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The University of Southampton

2021/22

Faculty of Social Sciences

Southampton Business School

MANG 3025 BSc Dissertation

„The challenges faced by shipping companies in incoming zero-

emission economy” review

ERGO ID Number:

Student Id Number:

Presented for BSc. Business Management

This project is entirely the original work of student registration

number. I declare that this dissertation is my own work, and that
where material is obtained from published or unpublished works,
this has been fully acknowledged in the references.

Word Count:
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Abstract
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude towards my supervisor, Marion
Penn, who not only encouraged and supported me throughout this
project, especially during its many trying moments, showing incredible
understanding, and patience. Without her input and guidance this work
would not be finished. I would also like to thank my university
counsellor, Graham Shavick, whose sessions helped me to refocus my
attention towards my academic work.
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Table of Contents
Abstract.....................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements................................................................................................3
List of Figures..........................................................................................................6
[Link]...........................................................................................................7
1.1Background.....................................................................................................7
1.2 Objectives.......................................................................................................8
1.3 Structure.........................................................................................................8
2. Literature Review..............................................................................................11
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................11
2.2 Sustainable Shipping.................................................................................11
2.3 Slow Steaming.............................................................................................13
2.4 Ship Modernization....................................................................................15
2.5 Use of Alternative Fuel Sources.............................................................17
2.6 Intelligent Shipping....................................................................................19
2.7 Conclusion...................................................................................................21
3. Methodology......................................................................................................24
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................24
3.2 Research Approach and Design....................................................................24
3.3 Research Design.........................................................................................25
3.4 Sampling and Data Collection.................................................................25
3.5 Data Analysis and Rationale....................................................................26
3.6 Limitations of the Research Methods....................................................26
4. Findings..............................................................................................................29
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................29
4.2 More Sustainable Shipping......................................................................29
4.3 Slow Steaming................................................................................................31
4.3.1 Maersk Slow Steaming.......................................................................32
4.4 Modernized Shipping.................................................................................36
4.4.1 Mediterranean Shipping Company Modernization......................37
4.5 Use of Alternative Fuel..............................................................................40
4.5.1 Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV) Use of Alternative Fuel.......................40
4.6 Intelligent Shipping....................................................................................44
4.6.1 CMA CGM Intelligent Shipping.........................................................44
4.7 Conclusion...................................................................................................47
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5. Discussion..........................................................................................................49
5.1 Sustainability in the Shipping Industry.................................................49
5.2 Implications and Limitations...................................................................51
5.3 Strength and Weaknesses........................................................................51
6. Conclusion.........................................................................................................54
6.1 Review of results........................................................................................54
6.2 Future predictions......................................................................................56
7. List of References.............................................................................................59
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Greenhouse gas performance during production and onboard
.............................................................................................................18
Figure 2 More Sustainable Shipping cognitive map.............................30
Figure 3 Cognitive map for Maersk’s slow steaming............................35
Figure 4 Cognitive map for Mediterranean Shipping Company Ship
modernization......................................................................................39
Figure 5 Cognitive map for Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV) use of alternative
fuel.......................................................................................................43
Figure 6 Cognitive map for CMA CGM intelligent shipping..................46
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[Link]

1.1Background

The basis of today's globalized economy is international trade,

providing all economies on Earth with access to raw materials and
products, without which many industries in both developed and
developing countries, could not operate, as resources needed for their
functioning are often not present in the area, in which the production
facilities are situated. A good example of that relationship is the
dependence of the Chinese economy with its enormous industrial base
that is dependent on oil that is imported from the Middle Eastern
countries, like Iraq or Saudi Arabia, without which “the World’s Factory”
would not be able to function and will ground to a halt.

As such, the importance of maritime shipping, which is responsible for

approximately 90 % of international trade exchange, is evident.
However, due to continuous growth in global GDP, we also observe
ever increasing demand for shipping. At the same time, the problem of
Global Warming becomes more and more visible, as all continents start
experiencing an increasing number of droughts, floods, hurricanes and
other extreme weather patterns.

