
continuously cooled by using the cooling water.
first piston was made of iron. As the usage of
As the Piston gets more heat than the engine
iron was heavy, it observed more energy that
cylinder the piston gets expanded. If the piston
was produced by the engine. To avoid this
expands, the movement of the piston become
power loss the less weight, easily machinable
difficult for it and will stop which affects the
and less price metal alloys such as aluminium
engine in producing the power. To avoid this
alloy are being used nowadays. The piston is
piston expansion the following provisions are
shown in Fig 5.3.7.
adopted on the piston
To make a good piston the follow- a. Horizontal slot
ing qualities should be maintained while
b. Heat Dam
manufacturing.
c. Vertical slot
1. The weight should be less d. T slot
2. Cost should be low e. Oblique slot
3. The piston should be easily machinable f. Solid slot
4. It should with stand very high temperatures
5. It should have the capacity to transfer more a) Horizontal slot
heat quickly. The horizontal Slot is being made on
6. It should not expand easily due to high the top of the piston, Just below the oil ring at
temperature. the skirt portion of the piston so that the heat
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 coming from the piston head during power in selected places where the expansion is
stroke is observed by the slot. By this way predicted to be more in such a way that it
the piston is protected from expansion and should tolerate the expansion of the piston.
allowed to operate the engine safely.

Figure [Link](a) Horizontal Slot

Figure [Link](c) Vertical Slot
b) Heat Dam:
d) T slot:
It is like how we store water in ponds and
use it when needed. Similar to that to save the Similar to the vertical slot piston the
heat generated inside the engine combustion T-slot helps the Piston to avoid expansion in
chamber and use it effectively small pits in con- the diameter wise as well as in the lengthwise
cave shape are made on the piston head which and helps engine to function properly.
are used to save heat. Hence the heat transfered
from the crown to the skirt is being reduced and
the expansion of piston is being avoided

Figure [Link](d) T-Slot

e) Oblique Slot:
In this type the slots are made on the
piston’s oil ring slots to control the temperature
of the piston. The slots are made slightly in
slanting manner such that it reaches the skirt.
In this type the heat produced in the engine is
Figure [Link](b) Heat Dam
blocked in such a way that it should not reach
c) Vertical Slot: the skirt. The heat is transferred in sideways
This type of slots is used in preventing and also in the lengthwise so that the piston
the piston’s expansion due to heat particularly is saved from the high temperature produced
at the outer periphery. The slots are made inside the engine combustion chamber.
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 Figure [Link](f ) Solid Slot

[Link] Functions of piston

Figure [Link](e) Oblique Slot
In the engine at the combustion
chamber the power obtained during power
f) Solid Slot:
stroke cannot be sent directly to the crankshaft.
Similar to oblique slots, in solid type, The component used to transfer the power
small holes are made on the slots of the oil (gas pressure) from the combustion chamber
ring. These holes restrict the heat from the to the crankshaft through the connecting rod
head to enter into the skirt. Hence the piston is the piston.
works safely.
The functions of the piston are listed
below.

Figure [Link] Schematic Diagrams of Various Slot

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 1. To transfer the power from the combustion a) Flat head piston
chamber to the crank shaft through the
In this type, the piston head is in
connecting rod.
flat shape. This shape helps in removing
2. To transmit the heat produced from the combusted products after the power stroke.
power to the combustion chamber walls The design of these pistons is very easy.
3. To acts as seal inside the cylinder to with- However, the efficiency of the engines using
stand high pressure and protects the crank- this type of pistons is less.
case in avoiding high pressure to pass to
the crank case
4. It acts as a guide to connecting rod
5. It acts as a component for supporting the
piston ring
6. It is used to suck the air or air fuel mixture
and also used to compress them
7. It is used to expel the hot gases to the
atmosphere during the exhaust stroke.

[Link] Types of piston Figure [Link](a) Flat Piston

Piston is used to transmit power from

engine combustion chamber to the crank- b) Domed head piston
shaft. Pistons are classified according to their In this type, the piston head is of cap
heads hased on the type of engine and its per- like structure. ie., more volume is added
formance. They are classified as follows, to the piston head. This structure helps in
smooth compression stroke and also results
a. Flat head piston
in proper mixing. Compression ratio is higher
b. Domed head piston for using these types of piston. However the
c. Concave (bowl) head piston manufacturing process is difficult.

FLAT HEAD CONCAVE HEAD DOME HEAD

Figure [Link] Types of Piston Head
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 Figure [Link](b) Dome Piston

c) Concave head piston

In this type, the piston head is of

concave in structure. Due to this, high
pressure is produced inside the combustion
Figure [Link] Piston Arrangement
chamber. These types of piston are used in
high compression diesel engines. Concave like
structure helps in increasing air turbulence
piston skirt. Cylinder liner present inside the
which leads to proper mixing and results in
cylinder acts as sliding surface for piston.
good combustion.

a) Piston Pin
A piston pin is a hollow shaft that
connects the small end of the connecting rod
to the piston. It is made up of special alloy
steel to prevent wear and tear.

Figure [Link](c) Concave head Piston

[Link] Piston arrangement

The upward and downward motion of
cylindrical object inside the cylinder is called
piston. Piston consists of heat dam, land, skirt,
piston pin boss, rings, grooves. Heat dam is a
thin groove cut on the piston head between
the top ring groove and the top of the piston.
There are slots for compression and oil rings.
Below these slots, holes are made for piston
pin or piston boss. Slots are present on the

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 of compression ring is depending upon the
compression ratio of the engine. Higher the
compression ratio more the number of piston
rings. Compression rings are made up of Cast
Iron.

Figure [Link](b)(i) Compression Rings

Figure [Link](a) Piston Pin
Oil scrapper ring
b) Piston Rings
The bottom most ring is called as
Depending upon the horse power of
oil scrapper ring. The lubricating oils are
the engine, one or more piston rings is used.
sprinkled on the cylinder wall and inner side
It provides a tight seal between the piston and
of the piston through the connecting rod oil
the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of
passage. This ring is used to scrape excess
combustion gases. The performance of the
lubricating oil from the cylinder walls, thus
engine is reduced, if the piston rings are worn
prevents the lubricating oil from getting into
out and it can be replaced. Piston rings are
the combustion chamber of the cylinder Oil
classified as
scrapper rings are made up of cast iron.
i) Compression ring
ii) Oil scrapper ring
Compression ring
The compression ring seals the
combustion chamber from any leakage during
the combustion process. When the air-fuel Figure [Link](b)(ii) Oil Scrapper Ring
mixture is ignited, pressure from combustion 5.3.8 Connecting Rod
gases is applied to the piston head, forcing
It interconnects the piston and the
the piston toward the crankshaft. The
crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from
pressurized gases travel through the gap
the piston to the crankshaft. The two ends of
between the cylinder wall and the piston and
the connecting rod are called as small end
into the piston ring groove. Combustion gas
and the big end. Small end is connected to
pressure forces the piston ring against the
the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end
cylinder wall to form a seal. It also transfers
is connected to the crankshaft by crank pin.
heat from the piston to the cylinder wall. No.
Connecting rod is made up of Forged steel.

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 a. Fixed Type
B. Semi Floating Type
C. Full Floating Type
The above connecting procedures vary
depends upon the torque and power produced
from the engine. Piston pin connecting
procedures shown in Figure [Link].

[Link](a) Fixed type:

In this type the piston and connecting
rod are connected with the piston pin by the
fixed set of screw inside the piston pin boss
for avoiding release of piston pin from its
connection. For this purpose, the small end
of connecting rod is positioned on centre of
the piston pin for attaining the reciprocating
motion.

Figure 5.3.8 Connecting Rod [Link](b) Semi floating type:

[Link] Piston, connecting rod and their In semi floating type of connection

connection procedures there is a split shaped arrangement in the
The engine piston and connecting rod small end of the connecting rod and it looks
assembly is the most essential arrangement like a clamp. This clamp shaped portion is
for operating any engine. For connecting kept with the help of a bolt and nut to avoid
the piston and connecting rod piston pin is removal of piston pin from it. There is a
used. Piston pin is connected with piston and groove at the centre of the piston pin which
connecting rod based on the three types as prevents the pin to not to come out from the
indicated below. clamp. The two ends of the pin are connected

Fig [Link] Piston Pin Fixing Method

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 with the help of the piston pin boss bearing If this torsional vibration were not reduced,
and arrange to be movable within the pin. the crankshaft might break. To avoid this, a
vibration damper is mounted on the front of
[Link](c) Full floating type: the crankshaft and it controls this vibration.
In this type the connection method of Also a pulley is attached to the vibration
piston pin is designed in a simple way with damper to drive the fan.
no much difficulty. During the engine opera-
tion for avoiding damage on cylinder wall by
the rubbing of piston pin, two circlips were
attached with the piston pin boss. In this type,
the piston pin is connected at the small end
of the connecting rod and piston pin boss
and allowed to float (move) easily with in the
boss. Hence it is called as full floating type.
Figure 5.3.10(a) Vibration Damper
5.3.9 Crank Shaft
It converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston into useful rotary motion of the
output shaft. The crankshaft is enclosed in a
crankcase and it is made up of Cast steel.

