Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

The Relationship between Chinese Identity, Friendship, and Language

Skills for Ethnic Chinese International Students in China
An Ran, South China University of Technology

This paper is a pilot-study examination of the relationship between the Chinese self-
identity of international students of Chinese ethnicity and their Chinese language
skills, their ability to develop friendships with local Chinese people, and their
academic and social adjustment when studying at a Chinese university. Ninety-one
international students of Chinese ethnicity at a large university at South China
completed a questionnaire and answered additional open-ended questions about
these factors. The results show that feelings of dissatisfaction with not having
Chinese friends is significantly correlated with the desire to make Chinese friends;
Chinese language skills are positively related to whether or not a student had
Chinese friends; but valuing Chinese identity is not correlated with Chinese
language skills; and there is no significant correlation between having Chinese
friends and valuing Chinese identity. A framework of psychological and social
adaptation is used to identify the characteristics of adaptation by these ethnic
Chinese international students. This study notes that host institutions and societies
need to improve their sensitivity to multiculturalism, if they are to assist
international students of Chinese ethnicity to complete their adaptation as soon as
possible and thus have satisfying academic and social experiences. These responses
need to be guided by more comprehensive research on the needs of such students at
universities in China.

Growing international interest in Chinese language and culture has followed the rapid
development of the Chinese economy and global political influence. Confucius Institutes are
being established worldwide at an ever-increasing rate and it is clear that Chinese language
and education soon will occupy a prominent place on the international education platform.
According to the yearbook of the Ministry of Education, China (2007), there were 162,000
international students in China in 2006. Altbach, the comparative educational expert,
estimates in his article, “Higher Education Crosses Borders” (2004), that there will be 800
million internationally mobile students worldwide in 2025. Altbach also mentions the pull and
push factors affecting this mobility. Pull factors attract students to a particular study
destination and push factors refer to the domestic factors that motivate people to study
abroad. If Chinese universities want to recruit more international students, they will need to
identify and address the pull factors that are within their control. One of the most important of
these “pull factors” is the perceived welcome international students receive from the host
institution reflected in the actual assistance provided to them to adjust as quickly as possible
to new academic and social demands. Providing such assistance is an effective way of quickly
increasing the attractiveness of an institution as a destination for international students. In the
paper, “Needs Analysis of Different Areas of Asian students in China” (An & Zhang, 2008),
the authors point out that Chinese universities must become aware of the difference in the
cultural backgrounds of international students and, in particular, the values underpinning

72
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

these differences, Institutions must use this knowledge to adjust the traditional or unsuitable
responses to the needs of international students if they are to participate effectively in, and
benefit from, the upsurge of international student mobility. [A model of intercultural
communication competence for staff in Chinese universities has been provided by An’s team
(An, Zhang, & Hao, 2008).]
Staff who deal with international students at Chinese universities, notice that a large
portion of international students are ethnic Chinese and that they exhibit some differences
from other international students in their self-identity and adaptive behavior. However, there
is an absence of research by Chinese universities about these students. Using the keywords in
the phrase “students of ethnic Chinese,” a search of Chinese academic journals was
conducted, and only 61 references were found; half of those were news reports. There is only
one substantial study by Wang Ai Ping (2000, 2005, 2006), who has nine papers about ethnic
Chinese from Indonesia. The lack of research in China about ethnic Chinese international
students suggests that Chinese universities may not be aware of the special needs of such
students and that they have no policy framework for responding to those needs. Research on
these matters is important and urgent for the following reasons:

1. Chinese universities need to develop a deeper appreciation of the different

educational and social needs of international students of Chinese background and
have a research-based framework for assisting their intercultural adaptation
2. Such research will also guide Chinese government decision making about policies
and programs aimed at encouraging ethnic Chinese to study in China and assisting in
their adaptation.
3. This research will contribute to the body of knowledge about these unique students
and to theories of intercultural adaptation.