Wu et al. (2020) argue that combating climate change is one of the

primary challenges of the present era. Various aspects have been put
in place to reduce the levels of emissions and the damage that human
activities damage the globe. According to Wu et al. (2020), there has
been a need for industries to adopt an operational approach that
causes minimal damage to the environment. Shipping and the general
transportation industry are no exception with respect to polluting the
environment and consequently damaging the World's ecosystem, with
maritime shipping accounting for 3% of yearly CO emissions.
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Psaraftis et al. (2019) point to various measures that have been

adopted by governments and the international maritime organization to
set limits that target the reduction of the negative environmental impact
that shipping has on the globe. The primary objectives of these
measures are a reduction by 70% of carbon dioxide emission per
transport work a minimum drop in total annual greenhouse gas
emissions by the year 2050 within the industry.

1.2 Objectives

The main objective of this paper is to analyse and evaluate what

actions are required by the maritime shipping industry on its path
towards, in the near future, more sustainable sea transport and, in the
long term, to achieve the zero-emission goal within the industry, based
on publicly available data, both from academic sources and research
as well as, from measures taken by the companies within the industry.
It shall also attempt to make some predictions regarding this issue.

1.3 Structure

The paper will firstly analyse prior publicly available literature on the
subject, analyzing both the findings and potential implications of
suggested methods towards decreasing the emissions generated by
the industry. Afterwards, the methodology chapter will present the
research methods adopted for the purpose of research on the subject
of this paper, the reasoning behind it and its limitations. The next
section, Findings, analyses and presents all the methods mentioned in
literature review and showcasing their usage on real life examples,
which is then discussed in subsequent chapter. Finally the conclusion
section summarises all of the materials and will attempt to make
predictions for future activities towards sustainability in the industry.
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2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews the various, available academic literature on

sustainable shipping. It is mainly focused on evaluating the existing,
possible options that can be employed in the reduction of the level of
environmental degradation caused by maritime activities, in order to
assess the various options that are available in the running of the
industry that would result in it being far more efficient and sustainable.
The chapter evaluates the method of “slow steaming”, the potential of
the modernization of the shipping infrastructure, the adoption of
alternative fuel sources to fossil fuels that can be employed in the
powering of ships, and the use of data in the management of shipping
operations. Furthermore, it also evaluates the adopted methods based
on the effect that they will have on the primary goal of attaining
sustainable shipping.

It should also be noted that the matter of more sustainable shipping

became the subject of a more thorough and detailed academic
research especially after the year 2019, in which IMO (International
Maritime Organisation) chose the topic of sustainable shipping as its
organisational theme for the year 2020 and created a plan to achieve to
goal of decreased emission creation in the industry by 50%, by the year
2030. Due to all this, most of the comprehensive research on the topic
is relatively new.

2.2 Sustainable Shipping

To effectively review various studies on shipping sustainability, it is

essential that the definition and meaning of sustainable shipping are
provided and the context of the analysis stated clearly. Scarpa et al.
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(2019) define sustainability to be the meeting of one’s needs and

requirements without compromising the ability of the coming generation
to meet their needs. Monios (2020) provides a different approach to
defining sustainability. Monios (2020) defines sustainability from the
context of the state of being of the industry and the intended
beneficiary. According to Monios (2020), sustainability refers to the
possession of complete knowledge of the future risks of the operations
in a particular industry and avoiding or mitigating these risks.
Sustainability can thus be defined to be focused on the future and
taking responsibility for the effects of the present activities on the
future. Therefore, sustainable operations involve activities that do not
cause irreversible damage to the space within which the operations
and the activities are involved. Issues, such as the environment have
been the primary focus of the discourse on sustainability, especially in
the shipping industry.

Similarly to all other industries, sustainability in the shipping industry

evolves around economic, social, and environmental sustainability.
Zhou et al. (2021) assert that the industry is a commercial sector that
operates because of profit. The issue of economic sustainability is thus
critical, especially considering that the industry is capital intensive and
plays an important role in global commerce. Zhou et al., (2021) argue
that economic sustainability evolves around the financial operational
costs, the benefit for operating, economic growth and capital
maintenance such that the business and the industry remain profitable.
The additional aspects of sustainability are social sustainability, which
involves being aware of and acknowledging the demands of society,
such as equality and fairness. Zhou et al. (2021) emphasize
environmental sustainability as an important aspect, especially in the
shipping industry. Environmental sustainability involves the protection
of the ecosystem to ensure that the involved activities do not alter the
form of the environment.
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Environmental sustainability is an important aspect of sustainable