Figure 5.3.9(a) Crank Shaft

Figure 5.3.10(b) Schematic of

Figure 5.3.9(b) Crank Shaft Vibration Damper

5.3.10 Vibration Damper 5.3.11 Timing Gear

The power impulses of an engine Timing gear is used to synchroinse
result in torsional vibration in the crankshaft. the crankshaft and camshaft. The number of

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 A. Gear Drive B. Chain Drive C. Belt Drive
Fig 5.3.11(a, b, c) Timing Gear with Various Drive

teeth in camshaft is always twice the number 5.3.12 Cam shaft

of teeth in crankshaft. Hence, camshaft
For obtaining power from the engine,
will always rotate at half the speed of the the processes such as valve opening and closing,
crankshaft. Timing mark will be marked in the supplying the air fuel mixture at the appropriate
timing gear. This corresponds to first cylinder timings and producing spark in the spark plug
TDC position. The marks are properly in order to ignite the air fuel mixture should
aligned at the time of engine assembly during be done correctly. For performing this type of
manufacturing. This will operate the valve operation a component called as cam shaft is
used., The cams in the cam shaft are designed
at proper time. If the distance between the
in such a way to rotate for opening and closing
crankshaft and camshaft is more, then they
the valves by the cam shaft according to the
are connected by timing chain or by timing valve timing and firing order of the engine. In
belt. Timing Gear with Various Drive shown addition to this, eccentric arrangement in the
in Figure 5.3.11(a, b, c)
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 Figure 5.3.12 Camshaft

cam shaft performs the function of actuating forging. In the present days, exhaust valves are
the petrol pump and also the skew gear produced by austenitic steel. Generally poppet
arrangement which is required for operating valves are used in present engines.
the oil pump. The timing gear is fitted at the [Link] Methods of operating the valves:
edge of the cam shaft. This gear arrangement
is placed in the cylinder block. This gear is In the engine, operating mechanism
made up of special steel for avoiding wear and of the valve varies with the position of the
tear. Cam shaft is actuated by this timing gear valve arrangements. Valves are placed on the
with the help of crank shaft. Cam shaft rotates cylinder head in such a way that the valve
always at half the speed of crank shaft rotation. is moved downwards to open the ports. In
another system, valve is placed at the cylinder
5.3.13 Valve
head in such a way to move upwards to open
In the engines (generally in four stroke the ports. Valve mechanisms are generally
engines) valves are used for supplying enough classified into,
air fuel mixture into the combustion chamber
a. Over head poppet valve mechanism
for combustion and for expelling the burned
gases to the exhaust by opening and closing b. Straight poppet valve mechanism
of ports in the engine. There are two valves a) Over head poppet valve mechanism:
namely intake and exhaust valves present in
Construction
the engines. These valves are made up of nickel,
This consists of two moving parts,
chromium alloy steel or silicon chromium alloy
namely push rod and rocker arm. Cam in the
steel. The head of the intake valve is generally
can shaft is always in touch with the tappet. One
larger in size than the exhaust valve. These
end of the push rod is in contact with tappet and
valves are made up of the process called drop
other end with the rocker arm. The other end of

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 Operation
When the engine runs, the crank shaft
rotates. As the crank shaft is connected with the
cam shaft with the help of the timing gear and
chain arrangement the cam shaft rotates now.
As the cam shaft rotates, the cam present on the
cam shaft also rotates. Once the cam rotates,
the tappet (placed on the cam) starts to move
up and down depends on the rotation of the
cam. Due to this action, the push rod which is
in contact with the tappet starts to move up and
down. This movement of the push rod lifts one
end of the rocker arm upwards. As the rocker
Figure 5.3.13(a) Valves arm is fitted with rocker shaft, the other end of
the rocker arm moves down towards valve stem
the rocker arm is made in contact with the valve
due to the lift of the arm end at the push rod side.
stem. Rocker arm on the rocker shaft is placed
Due to this valve moves downwards and opens
in such a way that it could easily moved up and
the port. By repeating the cam shaft rotation,
down. Valves are placed in the valve guides on
tappet, push rod and rocker arm, both inlet and
the cylinder head. Valves are seated properly
exhaust valves open and close for inducting the
with the help of valve spring and spring lock.
charge and expelling the hot gases.

the intellectual
TWO STROKE ENGINE
property firm with
George Croydon
Marks, called Marks
& C lerk. He was
knighted on 24
August 1917.
Sir Dugald Clerk:
Dugald C lerk was born in Glasgow
Sir Dugald C lerk (1854, Glasgow
on 31 March 1854, the son of Donald Clerk a
– 1932, Ewhurst, S urrey) was a Scottish
machinist and his wife, Martha Symington. He
engineer who designed the world’ s first
was privately tutored thenapprenticed to the
successful two-stroke engine in 1878 and
firm of Messrs H O Robinson & Co in Glasgow.
patented it in England in 1881.
From 1871 to 1876 he went to Anderson
He was a graduate of Anderson’s
College in Glasgow studying engineering then
University in Glasgow (now the University of
to the Yorkshire College of Science in Leeds.
S trathclyde), and Yorkshire College, Leeds
In the First World War he was Director of
(now the University of Leeds). He formed
Engineering Research for the Admiralty.

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 b) Straight Poppet Valve Mechanism:
Construction
In this mechanism, all the components
of the over head valve except push rod, rocker
arm were used. Cam on cam shaft touches
tappet. Tappet directly touches valve stem.
The valve is fitted with the help of valve spring
and the spring lock.

(a)

Figure 5.3.13(c) Straight Poppet Valve

Mechanism

(b) Operation

Figure 5.3.13(b) Over head Poppet When the engine is started the flywheel
Valve Mechanism rotates and the crank shaft starts to rotate. As
the crank shaft and cam shaft are connected

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 by the timing gear and chain the cam shaft b) Exhaust Manifold
rotates. By the rotation of cam shaft the tappet
This exhaust manifold is used to
started to move upwards. As the tappet is
transmit the exhaust gases from the cylinder
directly in contact with the valve stem when
to the silencer. This is fitted between the
the tappet moves upwards the valve stem due
cylinder head and silencer. This is made of
to the lift of the tappet moves upwards and
cast iron.
opens the port. By repeating the cam shaft
rotation and tappet movement both inlet and
exhaust valves open and close for inducting
the charge and expelling the hot gases.

5.3.14 Manifold
Manifolds are the passages through Figure 5.3.14(b) Exhaust Manifold
which the air or air fuel mixture enters into
the combustion chamber and exhaust gases 5.3.15 Flywheel
from the combustion chamber are expelled
This is the important component
out. The manifold are of two types they are,
of the engine. This arrangement is used for
storing the energy and releasing the energy. It
a) Inlet Manifold
is used to rotate the crankshaft continuously
b) Exhaust Manifold
from the initial condition due to its inertia.
a) Inlet Manifold This is fitted at the end of the crankshaft. It

Inlet manifold is used to pass the air

from the filter of the diesel engine or air fuel
mixture from carburetor of the petrol engine to
the combustion chambers of all the cylinders.
This intake manifold is generally made of cast
iron. This is fitted at the top of the cylinder head.

Figure 5.3.14(a) Inlet Manifold

Figure 5.3.15 Flywheel

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 stores the power during expansion stroke and condition silencer is used. Silencer acts as
releases the energy during other strokes. It resistant for noise and converts the sound
helps crank shaft to rotate continuously. The energy into heat. Fibre glass is generally used
flywheel of any engine is generally made of as the insulation material inside the silencer.
cast iron or brass steel. Ring gear is situated at Chambered, turbo, straight flow are the types
the periphery of the flywheel. This ring gear of silencer used in automobile.
is in mesh with the pinion gear of the start
motor which is used to start the engine. 5.4 FOUR STROKE PETROL
ENGINE
5.3.16 Silencer Engine running with petrol as a fuel
is called as petrol engine. If a power stroke is
After the power
obtained once in every four stroke of piston
stroke of the engine the
(TDC to BDC / BDC to TDC), then the
exhaust gases get expanded
engine is said to be four stroke petrol engine.
and expelled through the
exhaust manifold. During
the exhaust process when the gases are passed Construction
through exhaust manifold, due to pressure The figure shows the construction of
differential huge noise is produced. This leads a single cylinder petrol engine. In this the
to noise pollution. In order to reduce the noise reciprocating motion of a cylinder is converted
pollution and to operate the engine in smooth into rotary motion of crankshaft with the help
of connecting rod. One end of connecting
rod is connected to piston and another end
it is connected to crankshaft. In crankshaft,
flywheel is attached at one end and vibration
damper, fan belt pulley is attached at the
other end. Intake valve, exhaust valve, spark
plug is mounted above the top of the cylinder.
The fresh air fuel mixture is inducted through
intake valve and the burnt gases are sent out
through exhaust valve. The opening and
closing of valve are made by camshaft. The
camshaft and crankshaft are connected by
means of timing gear. The four stroke petrol
engine is shown in Figure 5.4.

In any internal combustion engine, the

following definite sequence of events called
strokes namely

Figure 5.3.16 Silencer

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 Figure 5.4 Working of Four Stroke Petrol Engine

a. Suction Stroke,
B. Compression Stroke,
C. Power Stroke And
D. Exhaust Stroke

The above four strokes will form a

cycle. If the cycle of operations is completed
in four strokes of the piston or two revolu-
tions of the crankshaft or one revolution of
the camshaft, then it is called as a four-stroke
engine.

Figure 5.4(a)
a) Suction Stroke

During the suction stroke, the piston

b) Compression Stroke
moves downward from Top Dead Centre
to Bottom Dead Centre. The intake valve The charge taken into the cylinder
is open and exhaust valve is closed. This during the suction stroke is compressed by
downward movement of the piston produces the return stroke of the piston. The piston
a partial void, or vacuum, in the cylinder, travels from bottom dead centre to top dead
and air – fuel mixture rushes into the cylinder centre. During compression stroke both inlet
through the opened intake valve. and exhaust valves are in closed position.

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 The mixture which fills the entire cylinder gases also produces an increased pressure in
volume is now compressed into the clearance the combustion chamber. The high pressure
volume. At the end of the compression stroke of the gases acting on the face of the piston
the mixture is ignited with the help of a spark causes the piston to move from TDC to BDC.
plug located on the cylinder head. This reciprocating motion is converted into
the rotary motion of crankshaft through
connecting rod. During power stroke,
both inlet and exhaust valves are in closed
condition. As the piston travels downward,
there will be drop in combustion pressure
and temperature as the volume increases. At
the end of power stroke, exhaust stroke will
be started.

d) Exhaust Stroke

At the end of power stroke, exhaust

stroke will be started. During this stroke, the
exhaust vavle will be open and the inlet value
Figure 5.4(b)
will be closed. When the piston from BDC to
TDC, the burnt air fuel mixture is sent out
c) Power Stroke through exhaust valve.