Literature Review

Intercultural adaptation refers to a process of a group or a person altering their habits,

attitudes and points of view in order to meet the needs of a change in the social environment
(Ward & Kennedy, 1993). Searle and Ward (1990) point out that there are two forms of
intercultural adaptation: psychological adaptation and social adaptation. Psychological
adaptation relates with emotional well-being and satisfaction; while social adaptation relates
to acquisition of cultural skills, in order to participate comfortably in a specific social cultural
environment. Both psychological and social adaptation forms are aspects of two perspectives
on the process of acculturation. Psychological adaptation emphasizes feelings of human
beings in the process of acculturation, as categories of pressure and adaptation (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984). Social adaptation mainly refers to behavior levels of acculturation, and can
be understood as social skills and interaction capability. Berry (1997, 2003) talks about
psychological/individual acculturation and cultural/group level acculturation. The strategies
used by immigrants to maintain their culture while adjusting their attitudes and behavior to
the host-group culture can traverse assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization.
Assimilation refers to the process in which immigrants replace their old cultural habits and
customs with those of the host culture. Separation occurs when immigrants strongly prefer
their own customs and habits and refuse to use those of the host culture; their activities are

73
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

restricted within their own group. On the other hand, when immigrants are not able to mix
with the host culture and in addition have lost their own cultural forms, the process is known
as marginalization. Keeping both one’s own culture and the host culture is thought of as
integration. With almost no exception, researchers discover that immigrants usually adopt a
strategy of integration, and least prefer a strategy of marginalization (Berry, 1997; Sam, 1995;
Van Oudenhoven, Prins, & Buunk, 1998). For effective psychological adaptation, integration
is the best state and marginalization is a sign of difficulties in adaptation (Berry & Sam,
1997). During the process of adaptation, assimilation is better than separation, but it also
depends on environmental factors (Birman, 1994).
Researchers also examined two variables, environmental and individual, to map the
factors that influence effective individual intercultural adaptation (Berry, 1997; Matsumoto et
al., 2001; Ward, 2001). Environmental factors refer to characteristics of the society of origin
and the society in which an individual settles and has to adapt; individual factors refer to
socio-demographic and personality characteristics. Berry (2003) analyzed these two variables
and discovered a generally consistent pattern. The success of psychological adaptation is
predicted by individual difference, personal adaptation strategy, and social support. Effective
social adaptation is determined by the level of social knowledge, the degree of contact with
the host culture, and inter-group attitude. Effectiveness in both dimensions of adaptation
could be predicted by the acculturation strategies applied by the individuals studied. Bochner
(1982) presented studies on psychological adaptation. These studies try to find resolution of
the pressure on immigrants and attempt to explain how to solve the problems. Studies on
social adaptation pay attention to the communication process between immigrants and people
of the host culture. Based on the thought that a social link connects psychological adaptation
and culture study, people of different culture could help each other to finish the process of
psychological adaptation. The overall proposition is that psychological adaptation is easier to
achieve among intercultural groups, while social adaptation needs immigrants to
communicate with people of the host culture.
In this paper, the relationship between Chinese identity, friendship, and language skills is
identified to show how ethnic Chinese adapt themselves in the two perspectives of
psychological and social adaptation. The first and prior psychological adaptation by ethnic
Chinese is about their identification and social adaptation displays in communication with
local Chinese students.

Research Method

Participants

The questionnaire had two parts. The first part was targeted toward 91 ethnic Chinese
international students. It recorded demographic information such as age, gender, major area of
study, country of origin, to which expatriate Chinese generation they belonged, their level of
identification with their Chinese heritage, and their Chinese language skills. These students
attended a large comprehensive university in South China where the researcher works and is
familiar with students’ identities, cultural backgrounds, and adaptation problems.

74
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Generation of Chinese Descendant

The first The second
The fourth 1%
8% 14%

The third
77%

Figure 1. Generation of ethnic Chinese (p.29)

[Note: 77% of students are third generation, 14% of students are second generation, 8% of
students are fourth generation, and only 1% of students are first generation.]