shipping. Rosen (2018) asserts that environmental sustainability is
often focused on ensuring that the harvest rates of resources and the
level of waste emissions within the environment are maintained within
levels that can be regenerated. The capacity of the environment
assimilates a balanced level whereby there is no impairment of the
environment in general. Within the shipping industry, various strategic
measures have been adopted to address critical issues, such as
decarbonization. The focus of the industry has been on adopting
alternative means of operation. The industry is guided by the 2050 IMO
goals of reducing emissions by at least 50% through the adoption of
smart shipping. The goal is also aimed at registering the reduction by
adopting naval architects that are aimed at the production of designs
that are modern and have low emission levels. Various methods have
been adopted to reduce emissions and increase the chances of
sustainability based on the IMO goals.

2.3 Slow Steaming

One of the ways through which sustainable shipping is possible is by

slow steaming. Degiuli et al. (2021) describe slow steaming to be the
act of running ships within the ocean at less than their maximum
speed. Degiuli et al. (2021) assert that slow steaming allows the ships
to save money and fuel. Through the consumption of less fuel, ships
can save money and, in the process, reduce the level of emissions that
they release to generate the necessary energy to power the ships. The
method was adopted as a measure of economizing fuel in the
transportation of cargo. In a study of Swedish companies, Finnsgård et
al. (2020) established that slow steaming is often conducted at speeds
of 33km/h or 18 knots. However, over the period of usage of the
method in reducing the fuel consumed, the speeds have varied for
different waters and seas. Ammar (2018) points out that Asia-Europe
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backhaul routes recorded speeds of 30km/h or between 14 and 16

knots for slow steaming. There are times when the ships are sailed at
even lower speeds in what is described as super slow steaming.

In an assessment of the effectiveness of slow steaming, Ammar (2018)

established that a container ship that can carry 11,000 twenty feet
containers can save up to 4000 metric tons of fuel oil within the
Europe-Singapore Voyage. Slow steaming is effective in reducing the
fuel consumption of the ships because dropping the results of the
speed to the reduction of the force of drag due to the fluid. Ammar
(2018) notes that the drop-in speed results in a drop in drag
quadratically. Moreover, Ammar (2018) also adds that the movement of
the vessel itself requires extensive levels of energy to power it, thus the
increase in fuel consumption. The power required to overcome the drag
can be computed by deriving the product of the force and the speed
making it the cube of the speed at high Reynolds numbers. A higher
speed would thus require higher power which will demand increased
fuel consumption and subsequently, a higher level of emissions that
pollute the environment.

Slow steaming has been effective in reducing fuel consumption by

ships and reducing the level of pollution and subsequently, the effect of
transportation on the environment. However, there are limitations and
negative consequences on the application of the method in improving
sustainable shipping. Cariou et al. (2019) assert that slow steaming
results in to increase in the voyage days due to the slow movement.
The economic viability of transportation of some products can be
adversely affected by the increase in the voyage days. In addition,
Cariou et al. (2019) assert that in some roots, the reduction of the
speed of movement may have adverse effects on the economic
feasibility of the transportation solution offered by the shipping
company. The second limitation is that the engine and the propeller of
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a ship are designed to operate at a specific revolution per minute that is

often optimized at a higher speed rate than the slow steaming speeds.
Cariou et al. (2019) assert that operating the engine and the propeller
at a lower rate affects the efficiency of operation of the engine, the
propeller, and the other affected parts. Therefore, a ship may find itself
operating outside its most efficient range when moving slower.

2.4 Ship Modernization

One of the approaches to reducing the level of pollution that a ship

releases on the environment is through its modernization. Monios
(2020) describes modernization of the ship as a process of either
purchasing a modern ship that has improved features or improving the
mechanical performance of an existing ship to adopt modern
approaches to functioning. According to Monios (2020), modernization
is focused on improving the level of efficiency in the operations of the
ship. This aspect results in a reduction of waste, economic
consumption of fuel, and minimal spillage into the sea. Old and
unmaintained ships can cause pollution to the sea through spillage of
used oil or other unwanted fluids, they have low efficiency such that
they consume a lot of fuel to generate minimal power due to energy
losses within their operations, thus generating unnecessary exhaust
gas, and they can operate in a way that they produce chemical wastes
from their operations. These aspects are agents of pollution and
challenge the achievement of environmental sustainability.