Rapid combustion of the fuel

At the end of exhaust stroke, the intake
releases heat and there is an increases in
stroke of the next cycle starts and this keep
the temperature inside the combustion
the engine in running condition.
chamber. The increased temperature of the

Figure 5.4(c) Figure 5.4(d)

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 Scavenging be assumed that the valves open and close
At the end of exhaust stroke the and the spark (or injection of fuel)occurs at
exhaust valve is open and at the start of the engine dead centres. However, in actual
intake stroke, the inlet valve is kept open. At operation, the valves do not operate at dead
this time, fresh air – fuel mixture for the next centre positions but operate some degree on
cycle will pushes out the exhaust gases of the either side of the dead centres. The opening
previous cycle. Thus, Scavenging is the pro- occurs earlier and the exhaust continues even
cess of removal of exhaust gases by blowing at later crank angles. The ignition is also
in fresh air. timed to occur in advance of the completion
of compression stroke.
Valve Over Lap
The timings of this sequence of
At the end of exhaust stroke the
events can be shown graphically in terms of
exhaust valve is open and at the start of intake
crank angles from dead centre position. This
stroke, the inlet valve is kept open. The time
diagram is known as valve timing diagram. It
duration in which both the valves are kept
is shown in figure 5.4(e).
open is called as valve overlap.

Advantages

ˆˆ Fuel economy
ˆˆ Lubrication oil Consumption is less
ˆˆ Can be used in different vehicle
ˆˆ Thermal Efficiency is high
ˆˆ Volumetric Efficiency is high
ˆˆ Low wear and tear

Disadvantages
ˆˆ Number of parts are more
ˆˆ Mechanical Efficiency is low
ˆˆ Maintenance cost is more
ˆˆ Complicated design
ˆˆ More space is required TDC = Top dead centre, BDC = Bottom
dead centre, IVO = Inlet valve opens
e) Valve Timing Diagram For A Four IVC = Inlet valve closes, EVO = Exhaust
Stroke Petrol Engine
valve opens, EVC = Exhaust valve closes
In a four stroke engine, an engine
cycle to produce power is done on every two Figure 5.4(e) Valve Timing Diagram For
revolution of crankshaft. Theoretically it may Four Stroke Petrol Engine

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 Intake valve timing: will make the fresh charge to push out the
burnt out gases from the cylinder. Scavenging
The inlet valve will be open 10° to
will be made till 20°After TDC.
30° before TDC (i.e during exhaust stroke),
remain open during suction stroke and Valve over Lap
closes at 30° to 40° after BDC (i.e. during
The portion of the operating cycle in
compression stroke). This gives the inlet valve
which, when the piston is passing TDC (top
a total opening of 220° of crankshaft rotation.
dead centre) on the exhaust stroke, both the
This will ensure the full induction of fresh
intake and exhaust valves are open. It is usually
charge in cylinder during suction stroke.
expressed in degrees of crankshaft rotation.
After the inlet valve closed in the Valve overlap is necessary for the efficient
compression stroke, the air fuel mixture is flow of gases in and out of the combustion
compressed by the piston. This will increase chamber.
the pressure and temperature in the cylinder.
5.5 TWO STROKE PETROL
With both intake and exhaust valve ENGINE
are in closed condition, the spark will be
The two stroke cycle engine completes
introduced by the ignition system through
one power stroke in one revolution of a
spark plug at 20° to 40° before TDC. These
crankshaft.
will initialise the combustion and the air fuel
mixture will be burned in the combustion Construction
chamber. Thus the chemical energy of the Inside the engine, the small end of
fuel is converted into heat energy. the connecting rod is connected to the piston
with the help of piston pin. The big end of the
Exhaust valve timing: connecting rod is connected to the crankpin
The exhaust valve opens at 30° to 60° of the crankshaft. When the crankshaft
before the completion of power stroke. Due rotates, the piston will reciprocate on the
to this, the gases have an outlet for expansion, cylinder and vice versa. There is no inlet and
which removes the greater part of the burnt exhaust valves as in case of four-stroke engine
gases. The valves remain open during open but consists of the inlet port (IP), an exhaust
during the exhaust stroke and it is closed at port (EP) and transfer port (TP). The fresh
20° after TDC, during the intake stroke of the charge enters into the crankcase through
next cycle. inlet port. Transfer port is used to transfer
the compressed charge from crankcase to the
Scavenaging
cylinder. Exhaust port is used to transfer the
The inlet valve will be open 10° to 30° burnt gases out of the engine. The movement
before TDC and at the same time the exhaust of the piston will open and closes the ports. A
valve is already in the open condition. This spark plug will be placed in the engine head.

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 Upward Stroke
During upward stroke, the piston
moves from BDC to TDC. It expels the burnt
gases to the atmosphere through the exhaust
port. It closes the transfer port and then the
exhaust port. Then it compresses the already
inducted charge (air-fuel mixture) in the
combustion chamber of the cylinder. At the
end of the upward stroke, the ignition of the
fresh charge is takes place by the spark plug.
Figure 5.5(a) Two Stroke Petrol Engine
Further, the upward movement of
the piston a partial vacuum is created in the
Working principle
crankcase and this allows the entry of the fresh
In two stroke engine, all the four events charge into the crankcase through uncovered
namely suction, compression, power and inlet port. The exhaust port and the inlet port
exhaust cannot be distinctly identified. For remains covered when the piston at the TDC.
each revolution of crankshaft or for every two
stroke of piston, a working / power stroke is
Downward stroke:
obtained. Hence the cycle of operation can be
explained with two stroke of piston movement As soon as the combustion of the fresh
namely Upward stroke and Downward stroke. charge takes place, a large amount of the hot

Figure 5.5(b) Upword and Downword Stroke of Two Stroke Petrol Engine
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 gases is produced and this exerts a very high fresh charge but it is somewhat diluted with
pressure force on the top of the piston. Due the exhaust gases.
to this high pressure force, the piston moves
downward and rotates the crankshaft and Finally the cycle event is then repeated
does useful work. and the power stroke is obtained for the every
single revolution of the crankshaft.
During this stroke the inlet port is cov-
ered by the piston and the new charge is com-
pressed in the crankcase due to the downward Reason for less power in two stroke engine
movement of piston. ˆˆ The fresh air fuel charge is mixed with
Further downward movement of the exhaust gas and sent out before combustion
piston uncovers first the exhaust and the ˆˆ The charge is diluted by the burnt gases due
exhaust starts through the exhaust port. to incomplete scavenging.
Further downward movement of the ˆˆ Combustion is improper as lubrication oil is
piston uncovers port the transfer port and the mixed with fresh charge
charge through it is forced into the cylinder. ˆˆ Volumetric efficiency of the engine is low.
The charge strikes the deflector on the
piston crown, rises to the top of the cylinder Advantages:
and pushes out most of the exhaust gases. ˆˆ Smoother in operation
The piston is now at BDC position. ˆˆ It is simpler in construction and
The cylinder is completely filled with the mechanism.

Figure 5.5(c) Port Timing diagram of Two Stroke Petrol Engine

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 ˆˆ Power developed by the two stroke engine ˆˆ Not suitable for heavy vehicles
is twice that developed by the four stroke ˆˆ There is a greater wear and tear of moving
engine for the same engine speed and volume. parts.
ˆˆ Cost of the engine is less since less no. of parts ˆˆ Thermal efficiency is less than four stroke
ˆˆ Less maintenance since fewer spare parts engine.
due to its simple design ˆˆ The charge is diluted by the burnt gases due
ˆˆ Low manufacturing cost to incomplete scavenging.
ˆˆ It has high mechanical efficiency. ˆˆ It produces greater noise.
ˆˆ A two stroke engine is more compact, light
and requires less space 5.6 COMPARISON OF TWO
STROKE AND FOUR STROKE
Disadvantages:
ENGINE
ˆˆ It has high fuel consumption The two stroke and four stroke engine
ˆˆ It does more consumption of the lubricat- are compared and their differences are given
ing oil. below (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6 Differnce Between Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engine
[Link] Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine
1. It has one revolution of crankshaft within It has two revolution of crankshaft between
one power stroke. one power strokes.
2. 2 strokes are required to complete a cycle. 4 strokes are required to complete a cycle.
3. It requires lighter flywheel because it It requires heavy flywheel because it
generates more balanced force due to one generates unbalance force due to two
revolution for one power stroke. revolutions for one power stroke.
4. One non-power stroke in a cycle Three non-power stroke in a cycle
5. Engines are lighter Engines are heavier
6. Engine construction is simple. The Engine construction is a bit
complicated
7. Ports are used for inlet and outlet of air Valves are used for inlet and outlet of air
fuel mixture fuel mixture
8. Ports are opened and closed by piston Valves are operated by separate valve
movements operating mechanism.
9. Less no. of moving parts More no. of moving parts
10. Volumetric efficiency is less Volumetric efficiency is more
11. Thermal efficiency is less Thermal efficiency is more
12. Two stroke engines are less efficient and Four stroke engines are more efficient and
generate more smoke. generate less smoke.

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 [Link] Two Stroke Engine Four Stroke Engine
13. These engines are easy to manufacture. These engines are comparatively hard to
manufacture.
14. More wear and tear occurs Less wear and tear occurs.
15. A part of air fresh air fuel mixture mixes Burnt out gases is not mixed with fresh
with the exhaust gas, hence less power. charge, hence more power.
16. Fuel consumption is more. Fuel consumption is less
17. High power-to-weight ratio Less power-to-weight ratio
18. More noise Less noise
19. Air cooled engine. Air / water cooled engine.
20. Works based on Clerk cycle. Works based on otto / diesel cycle
21. Easy lubrication due to lubrication oil mix Complex lubrication mechanism
with the fuel.
22. Consumption of lubrication oil is more Consumption of lubrication oil is less
because some oil burns with fuel.
23. Less weight More weight
24. Used in scooter, mopeds, auto rickwsaw. Used in motor cycles, autoricksaw, car, bus,
lorry, trucks, tractors etc.