Most international students of ethnic Chinese overwhelmingly come from third

generation expatriate ethnic Chinese.
Six students who had stayed in China for an extended period of time and were
accustomed to university life in China were then selected for in-depth interviews about (inter
alia) their feelings of intercultural adaptation, their reasons for choosing to study in China,
who decided (parent or student) that they would come to China, and problems in
communication with Chinese students. (The results of these interviews have been explored in
another paper.) These interviews formed the design of the second part of the questionnaire
(see Appendix).

Procedure

The questionnaire used in the current study looked at the relationship between Chinese
identity, friendships, and language skills. It focused on identifying the situation of crossing,
mixing, and separation between the two dimensions of psychological and social adaptation
during the process of intercultural adaptation. In order to collect more reliable information
and feedback, the questionnaire was designed in two parts, one part containing multiple-
choice questions and the other with open-ended questions from which the authors hoped to
obtain more unpredicted information. The questionnaire was produced as a Chinese version

75
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Figure 2. Region of Origin (p. 30)

[Note: 88% of students come from countries in Asia where most expatriate populations of
ethnic Chinese are located. Only 6% of students come from Europe, and 4% of students come
from North America. Data source are rare from countries in South America and Africa.]

and translated into English for those who were not able to read Chinese. Students chose one
of the language versions to complete the questionnaire and also to answer the open-ended
questions by themselves.
The total number of students who participated was 91; the number of collected
questionnaires was also 91, and all were suitable for analysis. The researcher distributed the
questionnaire to each of the students and made sure students completed it individually.
The questionnaires were categorized into two groups according to multiple choice and
open-ended questions. The percentage of each item was calculated for the answers in all
multiple-choice questions. The responses to the open-ended questions were categorized
according to the similarity of content. This was done by one researcher and two assistants
respectively according to the set categories. Each choice was given a specific point. The point
is based on the degree of closeness to Chinese, the highest point is 4, the lowest point is 1.
The following is an example:
Do you have best Chinese friend in your class? 1) yes (4 points); 2) yes but not very
close (3 points); 3) no (2 points); 4) other (1 point).

Results

Through the first questionnaire, some information such as the generation of ethnic
Chinese was collected.

76
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Figure 3. Recognition of Chinese Identity

[Note: Almost all students in the study group acknowledge their Chinese identity and value
Chinese culture, although to varying degree.]

All but one student agreed that they had a Chinese identity. If their parents are all ethnic
Chinese, these students think “I am Chinese”, but this varied in degree, as some think “I am
half Chinese”. If one parent is Chinese, and the other is not Chinese, students (only one in the
statistics) will think “I am not Chinese”. But generally, from collected data, almost all
students have a Chinese identity. Chinese identity here refers to ethnic Chinese whose
forbears were Chinese and emigrated abroad.
Through correlation analysis of SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Science) to
whole items, the results of the second questionnaire are shown in Table 1.

77
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Table 1. Correlation analysis results for the second questionnaire.

Whom
Do you do you
If without really Which want to
Whether The best want to period talk
have best Chinese have Agree do you when Chinese
Chinese friends friend, I Chinese Chinese feel very feeling language
friends ? will … friends? identity? lonely? lonely? Generation skill
Whether Pearson
1 .218* .154 .194 .130 .012 -.137 -.066 .280**
have Correlation
Chinese Sig. (2-
friends .036 .148 .063 .216 .909 .194 .547 .007
tailed)
N 92 92 90 92 92 92 92 86 90
The best Pearson
friend is … Correlat- 1 .222* .141 -.023 .050 -.043 -.012 .003
ion
Sig. (2-
.036 .182 .831 .636 .685 .910 .977
tailed)
N 90 92 92 92 92 86 90
If without Pearson
best Correlat- 1 .539** .034 .055 .152 .030 .089
Chinese ion
friend, I Sig. (2-
will … .000 .748 .607 .153 .786 .406
tailed)
N 90 90 90 90 85 89
Do you Pearson
really want Correlat- 1 .151 -.078 .091 -.067 .202
to have ion
Chinese Sig. (2-
friends？ .151 .459 .386 .540 .057
tailed)
N 92 92 92 86 90
Agree Pearson
Chinese Correlat- 1 .090 .102 -.086 .160
identity ion
Sig. (2-
.393 .334 .429 .132
tailed)
N 92 92 86 90
Which Pearson
period do Correlat- 1 -.013 .106 -.185
you feel ion
very Sig. (2-
lonely? .902 .333 .081
tailed)
N 92 86 90
Whom do Pearson
you want to Correlat- 1 .086 -.008
talk when ion