Di Vaio et al. (2021) point to the fact that modern ships have been
developed with a focus on sustainability in shipping in mind. Since the
development of the IMO provisions on the achievement of sustainability
within the shipping industry by 2050, various countries in the industry
have preferred ships that are modern and deliberately developed to
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ensure that they operate in a sustainable manner by reducing the level

of harmful emissions that they release within the environment. Di Vaio
et al. (2021) argue that these modern ships are efficient in their
operations and can significantly reduce the level of emissions that they
release within the environment. As such, the adoption of more modern
vessels in the shipping fleets and the improvement in the existing fleets
towards a better performance not only is likely to increase the level of
efficiency within which the boats operate but also improve the operating
costs of the ships. A more financially viable operation allows
businesses in the industry to have additional funds to invest in
sustainability initiatives and improves the level of economic
sustainability within the industry.

According to Koilo (2019), modernization has various benefits for the

shipping industry and the company that improves its fleet. Achieving
modern operational standards not only increases the operations of the
company but also improves the reliability of the service offered.
However, modernization has the challenge of being expensive. Koilo
(2019) argues that modernization either through the acquisition of new
vessels or improvement of the existing vessels is a capital intense
venture. It requires the company to dedicate significant levels of its
resources towards the improvement of its fleet. In most cases, it is
challenging to update all the old fleet at the same time. This aspect
makes the implementation of the strategy towards improving shipping
sustainability prolonged over a period. Most organizations adopt a
facing out strategy whereby the old ships are slowly faced out through
a gradual process that may take years.

The second challenge of the process is with respect to the pollution

that is caused by the disposed of vessels. Koilo (2019) asserts that if a
ship is to be disposed of and is not put to other uses, the vessel can be
considered a pollutant, especially if it has not been utilized to the extent
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that it ought to have been. This also includes the parts that are
replaced in the modernization process. Koilo (2019) argues that
effective and sustainable ways of disposing of the old fleet come at an
additional cost challenging the economic sustainability of the approach
toward sustainable shipping.

2.5 Use of Alternative Fuel Sources

According to Kesieme et al. (2019), one of the effective ways of

escalating the attainment of sustainability within the shipping industry
as projected and required by the IMO is the adoption of alternative
fuels to power the ships. However, this aspect must consider the
economic, technological, and environmental feasibility aspects. The
economic and technological feasibility focuses on the practicality of the
selected fuel in attaining the required level of operation.

Kesieme et al. (2019) assert that the IMO decided to limit the ship fuel
content by 2020 to a value of 0.5 per cent across the globe to reduce
the level of pollution because of shipping operations. The second focus
of the IMO is on the reduction of the Green House Gas (GHG) levels of
emission. These aspects demand the alternation of the mix of fuel used
by the ships.

According to an analysis by Xing et al. (2021), the use of heavy fuel oil
(HFO) and marine gas oil (MGO) used in the industry accounts for
around 25% of the total global diesel fuel and petrol production levels a
value that is expected to increase with more transportation needs. This
implies that more than 11% of the fuel from the ship will be high-
sulphur fuel, especially with the installation of more scrubbers. The
practical solution is the adoption of alternative fuels for the use of
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shipping. The various options that are available for adoption are the
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), biofuels,
methanol, and the use of hydrogen. Xing et al. (2021) list other
potential options are wind-assisted propulsion, battery cell, and fuel
cells to be possible options. However, these options are still
underdeveloped.

An analysis of the different fuel options based on the level of emissions

established that LNG is the fossil fuel that has the lowest level of
carbon dioxide emission levels. However, Al-Enazi et al. (2021) assert
that the release of unburnt methane has the potential effect of reducing
the expected benefits compared to HFO and MGO for various types of
engines. Methane is considered to have between 25 to 30 times more
greenhouse emissions effects compared to carbon dioxide. However,
Al-Enazi et al. (2021) argue that the use of tank-to propeller (TTP) and
the use of Otto-cycle dual-fuel (DF) have lower carbon dioxide
emissions compared to those of oil-fueled engines. On the other hand,
the level of the carbon footprint of methanol and hydrogen varies with
the source. Al-Enazi et al. (2021) assert that when the fuel sources are
produced from renewable energy sources or biomass, the level of
carbon footprints of methanol and hydrogen can be significantly low
compared to the footprint of HFO and MGO.