5.7 FOUR STROKE DIESEL ratio for diesel engine is higher and it will be
ENGINE ranging from 16 : 1 to 20 : 1. The compression
The engine which uses diesel as a fuel ratio for a petrol engine is 10:1. During
is called as diesel engine. The compression suction stroke, the air alone is inducted. The
fuel is pressured and distributed to various
cylinders through the fuel injection pump.
Diesel injector will be located in cylinder head
for injecting the diesel fuel at high pressure.
There is no spark plug. All the remaining
parts are similar to petrol engine.

Construction
The construction of a single cylinder
diesel engine is shown in above figure. The
reciprocating motion of a piston is converted
into rotary motion of a crankshaft through
connecting rod. The piston and the crankshaft
are connected by means of a connecting rod.
Figure 5.7(a) Four Stroke Diesel Engine The flywheel is attached to the one end of the

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 fuel
closed

closed
closed

closed
closed

closed
open

open
air exhaust
in out

Suction Compression Power Exhaust

stroke stroke stroke stroke
Figure 5.7(b) Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engine

crankshaft and on another side a pulley is stroke is required. Thus for four operation,
attached to it. Inlet valve, exhaust valve and four strokes are required and hence it is called
fuel injector are located on the engine head. as four stroke engine. The four strokes are
The inlet valve will allow the air inside the namely called
cylinder, the fuel injector will inject the fuel
and the exhaust valve will sent the burnt gases i. Suction Stroke
to the atmosphere. The valves are operated Ii. Compression Stroke
by the camshaft. The camshaft is driven by Iii. Power Stroke
crankshaft through timing gear. Iv. Exhaust Stroke

The following sequence of events will

i) Suction Stroke
occur continuously for the engine operation.
The figure shows the sequence of events In this stroke, the piston moves down
from the top dead centre towards the bot-
ˆˆ Air alone induced inside the cylinder tom dead centre. The inlet valve opens and
ˆˆ Air alone compressed the air is drawn into the cylinder due to the
ˆˆ Finely automised diesel fuel is injected onto vacuum created inside the cylinder. To fill the
the compressed air followed by combustion vacuum, the air is entered inside the cylinder.
The inlet valve closes at the end of the stroke
ˆˆ Burnt gases are let out from the cylinder.
and the exhaust valve remains closed during
The above sequence of operation this stroke.
forms a cycle and for each operation, a piston
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 fuel
iii) Power Stroke

closed

closed
closed

closed
closed

closed
open

open
The hot gases which are produced due
to ignition of fuel during compression stroke
air exhaust
and compressed air now expand adiabatically,
in out
in the cylinder pushing the piston down
towards the BDC. This downward movement
of the piston is converted into rotary motion
of the crankshaft and hence work is done.
During expansion, the pressure and the
temperature reduce. In this stroke, both inlet
and exhaust valve remain closed.

Suction Compression Power Exhaust

fuel
stroke stroke stroke stroke
closed

closed
closed

closed
closed

closed
open

open
Figure 5.7.1(a) Suction Stroke

ii) Compression Stroke

air exhaust
In this stroke, the piston in
moves up from out
bottom dead centre to top dead centre. During
this stroke, both inlet and exhaust valves are
closed. The air drawn into the cylinder during
suction stroke is entrapped inside the cylinder
and compressed due to upward movement of
the piston. The fuel is injected at the end of the
compression stroke by the injector and the fuel
fuel

ignites. Suction Compression Power Exhaust

stroke stroke stroke stroke
closed

closed
closed

closed
closed

closed
open

open

Figure 5.7.1(c) Power Stroke

air exhaust
in iv) Exhaust
out Stroke
At the end of the power stroke, exhaust
stroke will start. In this stroke, the piston again
moves upward. The exhaust valve opens, while
inlet valve is closed. A greater part of the burnt
fuel gases escapes due to their own expansion.
Suction Compression Power The upward movement of the piston pushes the
Exhaust
stroke stroke stroke remaining gases out through the open exhaust
stroke
valve. At the end of an exhaust stroke, the exhaust
valve closes and the cycle is thus completed and
Figure 5.7.1(b) Compression Stroke
suction stroke of next cycle is started.
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 fuel Disadvantages
closed

closed
closed

closed
open
ˆˆ No. of moving parts is more

exhaust ˆˆ Mechanical Efficiency is low

out ˆˆ Maintenance cost is more
ˆˆ Complicated design
ˆˆ More space is required

e) Valve timing diagram of four stroke

diesel engine
The valve timing diagram for a four
stroke cycle diesel engine is shown in Figure
pression Power Exhaust 5.7 (a) below:
roke stroke stroke
Figure 5.7.1(d) Exhaust Stroke In a four stroke diesel engine, an engine
cycle to produce power is done on every two
Scavenging
revolution of crankshaft. It may be assumed
During the end of exhaust stroke and that the valves open and close and injection
start of the suction stroke, the inlet valve and of fuel occurs at the engine dead centres.
exhaust valve will be kept open condition. However, in actual operation, the valves do not
This will make the fresh charge to push out operate at dead centre positions but operate
the burnt out gases from the cylinder and this some degree on either side of the dead centres.
phenomenon is called as scavenging. The opening occurs earlier and the exhaust
continues even at later crank angles. The fuel
Valve over Lap
injection is also timed to occur in advance of
The portion of the operating cycle in the completion of compression stroke. The
which both the intake and exhaust valves are diagram which shows the position of crank
kept open is called as valve overlap. It is usually of four stroke engine at the beginning and at
expressed in degrees of crankshaft rotation. the end of suction, compression, expansion
Valve overlap is necessary for the efficient flow and exhaust of the engine are called as valve
of gases in and out of the combustion chamber. timing diagram. This diagram is known as
valve timing diagram.
Advantages
ˆˆ Operating cost is less
Inlet valve opening and closing:
ˆˆ Lubrication oil consumption is less
In an actual engine, the inlet valve
ˆˆ Can be used in all types of vehicle
begins to open 10° to 25°before the piston
ˆˆ Thermal Efficiency is high reaches the TDC during the exhaust stroke.
ˆˆ Volumetric Efficiency is high This is necessary to ensure that the valve will
ˆˆ Wear and tear is less be fully open when the piston reaches the

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 TDC
e
c IVO - Inlet Valve Open
EVC
IVO IVC - Inlet Valve Close
a EVO - Exhaust Valve Open
FVC EVC - Exhaust Valve Close
FVO FVO - Fuel Valve Open
FVC - Fuel Valve Close
ab - Suction - more than 180˚
b bc - Compression - less than 180˚
IVC d cd - Expansion - less than 180˚
EVO de - Exhaust - more than 180˚
BDC
ACTUAL VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM
Fig 5.7(a) Valve Timing Diagram of Four Stroke Diesel Engine

TDC. If the inlet valve is allowed to close at energy of the fuel is converted into heat
BDC, the cylinder would receive less amount energy. Based on the speed of the engine, the
of air than its capacity. To avoid this, the inlet fuel is injected even 25° before TDC.
valve is kept open for 25°to 45°after the BDC,
during the compression stroke. This will
Exhaust valve timing:
ensure the full induction of fresh charge in
cylinder during suction stroke. The exhaust valve opens at 30° to 60°
before the completion of power stroke. Due
After the inlet valve closed in the to this, the gases have an outlet for expansion,
compression stroke, the air is compressed by which removes the greater part of the burnt
the upward motion of the piston. This will gases. The valves remain open during open
increase the pressure and temperature inside during the exhaust stroke and it is closed at 20°
the cylinder. after TDC, during the intake stroke of the next
cycle.
With both intake and exhaust valve
are in closed condition, the fuel injector will
Scavenging
inject the diesel fuel at high pressure at 5°
to 10° before TDC. The temperature of the The inlet valve will be open 10° to
compressed air at the end of compression 30° before TDC during exhaust stroke and at
stroke is sufficient enough to initialise the the same time the exhaust valve is already in
finely automised diesel fuel for combustion. the open condition. This will make the fresh
The air fuel mixture will be burned in the charge to push out the burnt out gases from
combustion chamber. Thus the chemical the cylinder. Scavenging will be made till 20°
after TDC.
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 Valve over lap
The portion of the operating cycle in
which, when the piston is passing TDC (top
dead centre) on the exhaust stroke, both the
intake and exhaust valves are open. It is usually
expressed in degrees of crankshaft rotation.
Valve overlap is necessary for the efficient
flow of gases in and out of the combustion
chamber. It is will vary with respect to size
and configuration of engine.

5.8 TWO STROKE DIESEL Figure 5.8(a) Two Stroke Diesel Engine

ENGINE
When the cycle of operation of engine
completes in one revolution of the crankshaft Working principle
or two stroke of the piston and one power In two stroke engine, all the four events
stroke is obtained in each revolution of a namely suction, compression, power and
crankshaft, then the engine is called as two exhaust cannot be distinctly identified. For
stroke engine. each revolution of crankshaft or for every two
stroke of piston, a working / power stroke is
obtained. Hence the cycle of operation can be
Construction
explained with two stroke of piston movement
Inside the engine, the small end of namely Upward stroke and Downward stroke.
the connecting rod is connected to the piston
with the help of piston pin. The big end of the
connecting rod is connected to the crankpin Upward Stroke
of the crankshaft. When the crankshaft During upward stroke, the piston
rotates, the piston will reciprocate on the moves from BDC to TDC. It expels the
cylinder and vice versa. There is no inlet and burnt gases to the atmosphere through the
exhaust valves as in case of four-stroke engine exhaust port. It closes the transfer port and
but consists of the inlet port (IP), an exhaust then the exhaust port. Then it compresses the
port (EP) and transfer port (TP). The fresh already inducted charge (air-fuel mixture)
charge enters into the crankcase through in the combustion chamber of the cylinder.
inlet port. Transfer port is used to transfer At the end of the upward stroke, the diesel
the compressed charge from crankcase to the fuel is injected at high pressure through fuel
cylinder. Exhaust port is used to transfer the injection nozzle and this will automise the
burnt gases out of the engine. The movement fuel. The temperature of the compressed air
of the piston will open and closes the ports. A is sufficient enough to ignite the diesel and
fuel injector is placed in the engine head. combustion is take place.