78
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Sig. (2-
.429 .944
tailed)
N 86 90
Generation Pearson
Correlat- 1 -.156
ion
Sig. (2-
.152
tailed)
N 86
Chinese Pearson
language Correlat- 1
skill ion
Sig. (2-
tailed)
N
*. Correlation is significant at the
0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at
the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

1. “No Chinese friend, hence will be very sad” is significantly correlated with “really
want to have Chinese friends” (.539).
2. “No Chinese friend” is correlated with “Chinese language skills” (.280), while Chinese
language skills are not correlated with Chinese identity.
3. There is no significant correlation between Chinese identity and having Chinese
friends, nor between Chinese identity and “not feel loneliness.”

The results of open-ended questions:

1. How do you define “good friends”?

Results show the following responses:
They…
1) Help you when you are in difficulty
2) Can communicate when you are sad or happy, sharing pain and joy.
3) Can be trusted, respectful and faithful.
2. Do you think you need to make good Chinese friends and why?
The first three responses were represented by most of the students, the fourth and fifth are
individual opinions:
1) Yes, it can help me to improve my Chinese.
2) Yes, we can ask them for help in life and study.
3) Yes, we can learn Chinese culture by communication.
4) I don’t know, I feel Chinese are not polite and cunning (3 people).
5) I don’t need to, I feel it is difficult to communicate with them, I feel that I have enough
friends from my own country (4 people).
3. In your opinion, what’s the benefit of making Chinese friends?
There are two kinds of responses:

79
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

1) To improve Chinese.
2) To learn Chinese culture and the environment.
4. How can you make Chinese friends? What are the difficulties in making Chinese friends?
The first two were responses from most of the students; the last two responses were from a
few students:
1) Try to find chances to communicate with Chinese, live with them. The difficulties are
the poor level of Chinese language, which makes it hard to communicate with them.
2) Try to participate in Chinese activities, but actually we are involved in very few.
3) It is not difficult (6 people).
4) I don’t want to make friends with Chinese (5 people).
5. While communicating with Chinese, what is the most satisfactory and unsatisfactory
aspect?
The responses are mainly in two forms:
1) The most satisfactory aspect is that we can learn Chinese and Chinese culture; the
unsatisfactory aspect is that they just want to learn English and not use Chinese
while communicating with us.
2) The unsatisfactory aspect is we cannot understand their Chinese language and
experience difficulty in communication.

From the results of the above open-ended questions, one can see that Chinese language
proficiency is highly correlated with whether or not one has Chinese friends.

Discussion

1) International students of Chinese ethnicity show evidence of needing to adapt themselves

psychologically.

Chinese identity is not correlated with making Chinese friends, nor does recognition of
Chinese identity mean the acculturation will be quicker. According to correlation analysis, the
feeling of having no Chinese friends is significantly correlated with wanting to have Chinese
friends. That is, students of Chinese ethnicity recognise their Chinese identity, and would like
to join and mix with local Chinese groups, and have more Chinese friends. From the results of
open-ended questions, it can be seen that these students actually do not have many Chinese
friends. Recognizing their Chinese identity does not appear to help them make local Chinese
friends. While adopting Chinese identity means the psychological distance to the host culture
is shortened, in the actual process of making friends, these students of Chinese ethnicity still
appear to lack the practical adaptive behavior to build local friendships. Students who had set
a clear target of making Chinese friends and pursued this with determination were able to
speed the development of their skills in intercultural communication, and to make Chinese
friends. In the process of psychological adaptation, students of Chinese ethnicity should be at
an advantage in that they have identified their Chinese identity. This means they do not need
to significantly change their perception of identity; rather they appear to need more direct
support in practical adaptation processes.
The concept of self-monitoring was first introduced to the psychology literature by
Snyder (1974). It has been elaborated on by Wolfe, Lennox, and Cutler (1986). Self-