The figure below compared the different energy sources based on

carbon dioxide emissions.

Figure 1 Greenhouse gas performance during production and onboard

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Source: DNV GL (2018)

From the analysis, hydrogen is the cleanest fuel. However, according

to Andersson et al. (2020), hydrogen has a very low energy density
implying that large volumes will be required to be stored within the ship
challenging its use in international deep-sea shipping. Furthermore,
Andersson et al. (2020) project that the Sabatier/Fischer-Tropsch
process which involves the reaction of hydrogen and carbon dioxide at
high temperatures will be the most likely form of production of the
necessary fuels that will power the various ships. That being said
Andersson et al. (2020) assert that LNG has made progress toward
mainstream usage by overcoming various international legislation open
opportunities for the use of methanol and biofuels, even though the use
of fuel cell technology for the purpose of shipping is still in very early
stages. Moreover, Andersson et al. (2020) add that the possibility of
wind-assisted propulsion in complementing the usage of other
sustainable energy sources is also very practical. In contrast, the
batteries, as an alternative, will only be possible for short voyages or if
employed with other energy sources.

2.6 Intelligent Shipping

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According to Zhou et al. (2022), shipping has taken a trajectory of

becoming greener and more complex. The focus on the IMO adopted
strategy has been highly linked to information and data analytics in
making shipping sustainable and supporting the various actual
decisions and measures adopted. Zhou et al. (2022) point to the IGF
code in 2017 which was hinged on the provision of information on the
safety and environmental impact of the operations of the ships. Zhou et
al. (2022) point to the 2018 EU carbon dioxide monitoring, reporting
and verification that was focused on data and analysis of information.
The adoption of metrics, such as the carbon intensity (CI) in the
assessment of the level of operations of the industry played a key role
in facilitating the control of the effects of the activities on the
environment and the adoption of sustainability strategies. In 2019, the
adoption of a global fuel consumption data collection system has
played a key role in the provision of the necessary data that allows the
management of the operations and determination of the level of
environmental impact that the operations have. The assessment
established that the journey toward sustainability in the industry has
been heavily influenced by data collection which can be used in
harmonizing the operations of the industry towards sustainable
operation.

According to Wu et al. (2020), intelligence shipping which involves the

use of various data to assist the decision making process can be
effective in reducing the level of emissions and the effects that the
operations within the industry have on the environment. Wu et al.
(2020) argue that accurate data analytics can provide the necessary
logistical information that assists in transportation. Considering that the
shipping companies are profit-making enterprises, effective measures
that balance the environmental and economic sustainability goals are
achievable through accurate decision making on several aspects that
must be managed. Data analytics can assist in making decisions on the
appropriate voyage days that allow the ships to operate at slow
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steaming or adopt other measures that reduce the level of emission but
maintains the required financial operating sense. In addition,
sustainability is achievable through collective effort within the industry.
Considering the global nature of the industry, Wu et al. (2020) argue
that data would play an important role in monitoring the effectiveness of
strategies that are adopted and improving on areas that are lagging.

Intelligent shipping also comes in the form of making decisions on the

effective alternative energy source in the event of missing information
or data. Aspen and Sparrevik (2020) describe the effectiveness of
employing intelligent analytical approaches, such as stochastic multi-
criteria decision analysis approach, Dempster-Shafer theory and
trapezoidal fuzzy analytical hierarchy process. There are many options
to consider when selecting suitable alternative energy for shipping.
Through the analysis of data using these methods, the most
sustainable option can be determined and the decision made to adopt
the option. These methods are effective even if there are missing data
that would have assisted in the decision-making process. While
intelligent shipping is economical and accurate in projecting the
potential outcome, there is the challenge of changing variables that
stands to affect the outcome and the analytical process at different
period. Regular updates of the analysis are necessary for a more
accurate outcome.