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 Injector

Transfer Port

Outlet Port

Valve

Fig 5.8(b) Upward and Downward Stroke of Two Stroke Diesel Engine

Further, the upward movement of Further downward movement of the

the piston a partial vacuum is created in the piston uncovers first the exhaust and the
crankcase and this allows the entry of the fresh exhaust starts through the exhaust port.
charge into the crankcase through uncovered
inlet port. The exhaust port and the inlet port Further downward movement of the
remains covered when the piston at the TDC. piston uncovers port the transfer port and the
fresh air is forced into the cylinder.
Downward stroke:
The fresh air strikes the deflector on
As soon as the combustion of the fresh the piston crown, rises to the top of the cylin-
charge takes place, a large amount of the hot der and pushes out most of the exhaust gases.
gases is produced and this exerts a very high
pressure force on the top of the piston. Due The piston is now at BDC position.
to this high pressure force, the piston moves The cylinder is completely filled with the
downward and rotates the crankshaft and fresh charge but it is somewhat diluted with
does useful work. the exhaust gases.

During this stroke the inlet port is cov- Finally the cycle event is then repeated
ered by the piston and the new charge is com- and the power stroke is obtained for the every
pressed in the crankcase due to the downward single revolution of the crankshaft.
movement of piston.

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 Fig 5.8(c) Port Timing Diagram of Two Stroke Diesel Engine

Student Activity

1. Students should visit the nearby workshops to study the types of petrol and diesel engines,
and also to study the purpose of piston, connecting rod, crank shaft, camshaft, timing gear
and flywheel.
2. Students should visit the nearby engine service centre and should prepare a sketch of engine
block, crank case, cylinder head and gasket.

Glossary

Converted - மாற்றம்
Compressed - அத்தல்
Combustion - எரிட்தல்
Prolonged - நீத்த
Surrounded - ற்ப்றம்
Liner - உைர
Combustion Chamber - எரிம்அைற
Lubrication - உயவிதல்
Top Dead Centre - ேமல்நிைல
Bottom Dead Centre - கீழ்நிைல

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 References

1. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering Vol 1 & 2”, Standard Publishers, Seventh Edition,
1997, New Delhi.
2. Jain, K.K., and Asthana. R.B., “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill Publishers, New
Delhi, 2002.
3. Ganesan V. Internal Combustion Engines, Third Edition, Tata McGraw - Hill, 2007.
4. B.P. Pundir, I.C. engine combustion and emissions. Narosa Publishing House, July 2010.
5. Rajput R.K. Internal Combustion Engines, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd, 2006.
6. Ramalingam, K.K., Internal Combustion Engines, SciTech Publications (India) Pvt. Ltd., 2004.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS 3. Conecting rod is used to

Choose the correct answer: a) to connect crank shaft and cylinder
1. Which material is used for manufactur- head
ing cylinder block? b) to connect crank shaft and piston
a) Gray cast iron or aluminum alloy c) to connect crank shaft and cylinder
b) Cast iron or steel block
c) Brass or steel 4. Which type of piston pin is mostly used
2. Which liner has directly contact with now a days?
cooling water? a) semi floating type
a) Dry liner b) full floating type
b) Wet liner c) fixed type
c) None
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 5. Order of the strokes for getting power.
a) Exhaust,suction, power, compression
b) Suction, exhaust power, compression
c) suction, compression power, exhaust
6. Which is used to open the valve in
Engine?
a) Crank shaft. Answer the following questions:
b) Cam shaft 1. Who is invented Petrol Engine?
c) Fly wheel
2. Who is invented Diesel Engine?
7. Which liner is does not contact with
3. Write any 10 important parts of I.C.
cooling water?
Engine.
a) Dry liner
b) Wet liner 4. What are the two types of cylinder liners?
c) None 5. What is the purpose of Gasket?
8. Where is vibration Damber located? 6. State any five method to control the
a) In front of the Crank shaft. expansion of the piston due to over heat.
b) Back side of the crank shaft 7. Name the types of Piston.
c) In front of the Cam shaft.
8. What is meant by Vibration Damper?
9. Which indicates cycle of operation
9. In how many ways Piston and connecting
engine?
rod are connected? Mention the names.
a) Exhaust, suction, power,
compression 10. Draw a neat sketch of Over head Puppet
b) Suction, exhaust power, Valve mechanism and explain the same.
compression 11. Draw a neat sketch of Straight Puppet
c) suction, compression power, mechanism and explain the same.
exhaust 12. Draw a neat of Four Stroke Petrol Engine
10. Which is used to prevent leakage and explain the working principle.
between cylinder and cylinder head?
a) Gasket
b) Oil seal
c) Dust cover

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 6
Intake, Exhaust System
Unit and Combustion Chamber

Contents

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Effects of Pollutants
6.2 Fuel Tank
6.3 Fuel Filter
6.4 Air Filter
6.4.1 Dry Type Air Cleaner
6.4.2 Oil Bath Type Air Cleaner
6.4.3 Oil Wetted Type Air Cleaner
6.5 Fuel Pump
6.5.1 Petrol Fuel Pumps
6.5.2 Diesel Fuel Injection Pump
6.6 Feed Pump
6.6.1 Single Acting Pump
6.6.2 Double Acting Pump
6.7 Inlet Manifold
6.8 Carburettors
6.9 Fuel Injectors
6.10 Nozzle
6.10.1 Single Whole Nozzle
6.10.2 Multi Whole Nozzle
6.10.3 Long Stem Nozzle
6.11 Combustion Chambers
6.11.1 Types of Combustion Chambers of Diesel
Engines
6.12 Exhaust System
6.12.1 Exhaust Manifold
6.12.2 Exhaust Pipe
6.12.3 Exhaust Muffiers
6.13 Catalytic Convertors
6.14 Engine Tune-Up Procedure
6.15 Pollution

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 Learning Objectives

• To learn about the engine emissions along with its impact on humans
and environment.
• To learn about the engine firing procedure.

6.0 INTRODUCTION human beings, animals and all the plants

In the earth, all the living organisms, can live peacefully without any diseases.
animals and human beings are living with The following are the important pollutant
the help of oxygen present in nature (or) emissions coming out from the internal
atmosphere. For producing power and food combustion engines.
they use energy obtained from burning
the fuel. Human beings use different fuels 1. Carbon Monoxide
to get their heat energy according to their 2. Nitric Oxide
needs. In the same way they use heat energy 3. Hydro Carbon
obtained from burning the fuel for operat- 4. Smoke
ing their automobiles. Human beings use 5. Particulate (solid, liquid pollution)
different approaches for burning the fuels
6. Sulfur Dioxide and etc.,
to produce energy or power. For attaining
such strategies, they using separate systems
The following picture and table
for transferring fuel from the fuel tank in
present the effects of the above pollutants
to combustion chamber. The system used to
on human beings
perform this function is called as the intake
system. The exhaust gases produced from In order to reduce the formation
the combustion of fuel inside the combus- of the above hazardous pollutants the
tion chamber are sent out of the engine by fuel must be burnt completely inside the
another system called as the exhaust system.

6.1 EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS

The exhaust emissions released from
the engine combustion chamber are toxic
to the human beings and highly pollute
the environment. Hence it is advisable to
produce less emission from the engines.
It can be achieved by burning the fuels
completely in the engine combustion
chamber. By controlling the pollutants from
the automotive engines, the environment
can be maintained as clean and all the Figure 6.1
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 Table 6.1 Effects of pollutants

Pollutants Effects

1. Carbon monoxide Reduces the oxidation in the blood. It affects the nerves,
the heart and the eyes.
2. Nitric oxide Affects human’s cells and blood flow.

3. Hydro carbon It affects the human eyes.

4. smoke It affects the human eyes.

5. Particulate matter It leads to cancer, bronchitis and allergy like diseases by

(solid, liquid pollution) inhaling.
6. Sulfur dioxide It affects human beings and plants.

engine itself in the vehicle. The way of

supplying the fuel and air inside the engine
combustion chamber plays an important
role in achieving complete combustion.
The system used for supplying appropriate
air and fuel at the appropriate timing
inside the combustion chamber of the
engine is called as the “intake system”.
The important components of the engine Figure 6.2 Fuel Tank
intake system are
the vehicle. It is made of Galvanized Iron
1. Fuel Tank by pressing process. This fuel tank varies
2. Fuel Filter (Petrol & Diesel) depending on the cubic capacity of the
3. Air Filter vehicle. Similarly, the location of this tank
4. Fuel Pump (Petrol and Diesel) in the vehicle will vary depends on the type
of vehicle. A separate tank will be generally
5. Feeding Pump
mounted on the top of the vehicle chassis
6. Inlet Manifold frame according to the fuel filling system.
7. Carburettor The fuel tank is shown in Figure 6.2.
8. Injector
6.3. FUEL FILTER
9. Nozzle
There is a possibility of having
10. Combustion chamber.
fuel contaminated with dust particles
6.2. FUEL TANK while filling the fuel or during storage. If
The fuel tank is used to store the the contaminated fuel is supplied to the
fuel needed to produce output energy in chamber, it leads to incomplete combustion

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 Figure 6.4 Air filter
Figure 6.3 Fuel filter

and creates problem in reciprocating 3. Oil coated air filter (Oil wetted type
movement of the piston up and down. The air cleaner)
incomplete combustion causes formation
of pollutants in the exhaust. Hence fuel
filter is used in path way of the fuel supply Air filters applications (Uses of Air
cleaner)
line to avoid the above said problems. It
removes the dust particles and sends the Though there are many usages of the
purified fuel to the fuel injector and to the air filters in many different applications,
combustion chamber. Figure 6.3 shows the the important usages of the air filter in
Fuel Filter automobile are,