80
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

monitoring refers to the ability to regulate oneself in social interaction. It involves one’s
behavioral adaptation and thought adjustment. It requires a capacity to empathize with those
in the host culture and develop appropriate communication and behavioral styles. Those who
are good at self-monitoring demonstrated high sensitivity to behavioral and communication
signals in the social environment. They would analyze different indicators in order to decide a
proper way to respond (Snyder, 1987). They are quick in learning new ways of reacting. They
are not only able to adjust themselves according to the feedback of social interaction but also
have a higher tendency to control the conversation and context while communicating with
strangers (Graziano & Waschull, 1995). These people are able to extend their knowledge by
obtaining new information, and adjust themselves based on it. In contrast, those who are not
good at self-monitoring were slow to react to the new social environment. Their behavior
remains consistent with their existing feelings, attitudes, and values (Clark & Reis, 1987;
Snyder, 1974). Facing the new social environmental demand, these people are not very
sensitive and less conscious of the need to modify their behavior (Snyder & Kendaierski,
1982).
Kosic, Mannetti, and Sam (2006) analyzed the relationship between acculturation
strategies, self-monitoring and adaptation by immigrants. Using adaptation indices as criteria
in moderated multiple regression analysis, they found the mutual effects of assimilation,
integration and self-monitoring. They noticed that self-monitoring is closely related to
psychological and social adaptation in all the regressions.

2) Both ethnic Chinese students and Chinese students should realize that social adaptation
needs two-way communication.

Kashima and Loh (2006) examined five adaptation dimensions (psychological

adaptation, social adaptation, acquirement of host culture and knowledge, original culture,
university student identity) and interactions with the form of established social networks
(mono-cultural network, the bicultural network, and the multicultural network). They found
that the adaptation process for Asian students in Australian universities was influenced by
their personal interaction with other international students, their original culture, and host
culture. They pointed out that international students who have frequent contact with host
culture students will reduce adverse pressures and speed psychological adaptation. All of this
suggests that Chinese universities should help students of Chinese ethnicity to understand that
Chinese identity is not enough for intercultural adaptation; they need to develop self-
monitoring capabilities; they need to have the sensitivity and skills to identify the differences
in the host culture; and they also need to adjust themselves by adopting appropriate behavior
and communication.
The ideal state for the adaptation process of international students of Chinese ethnicity
should be: the recognition of their Chinese identity and having Chinese friends. However, the
reality is that: Chinese identity―Chinese language proficiency—having Chinese friends. The
correlation analysis shows, “no Chinese friend” and “really wants to have Chinese friends” is
significant in indicating dissatisfaction with psychological adaptation. Analysis of the open-
ended questions shows that there are two kinds of motivations to make Chinese friends: one is
the route to improve Chinese language, and the other is to learn Chinese culture. Both are
very positive attitudes, and display the basic requirement and cognition towards intercultural