2.7 Conclusion

Shipping is an integral part of the operations of the global economy, as

the industry provides transportation of the various essential materials
and manufactured products that drive economies. However, the
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process relies heavily on combustion engines that operate at a

significantly high scale, which results in an increased level of emissions
from the operations. The industry by itself stands to have an extensive
effect on the environment.

Maritime Shipping operates at a global level making its effect on the

globe widespread. That being said, there are various measures that
can be adopted to manage the level of emissions and reduce the level
of environmental degradation. These methods are slow steaming, ship
modernization, use of alternative fuels, and use of intelligent shipping.
These methods are presented in the market. Still, the level of their use
is minimal compared to the normal operations resulting in excessive
emissions of harmful gases. Various measures have been taken to
increase the uptake of sustainable operational paradigms. These
measures stand to be implemented over a long period of time. The
analyzed literature establishes their relevant and potential effect in
reducing the emissions levels and establishing a sustainable shipping
industry based on the targets by IMO.
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3. Methodology

3.1 Introduction

In this section of the research, the study discusses the methodology

that was employed in the collection of data and its analysis. The focus
of the section is to justify the selected methodological approach that
was adopted in the study and to relate it with the issue investigated.
The analysis section provides a discussion of the overall research
approach that was justified and how it fits into the study, and the overall
research design. The study also provides the methods adopted for data
collection and discusses the analysis employed in the evaluation of the
data. The rationale of the employed methodology is also discussed,
including its limitations.

3.2 Research Approach and Design

The study conducted a qualitative study. According to Hayashi et al.

(2019), qualitative research depends on data that is collected from the
researcher from various sources, including documents and case
studies that are generally non-numerical. Hayashi et al. (2019) add that
qualitative research has the advantage of providing a realistic
understanding of the situation that is not possible through numerical
and statical data. It also provided flexibility in the collection, analysis,
and interpretation of the data collected. Considering that the study
focused on the exploration of the suitability of the shipping industry, the
research approach was most suitable for the study due to its expansive
nature.
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3.3 Research Design

The study adopted case study research designs. According to Schoch

(2020), a case study involves a design of research that is employed in
deriving an in-depth and multi-faceted understanding of an issue that is
complex within its real-life occurrence. The research design was
adopted because of the complexity that involves sustainability in the
shipping industry. The ships in the industry operate with a commercial
interest and have a significant responsibility in supporting global trade.
However, sustainability issues surrounding the industry cannot be
ignored because it is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters. The
balance of these aspects is a complex issue that has relied on
innovation. This aspect makes a case study essential for its
understanding. In addition, the fact that the study focuses on real-life
issues and challenges makes this approach most suitable for
understanding the issues involved.

3.4 Sampling and Data Collection

The study adopted purposive sampling in selecting the shipping

companies to be analyzed. Campbell et al. (2020) define purposive
sampling to be a deliberate selection of samples based on a specific
set of criteria that meets the intention of a study. This sampling
technique was preferred because the population of shipping companies
is small and the study intended to focus on the ships that contribute the
most to pollution and emission of harmful gas. The criteria for selection
were that a company must have adopted an innovative method of
reducing its pollution levels specifically slow steaming, ship
modernization, use of alternative fuels and intelligent shipping, and it
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must be ranked in the top ten in terms of annual cargo that it transports
across the globe and the ships in its fleet. Based on the criteria, a
sample of 4 cases was selected, including Maersk Slow Steaming,
Mediterranean Shipping Company Ship modernization, Grandi Navi
Veloci (GNV) Use of Alternative Fuel, and CMA CGM Intelligent
Shipping. The data was collected through the archival method from
published company reports, journals, authoritative media publications,
and other relevant reports.

3.5 Data Analysis and Rationale

The selected analytical method of the case studies was the explanatory
case study. According to Draucker et al. (2020), an explanatory case
study focuses on answering the how or the why in a research question.
Draucker et al. (2020) add that the approach allows the investigation of
distinct phenomena that are characterized by the absence of
preliminary research, especially for the hypothesis that cannot be easily
tested. The analysis is suitable for the study because it responds to
how sustainability is achieved in the shipping industry and why the
identified innovations and methods achieve this objective. The study is
also suitable because based on the analysis by Barr (2020), there is an
absence of preliminary data that can be employed to assess
sustainability, especially in the context of the IMO policy which is a
recent policy with very recent targets to be achieved. The fact that most
of the technologies employed are at their development stage, makes
the necessary preliminary data scarce.