6.4. AIR FILTER 1. To send clean air without dust and

In any diesel or petrol engine for contaminates to the carburettor.
achieving combustion of the fuel sufficient 2. To avoid mal-functioning of the engine
amount of oxygen or pure air is required. and prevent damages of the engine parts
Hence before sending the atmospheric air due to incomplete combustion
into the carburettor in petrol engines or 3. To reduce the pressure difference occurs
directly into the combustion chamber in in the intake manifold and lowers the
diesel engines, the air must be purified. In noise level. Figure 6.4 shows the Air
automobiles there are number of designs in Filter
air filters based on the engine used. If it is a
gasoline engine air filter is mounted at the
carburettor inlet, where as the filter is fitted 6.4.1 Dry Type Air Cleaner
at the intake manifold in diesel engine. There In this type of air filters, the cover,
are different types air filters used in vehicles. filtering part and bottle housing are coupled
Figure 6.4 shows the Air Filter. They are with each other. When the air is inducted
to the filter through the filter cover, the
1. Dry Type Air Cleaner (filter)
dust particles and contaminations in the
2. Oil bath type Air Cleaner (filter) air are removed. Then purified air passes
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 Figure 6.4.2 Oil Bath Type Air Cleaner
by the filter. The filtration components
Figure 6.4.1 Dry Type Air Cleaner and oil container are fitted separately in
this type of filters. Figure 6.4.2 shows the
Oil Bath Type Air Cleaner.
to the upper section of the carburettor
through the filter outlet in the intake air
6.4.3 Oil Wetted Type Air Cleaner
path and enters into the carburettor. In
this type of filters, a number of folded In this type of filter, the filter is not
paper elements are used as a filter. Figure dipped in the oil in the tank. Instead, the
6.4.1 shows the Dry Type Air Cleaner. surface of the filter will be coated with oil.
The air passing through the filter initially
6.4.2 Oil Bath Type Air Cleaner touches the oil on the filter and removes
larger size dust particles and impuri-
In oil bath type, the air filter is
ties. After that the air is passed into the
filled with oil in the container such as
net shaped filter and the air gets purified
a tank. This type of filter is made up of
again and the cleaned air is sent to the
copper metal and looks like a spider net
engine. Generally, in automobiles after
in ring shape. It is enclosed in the middle
running for 8000 kilometers the filter is
of the tank filled with oil and the upper
cover kept in closed position. Due to the
reciprocating downward movement of
piston the air is sucked in to the engine
through the intake manifold where the air
filter is fixed. The air is initially passed
through the oil present in the filter tank,
where surface of the oil absorbs larger size
dust particles in it. After that the smaller
size dust particles in the air are removed Figure 6.4.3 Oil Wetted Type Air Cleaner
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 cleaned with petrol or paraffin and can be
reused. Figure 6.4.3 shows the Oil Wetted
Type Air Cleaner.

6.5. FUEL PUMP

The required amount of fuel (for
producing power) pumped from the fuel
tank to the combustion chamber is trans-
ferred by the device called fuel pump.
It is classified according to the fuel
used as,
1. Fuel Pump (Petrol Engine) Figure 6.5.1 (a) Schematic of A.C.
2. Fuel diesel pump (diesel engine) Mechanical Fuel Pump.

6.5.1 Petrol Fuel Pumps

A fuel pump is used to transfer the
fuel from the fuel tank through the filter with
appropriate pressure to the float chamber of
the carburettor in gasoline engines to drive
the vehicle. Petrol Fuel pumps are classified
in two types as

1. A.C. Mechanical Fuel Pump

2. S.U. Electric Fuel Pump

Figure 6.5.1 (b) S.U. Electrical Fuel Pump.

6.5.2 Diesel Fuel Injection Pump

Unlike in petrol engines, in diesel
engines diesel stored in the fuel tank is
Fig 6.5.1(a) A.C. Mechanical Fuel Pump sucked by the Diesel fuel injection pump.
The fuel from the fuel tank is passed
through the fuel filter and feed to the fuel
injection pump. The fuel injection pump
develops high pressure and the pressurized
fuel is sent to the fuel injector and sprayed
into the engine’s combustion chamber.
This fuel injection pump is classified into
Fig 6.5.1(b) S.U. Electric Fuel Pump two types. They are,
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 a) Inline Pump or eccentric of the fuel injection pump’s
b) Distributer Pump cam shaft. The components such as roller
tapper, pressure spindle and plunger are in
contact with each other and placed inside
6.6 FEED PUMP the pump body. For emergency purpose,
Feed pump is another pump hand priming device is used to increase
arrangement located between the diesel the pressure of fuel. Figure 6.6.1 shows the
fuel tank and the filter in the diesel Fuel Single Acting Pump.
Injection Pump (FIP) block. The drive
for the fuel feed pump is given from the Working Principle
camshaft of the fuel injection pump by When the engine is started the drive
cam or eccentric. The fuel feed pump is is received from the engine’s crank shaft
designed to operate manually by hand and given to the FIP cam shaft through
for purging the air in the fuel line when timing gears. Now the cam shaft of the
air bubbles are present. This fuel feed FIP rotates and while rotating the roller
pump is classified into two types based tappet the feed pump is actuated by the
on the delivery of fuel continuously or cam or eccentric in the cam shaft. Hence
intermittent while the fuel injection pump the plunger is actuated by the action of
is running. They are the roller tappet. Pressure spindle is now
actuated by the plunger. Therefore, the
1. Single acting pump
fuel in the pressure chamber is pressurized
2. Double acting pump and sent to the FIP. At the same time the
high-pressure fuel developed in the FIP is
6.6.1 Single Acting Pump sent to the nozzle (injector) by the FIP. The
quantity of fuel delivered is equal to swept
Construction
volume or equal to stroke length. The
This type of pump is mounted on delivery passage is closed by the pressure
the body of the fuel injection pump. This spindle with the spring force. This is the
single acting pump is driven by the cam way how the single acting pump works.

Figure 6.6.1 Single Acting Pump

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 6.6.2 Double Acting Pump the carburettor to the engine inlet port in
Construction petrol engines and air to the combustion
chamber in diesel engines. It is also a
This type of pump is similar to the
place to locate the carburettor in petrol
single acting pump in its construction.
engines. The governor or super charger
However, it differs from the single acting
can’t be fitted here. In L-head engine the
pump that the plunger in the pump is
inlet manifold is situated at the adjacent of
operated in such a way to achieve the
cylinder block, and in I- head engine it is
suction and delivery of fuel at the same
situated at the adjacent of cylinder head.
time. Figure 6.6.2 shows the Double
In V- shape engine it is situated between
Acting Pump.
the two cylinders. Since the exhaust and
Working Principle coolant supply are placed close to the
intake manifold there may be possibilities
When the drive is received from
for the inlet manifold to get heated. Hence
the engine cam shaft, the cam shaft of
a thermostat valve with coolant circulation
the FIP starts rotating and actuates the
is provided in modern engines to avoid
roller tappet of the fuel pump. Hence the
heating of the intake manifold. Therefore,
plunger moves downward and presses the
by using the thermostat valve, the inlet
pressure spring. Now the pressure valve
manifold can be cooled. The engine is also
and suction valve are opened at the same
heated easily by using the thermostat valve
time. And the fuel suction and delivery
from low temperature. Therefore, engine
are achieved at the same time. For each
can be started easily. The inlet manifold
and every rotation of FIP camshaft, the
of the engine is classified into two types.
pressurized fuel delivery and suction
They are
process are done simultaneously. Since the
two actions are done at the same time, this 1. Dual intake manifold
pump is called as the double acting pump. 2. Four-barrel intake manifold

Dual Intake Manifold

Figure 6.6.2 Double Acting Pump

6.7 Inlet Manifold

Inlet manifold is a pipe which is
Four-Barrel Intake Manifold.
made up of cast iron or aluminium metal.
Figure 6.7 Dual and Four-Barrel
It is used to send the air fuel mixture from
Intake Manifold.
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 Figure 6.7 shows the Dual Intake
Manifold and Four-barrel intake manifold

6.8 CARBURETTORS
Carburettor is a device which is
used to atomize the petrol and mix it with
the air in the proportion depending upon
the speed and torque of the engine. This
mixture enters into the engine via inlet
manifold with the help of carburettor. The
venture in the carburettor is used to mix
Figure 6.8 Carburattors
the fuel with the air to the required pro-
portion. After mixing the air fuel mixture
1. According to the float chamber
is introduced into the engine cylinder.
Figure 6.8 shows the Carburettors a) Eccentric
b) Concentric
The carburettor is classified into 2. According to the path of air flow
several categories. They are as follows,
a) Down Draft
b) Side Draft

SPARK PLUG
Albert Champion
During the early 1900s, France was the dominant manu-
facturer of spark plugs.
Frenchman, Albert Champion was a bicycle and
motorcycle racer who immigrated to the United States in
1889 to race. As a sideline, Champion manufactured and
sold spark plugs to support himself.
In 1904, Champion moved to Flint, Michigan
where he started the Champion Ignition Company for the
manufacturing of spark plugs.
He later lost control of his company and in 1908
started the AC Spark Plug Company with backing
from Buick Motor Co. AC presumably stood for Albert
Champion.
His AC spark plugs were used in aviation, notably
for the trans-Atlantic flights of Charles LIndbergh and
Amelia Earhart. They also were used in the Apollo rocket
stages.