81
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

adaptation. As it is pointed out, intercultural adaptation is not a simple one-way flow; host
culture attitude also decides the speed of intercultural adaptation. In fact, choosing an
acculturation strategy will involve several factors. It includes social factors (e.g., culture
distance, immigration policy in host country); social-demographic (e.g., age, gender, level of
education, length of residence), and individual (e.g., cognitive and personality
characteristics). It is not only the will of immigrants that could finish the process of
acculturation; it is also constrained by the host society. In other words, the host society could
control the process and degree of acculturation (Kosic, Mannetti, & Sam, 2005; Rohmann,
Florack, & Piontkowski, 2006). Liu (2007) carried out a comparative research between
Australian White and Asian immigrants to learn their attitudes towards multiculturalism, and
the impact of these attitudes on acculturation. Liu argues that acculturation is a two-way
process. Actually immigrants adapt themselves in host society easily, quickly and naturally.
However, for those in the host society, they find it more difficult to adapt their own concepts
and behavior to accept immigrants, because they do not have such sense or psychological
preparation. From the open-ended question category analysis, it also shows that Chinese
students are not well-prepared cognitively or psychologically to accept international students
of Chinese ethnicity. Chinese primarily look at the one-way benefits of interacting and
communicating with international students. For example, while answering questions about
what causes the most happiness and sadness when communicating with Chinese, many
responses are similar to: “the most happiness is we can learn Chinese and Chinese culture, the
sadness is they just want to learn English and not use Chinese while communicating with us.”
The limitation of this research is that the number of participants is not large enough for
effective correlation analysis. Two language versions of the questionnaire might influence the
meaning equivalence. A larger scale and comprehensive research on international students of
Chinese ethnicity should be undertaken to extend this pilot research to better understand
factors influencing their thinking, attitude, motivation, and adaptation to studying in a cross-
cultural environment.
From the analysis of the questionnaire, the sense of making friends and attitude towards
learning Chinese, by students of Chinese ethnicity, are positive and correct. However, some
Chinese students’ exploitative approach to interactions with these students hinders the success
of their acculturation. This appears related to the Chinese students’ attitude towards
multicultural interactions, i.e., cognition of multiculturalism by Chinese students. Several
decades of economic openness and development should be paralleled by a growing awareness
in Chinese society of the implications for its own cultural openness. Zhang (2008) explains
that the political base of Tang dynasty in China is harmony and tolerance. The characteristic
of Tang tolerance and openness is shown as easily and calmly coming in and out of cultures.
Now, when Chinese think about “take it as mine to use,” “use Western ways in Chinese
practice,” etc., they should also adopt and show the unique style and dignity of Tang dynasty
in embracing tolerance. Du (2008) emphasized that “strong culture should own its strong
capability in adaptation” (p. 68). It is very important to educate Chinese university students
with a sense of multiculturalism, openness, and tolerance. We should realize that a sense of
multiculturalism can be trained. First, one should have a sense of surpassing all culture forms.
That is, the sense of multiculturalism is built on the concept that “the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.” This is similar to what Kim (2008) states, “Intercultural identity is an open-
ended, adaptive, and transformative self-other orientation” (p. 364). In fact, obtaining the

82
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

attitude of being open towards other cultures expands the awareness of the culture of origin.
This expansion is to enrich the knowledge of human beings. It is the contribution to human
society.
Further research is needed to more definitively identify the attitude of Chinese staff and
students towards international students of Chinese ethnicity, and to provide insights into their
opinions and reactions to the process of intercultural adaptation by those students. This would
provide a more comprehensive assessment of both points of view.

3) It is necessary to identify the intercultural adaptation attitude and motivation of students

of Chinese ethnicity undertaking Chinese language study.

The data show that there is a significant correlation between Chinese language
proficiency and making Chinese friends; Chinese language proficiency is not correlated with
Chinese identity. Learning a second or new language, especially for study mobility is very
complicated and is confounded by challenges to culture and identity. Schumann (1976) raises
two concepts: social distance and psychological distance. Social distance refers to distance
from one culture to another, in the view of an individual learner. The larger the distance
between two cultures, the more difficult it is for one to learn the second language. Sakuragi
(2006) examines the relationship between the attitude of language study and intercultural
study attitude. He cites four intercultural attitudes, which relate to language study. The first
two are based on results of Corbin and Chiachier (1995). The last two are based on the results
of Gardner and Lambert (1972). The first attitude is the general recognition of learning a
foreign language from an educational point of view. The second attitude is the special interest
in a specific language. The third is the instrumental attitude, which refers to obtaining
advantages through foreign language study, such as a good job or a social position. The fourth
is integrative attitude, which refers to the idea that through foreign language study, one can
become a member of a cultural group and also involves the desire to establish interpersonal
relationships with others in the target cultural group. As Sakuragi further points out, the
general recognition of the value of learning a foreign language is significantly correlated with
global and social distance; special interest in a specific language is significantly correlated
with global and social distance; instrumental attitude is not related with global and social
distance.
Whether the results of this research support these assumptions or not needs further
exploration. For example, there needs to be studies to identify whether Chinese proficiency of
ethnic Chinese students are related to social distance and their integrative attitudes as well.
Further, it should be asked how the instrumental attitude interacts with the integrative attitude
among students of Chinese ethnicity.

