Educational Psychology:

Theory and Practice

Chapter 2

Cognitive, Language and Literacy

Development
 Organizing Questions
• What are the Vygostkian and Piagetian theories of human
development?
• What are the ways you can set up your classroom to
promote literacy development in young children?
• What are the stages of language and literacy development
during the elementary and middle school years?
 Development

How Through

People Grow, Adapt and Personality, Socio-

Change in their emotional, Cognitive and
LIFETIMES. Language Development.
 Aspects of Development
● One of the first requirements of effective
teaching is to understand how students think
and how they view the world
● Effective teaching strategies must take into
account students’ ages and stages of
development.
 Effective Teachers

Match Instruction to the Needs of their Children.

Must Take into Account the Ages and Stages of Development.

 Issues of Development
• Nature-Nurture Controversy

• Continuous and Discontinuous Theories:

qContinuous Theory of Development.
qDiscontinuous Theory of Development.
 Issues of Development
Continuous: assume that development occurs in a smooth
progression as skills develop and experiences are provided
by parents and environment
- - emphasizes on the importance of environment (nurture)

Discontinuous: focuses on inborn factors (nature) rather than

environmental influences to explain change over time
- environmental conditions may have some influences on the
pace of development but the sequence of development
steps is eventually fixed
 Jean Piaget
Born: 9 August 1896
Neuchatel, Switzerland
Died: 16 September 1980
(aged 84)
Geneva, Switzerland
Fields: Developmental
Psychology, Epistemology
Known for: Constructivism
Genetic epistemology
Theory of cognitive
development,
Object permanence,
Egocentrism
Piaget’s View of Cognitive
Development
• Schemes
• Adaptation
− Assimilation
− Accommodation
• Equilibration
• Contructivism
 Piaget’s View of Cognitive
Development
Schemes: mental patterns that guide behaviour
Assimilation: understand new experience in terms of existing schemes
Accommodation: modify existing schemes to fit new situations
Equilibration: the process of restoring balance between present
understanding and new experiences
o how children shift from one stage of thought to the next
o the shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict =
disequilibrium in trying to understand the world
o eventually they resolve the conflict and reach a balance = equilibrium
of thought
Constructivism: view of cognitive development that emphasizes the
active role of learners in building their own understanding of reality
 Piaget’s View of Cognitive
Development
A child seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a horse. The child assimilates
(understand new experience in terms of existing schemes) this information into her schema
(knowledge that help her to interpret and understand) for a horse.

When the child accommodates (modify existing schemes to fit new situations ) information, she takes into
she takes into consideration the different properties of a zebra compared to a
horse, perhaps calling a zebra a horse with stripes. When she eventually learns
the name of the zebra, she has accommodated this information.

All children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a
mechanism Piaget called equilibration.
As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between
applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).
Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

Finally children will build their own understanding of reality which is called constructivism.
Piaget’s Stages of Development

• Sensorimotor Stage
(Birth to Age 2)
− Reflexes
− Trial and Error
− Planned Problem
Solving
− Object Permanence
− Goal Directed
Behavior
Piaget’s Stages of Development
• Preoperational Stage
(Ages 2 to 7)
− Conservation
− Centration
− Reversibility
− Focus on States
− Egocentric
 Piaget’s Stages of Development
Object Permanence: the fact that an object exists even
if it is out of sight (cannot be seen)
Conservation: the concept that certain properties of an
object (e.g. weight) maintain the same regardless of
changes in other properties (e.g. length)
Centration: paying attention to only one aspect of an
object or situation à explains the error of
conservation
- focus on state not the processes
Egocentric: believing that everyone views the world as
you do
Piaget’s Stages of Development
• Concrete
Operational Stage
(Ages 7 to 11)
− Inferred Reality
− Seriation
− Transitivity
− Decentered
Thought
− Class Inclusion
 Piaget’s Stages of Development
Inferred Reality: see things in context of other meanings (infer = to form
an opinion / guess)
Seriation: arrange things in a logical progression, able to order/classify
objects according to some criteria (e.g. smallest to largest)
Transitivity: ability to infer a relationship between two objects on the
basis of their respective relationship with a third object
Question: Ali is taller than Cheng and Cheng is taller
than Ramu. Is Ramu taller or shorter than Ali?
Decentered /Objective Thought: allow children to see that others can
have different perceptions than they do
Class Inclusion: think simultaneously about a whole class of object and
about relationships among its subordinate classes
- Whole class (children)
- Subordinate class (boys / girls)
Piaget’s Stages of Development