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 c) Up Draft 6.9 FUEL INJECTORS
d) Semi-Down Draft Injector plays an important role in
3. According to the package injecting the diesel into the cylinder of
a) Single Unit the diesel engine. It injects equal amount
b) Double Unit of the fuel to each cylinder as per the
c) Four-Barrel Unit. firing order. Injector is used to spray the
4. According to the Types of Metering diesel fuel into the cylinder in the form
System of very fine particles in the range of 20
to 100 micrometers. Due to this, the
a) Air-Bleed jet
diesel fuel is completely mixed with the
b) Metering Rod Type
air. This leads to complete combustion.
5. According to the type of venturi Figure 6.9 shows the Fuel Injector.
a) Plain Venturi
b) Double Venturi The diesel fuel injectors have the
c) Vane Venturi following components,
d) Nozzle-Bar Venturi
1. Nozzle body
e) Triple Venturi
2. Cap unit
6. Also, it is classified based on the
3. Delivery unit
placement of the carburettor, they are
a) Simple Carburettor Nozzle body consists of nozzle valve;
b) S.U Carburettor spindle, springs, adjusting nut are placed
c) Solex Carburettor together. A passage is made on the injector
d) Zenith Carburettor to pass the high-pressure fuel to inject into
e) Cartor Carburettor the combustion chamber and the bypass unit

Figure 6.9 Fuel Injector

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 is used to let the fuel to go back to the fuel
tank. Figure 6.9 shows the Fuel Injector.

Working Principle of Injectors

By the rotation of engine crankshaft,
the camshaft rotates by using the timing
gear connected with it. Hence the camshaft
connected to the fuel injection pump also
rotates and high pressure is developed in
the fuel injection pump. The pressurized
fuel the fuel tank is supplied to the fuel
injector through the high-pressure fuel Figure 6.10 Nozzle
line. The diesel fuel entering the injector
reaches the nozzle and starts to spray with of the engine at different pressures and
the help of spring force acting inside the at constant temperature with accurate
nozzle. Diesel fuel enters into the nozzle at metering. Nozzle is designed to fit in to
very high pressure opens the nozzle valve the nozzle valve and it can be assembled
by lifting against spring force acting inside only by the authorized company. A hole
the spindle. Hence the nozzle valve opens for supplying fuel is available at the tip
and high-pressure diesel fuel in the nozzle of nozzle valve. The diesel entering into
is injected into the chamber generally at the injector at high pressure is used for
the pressure of 200 bars in the form of very opening the valve and the returning action
fine droplets. The droplets of the diesel fuel is taken by springs provided in the valve.
then vaporize and mix with the air inside Figure 6.10 shows the Nozzle.
the combustion chamber to attain proper
mixture for burning. When the injection There are different types of nozzles,
process is over the pressure getting reduced
in the spring inside the nozzle, hence the 1. Single Hole Nozzle
spindle moves the nozzle valve downward. 2. Multi Hole Nozzle
Hence the nozzle valve gets closed. In this 3. Long Stem Nozzle
way the diesel fuel injector works.
6.10.1 Single Hole Nozzle
6.10 NOZZLE It has a single hole at the tip for
Nozzle is the important component injecting a fuel. The nozzle has a cone
used for injecting the diesel at very high shaped spindle which is used for opening
pressure at correct timing for the maximum and closing the nozzle hole. Figure 6.10.1
power output of the engine. It is a part of shows the Single Whole nozzle.
injector which is placed at the cylinder
head and has contact with combustion 6.10.2 Multi Hole Nozzle
chamber in order to inject the fuel. It helps It has a multi holes for injecting
in injecting the fuel as per the requirements the fuel depending upon the engine
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 Small Stem Nozzles are commonly
not used for these types (direct injection)
of engines. Figure 6.10.3 shows the Long
Stem Nozzle.
Some of the long stem nozzles are,
a. Pintle Nozzle
b. Pintaux Nozzle
Figure 6.10.1 Single Whole Nozzle c. Delay Nozzle

a) Pintle Nozzle:
This type of nozzle injects the
fuel which is in the form of pencil’s cone
edge. It is mainly used in the swirl type
of combustion chamber, air cell chamber

Figure 6.10.2 Multi Whole Nozzle

requirements. Figure 6.10.2 shows the

Multi Whole nozzle.

6.10.3 Long Stem Nozzle

The long stem nozzle is mainly used
for the direct injection into combustion
chambers. Figure 6.10.3(a) Pintle Nozzle

Figure 6.10.3 Long Stem Nozzle

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 and Pre-combustion chamber engines. valves, spark plug and the combustion
Figure 6.10.3(a) shows the Pintle Nozzle. chamber the engines can be classified as

b) Pintaux Nozzle:
• L – Head engine
• I – Head engine
• F – Head engine
• T – Head engine
• Spherical shape

L – Head Engine
This type of engine is used for slow
and high speed applications. In this type
of engines the inlet and exhaust valves are
placed in the cylinder block itself and the
Figure 6.10.3(b) Pintaux Nozzle valves open the intake and exhaust ports
by moving upward motion. The spark plug
This type of nozzle is advancement is fitted at the top of the engine cylinder
in the pintle nozzle type. This type of nozzle head. Figure 6.11(a) shows the ‘L’ Head
has the tip projected outside and has a hole Engine.
in the centre for injecting the fuel. This
type of nozzle can achieve combustion
even in cold starting condition of engine.
Figure 6.10.3(b) shows the Pintaux Nozzle
c) Delay Nozzle:
It is the further advancement
in pintle type nozzle in which the fuel
injection and the amount of fuel injected
into the combustion chamber are
controlled depending on engine speed.
This type of nozzle is called as delay
nozzle.
6.11 COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
The combustion chamber is the
place where the air fuel mixture is burnt. It
is the space covered by the cylinder head,
cylinder wall and piston top. Above the
piston there are inlet and exhaust valves
and a spark plug present in the cylinder
head. Depending on the position of the
Figure 6.11(a) L – Head Engine
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 Figure 6.11(b): I– Head Engine

I– Head engine valve is fitted on the upper side of cylinder

This type of engine is used in high head which moves in downward motion
speed vehicle and racing vehicle. The inlet and exhaust valve is fitted in lower side
and exhaust valves replaced in the cylinder of cylinder head which moves in upward
head and the spark plug is fitted at the side direction and the spark plug is in the side
of cylinder head. Figure 6.11(b) shows the of cylinder head. Figure 6.11(c) shows the
‘I’ Head Engine. ‘F’ Head Engine.

F– Head engine T– Head engine

In this engine the combustion It is designed in stretched manner
chamber is designed in stretched manner in both lateral sides, the inlet and exhaust
at the side way of the engine. The inlet valves are fitted at the lower side of cylinder

Figure 6.11(c): F – Head Engine

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 Figure 6.11(d): T – Head Engine

head in which the valves move in upward a. Open Combustion chamber

direction and the spark plug is fitted at the b. Pre-Combustion chamber
top of cylinder head. Figure 6.11(d) shows c. Swirl Combustion chamber
the ‘T’ Head Engine.
d. Squish Combustion chamber
e. Air cell and energy cell
Spherical shape
In engine’s combustion chamber, (a) Open Combustion chamber
if the cylinder head or the piston top has
This type of combustion is mainly
internally or externally a spherical shape
used in slow and high-speed engines. The
then the combustion chamber can be called
piston head is designed in such a way to
as spherical combustion chamber. The inlet
have a (semi spherical) bowl shape and the
and exhaust valves are fitted at the opposite
injector of the engine is mounted on the
direction and the spark plug is fitted either
cylinder head. Figure 6.11.1(a) shows the
centre or at lateral sides in such engines.
Open Combustion Chamber.
6.11.1 Types of combustion chambers (b) Pre-Combustion chamber
of diesel engines
It is mainly used in high speed
Due to high power output of die-
engines. It consists of two chambers such
sel engines, the combustion chambers are
as auxiliary (or pre) combustion chamber
designed in different types depending on
and other called as the main combustion
the engines torque and speed requirements.
chamber. The auxiliary combustion
The diesel engine combustion chambers are
chamber is small and is used for igniting
mainly of the following,
the small amount of the air fuel mixture.

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 Figure 6.11.1(c) Swirl Combustion
Chamber
Figure 6.11.1(a) Open Combustion
Chamber combustion. Figure 6.11.1(c) shows the
Swirl Combustion Chamber.

(d) Squish Combustion chamber

The piston head has the bowl shape
in which the air motion is travelled from
the side to centre of chamber. The radically
inward movement of the air is called as
squish. As the piston moves from BDC to
TDC, the squish motion is created and the
Figure 6.11.1(b) Pre-Combustion fuel is injected and ignited. Figure 6.11.1(d)
Chamber shows the Squish Combustion Chamber.

(e) Air cell and energy cell

The mixture first starts ignited in the Air cell
auxiliary chamber and the combustion The Air cell design has two (called as
flame travels towards the main combustion air cell and main) chambers in which they
chamber for the burning the rest of the air
fuel mixture. Normally Glow plug is used
to initiate combustion of the mixture. The
glow plug will be located at the auxiliary
chamber. Figure 6.11.1(b) shows the Pre-
Combustion Chamber.

(c) Swirl Combustion chamber

It is also known as the turbulent
chamber. The air enters into the combus-
tion chamber in swirl motion in which the
fuel is injected on the swirl air motion, Figure 6.11.1(d) Squish Combustion
allowed to mix with the air and achieves chamber
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 piston movement from TDC to BDC and
depending on pressure difference between
the chambers the mixture is combusted
completely.

6.12 EXHAUST SYSTEM

In an engine the products of
combustion (pollutants) formed during
the combustion process must be taken
out of the engine. This system is called as
the exhaust system. This system includes
exhaust port, exhaust manifold, exhaust
pipe, muffler and a catalytic converter.