Conclusion

Through a questionnaire, this paper examined international students of Chinese ethnicity,

the relationship between their Chinese identity, language skills, and capacity to establish
Chinese friendships. Ninety-one international students of Chinese ethnicity at a large
university at South China completed a questionnaire and answered additional open-ended
questions about these factors. The results show that feeling sad about not having Chinese

83
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

friends is significantly correlated with the desire to make Chinese friends; Chinese language
skills are positively related with whether or not one has Chinese friends; Chinese identity is
not correlated with Chinese language skills; and there is no significant correlation between
having Chinese friends and Chinese identity. Analysis from two factors of psychological and
social adaptation identifies the characteristics displayed by students of Chinese ethnicity in
the intercultural adaptation process. The study points to the need for the host society to
improve its sense of multiculturalism and assist these international students of Chinese
descent to successfully adapt as quickly as possible. Even without the cultural identity
problems facing other international students, students of Chinese descent still have difficulty
in Chinese language study which forms the main hindrance to effective communication with
Chinese students. This phenomenon is worthy of further study by researchers in intercultural
communication.

References

Altbach, P. G. (2004). Higher education crosses borders. Change (March-April), 1-12.

An, R., & Zhang, S. H. (2008). Needs analysis of different area of Asian students in China.
Research and Exploration of Higher Education, 101(3), 103-108.
An, R., Zhang, S. H., & Hao, Z. F. (2008). An examination of factors influencing the
international students’ choice of studying in China. China Media Research, 4(1), 62-
70.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An
International Review, 46, 5-34.
Berry, J. W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista,
& G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied
research (pp. 17-37). Washington: American Psychological Association.
Berry, J. W., & Sam, D. L. (1997). Acculturation and adaptation. In J. W. Rerry, M. H. Segall,
& C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Social and applied
psychology (Vol. 3, 2nd ed.) (pp. 291-326). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Birman, D. (1994). Acculturation and human diversity in a multicultural society. In E. J.
Trickett, R. J. Watts, & D. Birman (Eds.), Human diversity: Perspectives on people
in context (pp. 261-284). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bochner, S. (1982). The social psychology of cross-cultural relations. In S. Bochner (Ed.),
Cultures in contact: Studies in cross-cultural interaction (pp. 5-44). Oxford:
Pergamon.
Clark, L. A., & Reis, A. (1987). Systematically relating personality variables to relationships:
The case of self-monitoring. Interpersonal process, 19, 646-647.
Corbin, S. S., & Chiachier, R. J. (1995). Validity and reliability of a scale measuring attitudes
toward foreign language. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 258-267.
Du, W. Y. (2008). The characteristics of social openness and the historical limitation in Tang
dynasty. Xinhua Digest, 15, 66-68.
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language
learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Graziano, W. G., & Waschull, S. B. (1995). Social development and self-monitoring. Review
of Personality and Psychology, 15, 233-260.

84
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Kashima, E. S., & Loh, E. (2006). International students’ acculturation: Effects of