• Formal Operational
Stage (Age 11 to
Adult)
− Hypothetical
Situations
− Systematic Reasoning
− Monitored Reasoning
− Symbolic Thinking
 Piaget’s Stages of Development
Formal Operational Stage - hypothetical situations,
systematic/monitored reasoning, symbolic
thinking

At this stage individuals think in more abstract,

idealistic, and logical ways
q Formal operational thinker can solve problem
when it is verbally presented
q Adolescents can develop hypotheses (ideas based
on known facts but have not yet proven) about
ways to solve problem and systematically reach a
conclusion
Criticisms and Revisions of Piaget’s
Theory
• Tasks Can Be Taught Earlier
• Exceptions to Egocentricity
• Earlier Mastery of Object Permanence
• Development Depends on Task
• Development Influenced by Experience
 Criticisms and Revisions of Piaget’s
Theory

v Oneimportant Piagetian principle is that

development precedes learning

v developmental stages were fixed and

concept as conservation cannot be taught
Implications of Piaget Theory on Teaching

• Developmentally
Appropriate Education.
• Importance of Process.
• Active Learning.
• Self-Initiated Learning.
• Individual Learning Needs.
• Deemphasize Attempts to
Make Children Adult like in
Their Thinking.
Neo-Piagetian Views on Development

1) Type of Tasks Affects 2) Culture Impacts on

Children’s Success w/ them. Development.

Modify Piaget’s
Theory

3) Cognitive Development is
4) Advanced stages exist:
viewed in terms of
a) Problem Finding
specific types of
b) Dialectical
tasks instead of overall
Thinking
stages.
 Lev Vygotsky
Born: 17 November 1896
Orsha, Russian Empire

Died: 11 June 11 1934

(aged 37)
Moscow, USSR

Nationality: Russian

Field: Psychology
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development

• Key Ideas:
− Historical and Cultural
Contexts.
− Sign Systems.
− Cultural Tools.
 Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development
Historical and Cultural Contexts
v Child’s social and cultural environments foster cognitive
growth
v Adults interact with children, they share the language
(spoken, written), art, music, mathematical symbols
v Informal conversations are mechanism through which
adult pass along culturally relevant ways of interpreting
situations

Sign systems: symbols that cultures create to help people

think, communicate, and solve problems à speech,
writing, numbers
 Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development
• How Development Occurs
• Learning Precedes Development:
− Acquisition of Signs with Help of More Experienced
Others.
− Internalization of Signs.
− Autonomous Problem Solving (Self-regulation).
 Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development
Piaget : development precedes learning
Vygotsky : learning precedes development

Internalization: process through which learner gradually

incorporates socially based activities into his/her internal
cognitive processes (e.g. progression from self-talk to
inner speech)

Self-regulation: ability to think and solve problems without

the help of others (autonomous problem solving)
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development

• Private Speech
• Zone of Proximal
Development
• Scaffolding
 Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development
Private speech: children’s self-talk, which guides
their thinking and action; eventually internalised
as silent inner speech

q self-talk: process of talking to oneself as a way of

guiding oneself through a task
q inner speech: process of talking to and guiding
oneself mentally rather than aloud
 Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive
Development
q For
Piaget, private speech is egocentric/
immature

q ForVygotsky, private speech is an important

tool of thought during the early childhood
years
Vygotsky proposed children incorporate
speech of others and use it to help them solve
problem
 Zone of Proximal Development
Zone of Proximal Development

Zone of Proximal
Teacher and student— Development—Teacher
interaction where the scaffolds learning and the
teacher evaluates and ZPD learner develops new
plans instruction. knowledge using
developmentally appropriate
learning tasks.