6.12.1 Exhaust manifold

Exhaust manifold is a part of the
exhaust system that is used for removing
Figure 6.11.1(e) Air Cell and Energy Cell unwanted gases such as carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, smoke, unburned
are connected together by a narrow passage.
hydrocarbon etc., which are formed
Due to this arrangement the pressure of the
during the combustion process. Through
inlet air increases in the air cell chamber
the exhaust port of the engine the exhaust
and the pressurized air enters into the main
products are passed to the exhaust
chamber in which the fuel is injected and
manifold. The unwanted gases coming
combustion is achieved. Figure 6.11.1(e)
out from the all cylinders in the engine
shows the Air Cell and Energy Cell.
are collected in the exhaust manifold and
Energy cell sent to the exhaust pipe called as tail pipe.
It is also known as Lenovo This is the main purpose of the exhaust
combustion chamber. It combines the Air manifold present in the engine. Exhaust
cell and Pre combustion chamber modes. manifold is generally made up of cast iron.
In this type of chamber the energy cell is Figure 6.12.1 shows the Exhaust Manifold.
connected via the narrow passage with
main chamber. When the engine runs,
the pressure of the air in the energy cell is
increased due to the narrow path and fuel
is also injected in the similar way as pre
chamber. The combustion at the energy
cell is continued in the main chamber
where the main combustion takes place.
By this way the energy is utilized by
injecting fuel in the energy cell. Due to
Figure 6.12.1 Exhaust Manifold
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 6.12.2 Exhaust Pipe
Exhaust pipe is the one which
connects exhaust manifold and muffler.
It is around 5cm in radius and 1cm in
thickness generally. The exhaust pipe
Figure 6.12.3(a) Baffle Type Muffler
arrests the vibrations to the muffler which
is coming from the engine.
6.12.3(b) Wave cancellation type
6.12.3 Exhaust Mufflers In this type the burnt gases are sepa-
The exhaust mufflers are used to rated and again combined and expelled out
send heat, gas and sound without any to the atmosphere. In this type the speed
destruction. To do these the mufflers have of the gas can be reduced but the sound
to perform the following operations. can’t be reduced completely. Fig 6.12.3(b)
shows the wave cancellation type.
1. Reduce the temperature of exhaust gas
2. Reduce the speed of the exhaust gas 6.12.3(c) Resonance type
3. Reduce the sound of the exhaust gas In this type of mufflers the serially
4. Reduce the strength hot and unburned arranged resonators absorb the sound of
gas the out coming gases. So that the sound
as well as heat gets reduced. Fig 6.12.3(c)
Different types of mufflers are used shows the resonance type.
to perform the above functions. They
are of
6.12.3(d) Absorber type
a) Baffle type In this type the exhaust pipe is
b) Wave cancellation type surrounded by special type of materials
c) Resonance type which could absorb the sound. When
the exhaust enters into this muffler the
d) Absorber type
absorber material absorbs the sound. Fig
e) Combined absorber and resonance 6.12.3(d) shows the absorber type.
type

6.12.3(a) Baffle type

This type of mufflers will be in
cylindrical shape. This will be divided
into many rooms. Hence the exhaust gas
speed gets reduced and the energy also
gets reduced. Fig 6.12.3(a) shows the baffle Figure 6.12.3(b) Wave Cancellation
type muffler. Type Muffler

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 Figure 6.12.3(c) Resonance Type Muffler
Figure 6.12.3(e) Combined Resonence
and Absorber Type

convertors platinum, palladium and

rhodium chemicals are used as catalysts
which are coated in the form of honey
comb like structures and being used in
vehicles. A secondary passage is also made
to supply oxygen into the convertor. When
Figure 6.12.3(d) Absorber Type the toxic gases (such as hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide) are passed into the
catalytic convertors, they are converted
6.12.3(e) Combined absorber &
resonance type into water and carbon dioxide. Three way
catalytic convertors reduce the nitrogen
In the combined type mufflers in oxides also by the way of reduction action
addition to the absorber material resonators to nitrogen and oxygen. Fig 6.13 shows
are also fixed on the exhaust path. In this the catalytic convertor.
type of mufflers both heat and vibrations
are absorbed. Fig 6.12.3(e) shows the
Combined absorber & resonance type.
6.14 ENGINE TUNE-UP
PROCEDURE

6.13 CATALYTIC CONVERTORS Checking the engine components

The exhaust gases and adjusting the components for better
coming out from the engine’s performance is called as engine
exhaust manifold are tuning. Tuning the engine for better
highly toxic to human performance increases the life of the
beings and plants. The engine. The flow chart shown in Figure
catalytic convertor fitted 6.14 presents the engine tuning procedure
with the exhaust pipe could reduce the on various components of the engine.
harmful emissions such as unburned
To improve the engine’s performance
hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxides and
(efficiency) the following components must
carbon monoxide emissions. In catalytic
be maintained in good condition.
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 Figure 6.13 Catalytic Convertors

(1) Air inlet and exhaust system • 

Cylinder head bolts should be
• The Air filter should be cleaned tightened well
• 
The air inlet manifold should be • Have to check the valve clearance
cleaned • 
Have to check pressure of all the
• Pre cleaner should be cleaned cylinder
• The crank case ventilation should be
(3) Ignition system testing
checked
• The Spark plug should be cleaned
• Exhaust system and muffler should be
tested • Connection to the ignition coil should
be tested
(2) Engine testing • Distributor cap and rotor should be
• 
The intake manifold of the system checked
should be tested. • The Condenser should be tested
• Should check the air bubbles on the • 
Ignition timing should be adjusted
radiator. correctly
• In the cylinder head gasket leakage (4) Fuel system testing
should be tested • The leak (or) block in the fuel line
should be tested
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 1. Battery, Ignition
cables

7. Carburetor 2. Spark Plugs

6. Ignition Improved engine

performance 3. Compression
timing

4. Valve
5. Distributor
clearance
Figure 6.14 Engine tune-up procedure

• The Fuel pump should be cleaned • 

Battery, wire connection should be
cleaned
• The carburettor should be cleaned
• 
To test the battery condition,
• 
Diesel injection pump should be
electrolyte test should be performed
cleaned well
• 
Generator connection should be
• Diesel injector should be cleaned well
checked
(5) Lubricating System
• Starter switch should be checked
• Pressure gas working should be tested
(8) Clutch plate should be checked
• Oil filter should be cleaned
(9) With the help of the dynamo the engine
• Crank case oil level should be tested performance should be measured
• 
Engine oil pressure should be
checked 6.15 POLLUTION
(6) Cooling unit testing In this world, human and many liv-
ing organisms inhale oxygen from air to
• Have to check the end play and a leak
survive. So that the air should be clean
in the water pump
and make it free from pollution. In doing
• Should check the leak in the radiator this we have to know the formation of
hose pollutants and measures to reduce them.
Every human inhales nearly 15 kg of oxy-
• Fan belt should be checked
gen. So if the air is polluted all the living
(7) Electrical system testing organisms will be affected. Pollutants and
its effects are already reffered in Table 6.1.
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 (3) Reduce pollution once it is formed,
• Using burner
• More air supply to inlet manifold
(4) Control of carbon monoxide,
• Lean mixture operation
• After burner
• Catalytic converter
(5) Control of oxides of nitrogen,
• Re inducting the exhaust gas into inlet
manifold
• Mixing of non-fired things with fired
things

Smoke Control
Pollution Control
• 
To control the smoke we have to
To control pollution, the below said maintain the vehicle in good condition
three techniques are being used, and barium salt to the fuel

a) Reduce pollution before it occurs Various Methods of Reducing Emissions

b) Reduce the pollutant during their • Re setting of valve timing
formation stages • 
Inspecting cooling and fuel supply
c) Reduce pollution once it is formed. system
• Changing combustion chamber design
(1) Reduce pollution before it occurs,
• Re inducting the exhaust gas into inlet
• Low compression ratio
manifold
• 
Changing the combustion chamber
• lean mixture operation
geometr y
• Changing the piston design Student Activity
• Lean mixture operation
• 
Maintaining piston and piston ring 1. Students should visit the nearby
function workshops to study intake and
exhuast system of a motorcycle and a
(2) Reduce the pollutant during their car and should have a hands-on expe-
formation stages rience on engine dismantling and
• Fuel modifications assembling inlet manifold.
• Engine modifications 2. Students should visit the nearby
• Modifying the operating parameters workshops to dismandle the cylinder
for complete combustion head and sketch the components.

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 Glossary

Purified - த்தப்பத்தல்
Contamination - மாபதல்
Intermittent - விட் விட்
Venturi - கிய வழி
Ignition - பற்றி எரிதல்
Nozzle - னிக்ழாய்்
Idle Speed - நிைலயியக்க ேவகம்
Inlet Manifold - உள்ளி பன் மமம்
Out let manifold - ெவளிேயந் பன் மமம்
Spark Plug - மின்ெபாறிக்கட்ைட

References

1. Rajput R.K. Internal Combustion Engines, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd, 2006.
2. Ganesan V.” Internal Combustion Engines, Third Edition, Tata McGraw - Hill, 2007.
3. B. P. Pundir, “IC Engines Combustion and Emission” Narosa publishing house, 2010.
4. Crouse William, Automotive Emission Control, Gregg Division /McGraw - Hill, 1980
5. Mathur, M.L., and Sharma, R.P., A Course in Internal Combustion Engines, D
­ hanpat
Rai Publications [Link] Delhi-2, 1993.

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 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct answer

1. How many types of air filters are used in
I.C engines?
7. Draw and explain the construction of
a) Two b) Three c) Four A.C mechanical fuel pump?
2. How many types of petrol pumps are 8. What is carburettor?
used in engines?
9. Write the types of carburettor.
a) Two b) Three c) Four
10. Draw and explain the construction diesel
3. How many types of diesel injection injector.
pumps are used in engines?
11. Write the types of nozzles.
a) Two b) Three c) Four
12. Draw and explain any one nozzle.
4. How many types of feed pumps are used
in diesel engines? 13. What are the various types of combustion
chambers in diesel engines?
a) Two b) Three c) Four
14. What is muffler?
5. How many types of silencers are used in
I.C engines? 15. Write the types of muffler.

a) Two b) Four c) Five 16. Draw and explain any one muffler.
17. What are the methods are used to control
Answer the following questions the air pollution?
1. What are the pollutions in atmospheric 18. Briefly explain about pollution control
air? methods.
2. What are the effects of air pollution to
the human?
3. Give the five parts of intake system?
4. What are the types of Air filters?
5. What are the uses of air filter?
6. What are the uses of oil bath type air
cleaner?

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