international, conational, and local ties and need for closure. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 30, 471-485.
Kim, Y. Y. (2008). Intercultural personhood: Globalization and a way of being. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(4), 359-368.
Kosic, A., Mannetti, L., & Sam, D. L. (2005). The role of majority attitudes towards out
group in the perception of the acculturation strategies of immigrants. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 273-288.
Kosic, A., Mannetti, L., & Sam, D. L. (2006). Self-monitoring: A moderating role between
acculturation strategies and adaptation of immigrants. International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, 30, 141-157.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
Liu, S. (2007). Living with others: Mapping the routes to acculturation in a multicultural
society. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31, 761-778.
Matsumoto, D., LeRoux, J., Ratzlaff, C., Tatani, H., Uchida, H., Kim, C., et al. (2001).
Development and validation of a measure of intercultural adjustment potential in
Japanese sojourners: The intercultural adjustment potential scale (ICAPS).
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 25, 483-510.
Rohmann, A., Florack, A., & Piontkowski, U. (2006). The role of discordant acculturation
attitudes in perceived threat: An analysis of host and immigrant attitudes in
Germany. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 683-702.
Sakuragi, T. (2006). The relationship between attitudes toward language study and cross-
cultural attitudes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 19-31.
Sam, D. L. (1995). Acculturation attitudes among young immigrants as a function of
perceived parental attitudes to cultural change. Journal of Early Adolescence, 15,
238-258.
Schumann, J. H. (1976). Second language acquisition: The “pidginization hypothesis” in
language learning 26. (Reprinted from Readings on second language acquisition, pp.
391-408, by H. D. Brown, Ed., 1995, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents)
Searle, W., & Ward, C. (1990). The prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment
during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14,
449-464.
Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social
Behavior, 33, 4533-4534.
Snyder, M. (1987). Public appearance/Public realities: The psychology of self-monitoring.
New York: Freeman.
Snyder, M., & Kendzierski, D. (1982). Choosing social situations: Investigating the origins of
correspondence between attitude and behavior. Journal of Personality, 50, 280-295.
The Ministry of Education, China (2007). The statistics of yearbook Retrieved on May 20,
2008 from [Link]
Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Prins, K. S., & Buunk, B. P. (1998). Attitudes of minority and
majority members toward adaptation of immigrants. European Journal of Social
Psychology, 28, 861-1026.
Wang, A. P. (2000). Cultural identification of Southeast Asian students of Chinese descent and
their motive of learning Chinese language. Journal of Hua Qiao University. 3, 67-71.

85
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Wang, A. P. (2005). Re-discussing problems of the orientation of Chinese education in

Indonesia-from a survey of background of language and culture to over 300
Indonesian Chinese and Non-Chinese students. Journal of Hua Qiao University, 4,
44-48.
Wang, A. P. (2006). Identification and national identity of the teenagers of Chinese
descendant in Indonesia. Journal of Wuhan University, 2, 282-288.
Ward, C. (2001). The A, B, Cs of acculturation. In D. Matsomuto (Ed.), The handbook of
culture and psychology (pp. 411-445). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1993). Psychological and sociocultural adjustment during cross-
cultural transition: A comparison of secondary students overseas and at home.
International Journal of Psychology, 28, 129-147.
Wolfe, R. N., Lennox, R. D., & Cutler, B. L. (1986). Getting along and getting ahead:
Empirical support for a theory of protective and acquisitive self-presentation.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 356-361.
Zhang, G. G. (2008). Reflection of the openness and prosperity in Tang dynasty. Xinhua
Digest, 15, 60-62.

Appendix

Questionnaire for International Students

Dear international student：

Thank you for filling this Questionnaire, it’s valuable to our research that you finish this
paper seriously and independently. This paper is used for the research only.
For the open questions, please fill up the line and write clearly. For the single-choice
question, please make (√) on the preferable option.

School of International Education of SCUT

2008-05-23
Name: _______________ Nationality:_______________

I. Single-choice questions

1. Do you have some good Chinese friends at this university： yes I have, but not good
enough no other
2. Your best friends are: Chinese schoolmates fellow countrymen at university other
international students other
3. If you don’t have good Chinese friends，you will: unsatisfied make friends with
fellow countrymen make friends with people from other countries it doesn’t matter
4. Do you really want some Chinese friends? very in some degree it doesn’t matter no
5. You identify yourself as: Chinese half Chinese your passport nationality Other
6. In which period you feel most lonely while studying in China： always first year the
first six months never
7. The one you want most to talk with when you are in lonely, painful or joyful situation:

86
Intercultural Communication Studies XVIII: 2 2009 Ran

Chinese friends International friends fellow countrymen family members or just

myself

II. Open-ended questions

1. How do you define “good friends”?

2. Do you think you need to make good Chinese friends and why?
3. In your opinion, what is the benefit of making Chinese friends?
4. How to make Chinese friends? What are the difficulties while making Chinese friends?
5. What are the most satisfactory and unsatisfactory things when communicating with
Chinese friends?

87