Teacher learns what

the student needs—
sets goals.
Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Upper Limit
Level of additional responsibility child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master
alone but that can be learned with guidance/ assistance of
adults or more skilled children

Lower Limit
Level of problem solving reached on these tasks by child
working alone or without assistance
Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory-Scaffolding
Like building a house—as the
learner becomes stronger we
remove support/scaffolds.
Learning New Skill

• Teacher provides a
high level of Time Passes
support.
• Teacher
• Modeling + Practice gradually
+ Feedback releases the
learner.
Extended Time
• Learner
knows • Independent learner.
MORE.
 Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Scaffolding
v Closely linked to the idea of ZPD
v A technique that involves changing of level of support for
learning
v A teacher or more-advanced peer adjusts the amount of
guidance to fit the student’s current performance
Example: When a student is learning a new task, the skilled
person may use direct instruction. As the student’s
competence increases, less guidance is given
v Scaffolding is often used to help students attain the upper
limits of ZPD
 Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory

Provide Cooperative Learning:

• Activities Among Students with Different Ability
Levels.
 Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky’s
Theories

Piagetian Ideas: Vygotsky's ideas:

CFour discrete stages ?Continuous development
CCognitive development is (no stages)
limited by stages ?Both were ?Zone of proximal
CYoung children are constructivists development
schematic ?Both believed that social ?Socially transmitted
CMotivation to maintain forces set the limits of knowledge (cooperative
cognitive equilibrium development learning and Scaffolding)
CDevelopment occurs when ?Private speech helps
assimilation is not possible internalize knowledge
(adaptation)
Language Development

Acquisition of Language

• Similar Sequence of
Development for Children
 Oral Language
Age of Child Language Characteristics

Age One • One Word Utterances

Second Year of Life • Two Word Sentences

Pre- School Years • Vocabulary Increases

• Understands Rules of
Spoken Language

Starting School • Know Grammatical Rules

of Language
• 1000 Vocabulary Words
Oral Language

Learn Rules for Language Learning Importance of

Words and and Parent Talk to Children
Sentence Construction Experimentation
 Reading

. The Level of Emergent

Importance of Pictures Young Children Can
Literacy depends on the
On the Page—support Develop Phonemic
Exposure of Language in
Meaning on the Page Awareness with Instruction
the Home
 Reading

Emergent Literacy: preschoolers’ knowledge and skills related to

reading has shown that children may enter school with great deal of
knowledge about reading and this knowledge contributes to success in
formal reading instruction
Concepts of print
q print is arranged from left to right
q books are read from front to back
q “read” book by interpreting pictures on each page
q recognise logo
Phonemic Awareness: hear specific sounds within words, improve
children’s word reading, reading comprehension, help children to spell
Learning Phonics: learn read and write à how to connect words
 Writing

1. Invented Spellings
Scribbles Spread 2. Letter Names Rather
Follows Developmental
Randomly Across the than Letter Sounds
Sequence
Page 3. Short Vowel Sounds
Left Out
 Promoting Literacy Development in
Young Children

Responding
Variety of Model Love
Reading to Print Rich Writing to Children’s
of Reading
Children Environment and Writing Questions
Materials
 Promoting Literacy Development During Elementary and
Secondary Years

Factors that
Influence
Development: Responding
Occurs at Focus on: 1)Motivation to Children’s
Comprehension, Variety of Writing Model Love of Questions about
Rapid Rate 2)Interest
Reading and
Vocabulary and 3)Culture Materials Writing language
Study Skills 4)Peer
Pressure
 Vocabulary Instruction
1. Motivation

2. Encourage Variety of Reading

Materials

3. Teach Words that are—frequently

used and are broadly useful

4. Utilize Vocabulary

5. Cooperative/Collaborative
Learning
 The Intentional Teacher
1. Understands and Applies Child Development
Theories.
2. Uses On-Going Assessment and Evaluation.
3. Modifies Instruction as Needed.
4. Has Realistic Expectations.
5. Plans Extensively.
6. Utilizes a Variety of Instruction Strategies and
Materials.
7. Reflects.
 Reflection
Write Two Details for Each Topic Based on the
Chapter

Vygotsky Literacy Development

Piaget
1. ____ 1. ____
1. ____
2. ____ 2. ____
2. ____

Intentional Teacher
1. ____
2. ____
End of Chapter 2