3.6 Limitations of the Research Methods

The research was limited by the absence of projections on the

expected achievements in the development of the innovation and the
timelines within which they will be ready for full deployment. This would
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have been effective in setting the expected dates of full attainment of

the IMO policies on sustainability in shipping. The adopted research
was based on historical performance documents without consideration
of global aspects that affect the industry, such as fuel prices, wars,
trade dynamics, and the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the
trends in shipping. With these limitations, it is impossible to determine
whether the evaluated documents were responding to shocks in the
industry or were the actual portrayal of the industry under normal
situations.
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4. Findings

4.1 Introduction

The findings chapter provides an evaluation of the findings from the

cases analyzed and the outcome of the analysis. The findings are
discussed in the context of the research question and within the
interpretation of the literature review. Through the analysis of the
findings, the outcome of the results is presented towards responding to
the issues of the research. The study focuses on sustainable shipping
and the methods that are employed toward realizing sustainable
shipping. The focus of the analysis of the findings is based on the
actual and practical cases of sustainable shipping while comparing the
outcome of the traditional shipping methods. The effectiveness of the
different methods is explored based on the evaluation of the
comparison based on the achieved level of reduction and the economic
sense that the methods are employed in the analysis.

4.2 More Sustainable Shipping

The adoption of sustainable shipping by any of the methods discussed
in the literature review chapter stands to have a general effect on the
primary objective of the shipping industry, namely to facilitate and
maintain the international trade, which, in turn, stimulates global
economic growth.

However, with an increase in the global economy, the demand for

shipping also increases, leading to an increase in emissions, as the
demand for global shipping comes with an increase in the level of fuel
consumption, while the challenges towards attaining the desired
sustainable shipping will be reduced.

The map below shows the effect of the identified measure in adopting
sustainable shipping practices.
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Figure 2 More Sustainable Shipping cognitive map

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The IMO policy resulted in the adoption of various measures. The

policy that was set to reduce the emission by 50% resulted in the
adoption of measures, such as slow steaming, ship modernization, the
use of alternative fuels, and intelligent shipping. All these measures
were intended to improve the level of sustainable shipping as illustrated
in figure 1. However, slow steaming results in to increase in the voyage
time and, thus challenges the growing global economy resulting in a
negative effect even as it results in a decrease in the level of fuel
consumption. Modernization of shipping also resulted in drop-in fuel
consumption due to the increased efficiency while the use of alternative
fuels resulted in drop-in fuel consumption due to the adoption of
alternate options. On the other side, intelligent shipping resulted in the
more efficient management of resources including fuels and their
emissions. However, these aspects stand to have a negative effect on
the growth of the global economy and possibly the demand for
maritime services.

4.3 Slow Steaming

The slow steaming process is based on the IMO policy that requires
the reduction of emissions. The logic behind the process is to reduce
the level of fuel that is consumed to ensure that there is minimal
emission because the level of emission is proportional to fuel
consumption. The slow steaming process has a positive effect on
sustainable shipping because of its reduction of the level of emission,
specifically carbon dioxide that would have been a result of increased
fuel consumption within a particular voyage. The slow steaming
process also has a positive effect on the decrease in the level of fuel
consumption because of the reduced level of power that is needed to
run the ships. However, with slow shipping, the voyage time is
increased, which makes the global maritime economy less efficient and
thus less popular due to the extended shipping period.
 33

Smart steaming can be adopted in a way that balances fuel cost saving
with increased costs of personnel for the management of the ship.
Other aspects that will be affected are the insurance and the inventory
because of the prolonged period within the waters. Logistical issues
emerge because of the slow steaming because of the prolonged period
and the less efficient process of transits. Smart steaming involves
strategic decision making that involves making the right decisions to
ensure that the affected issues are optimized and harmonized to
ensure that the process by itself is harmonized.

4.3.1 Maersk Slow Steaming

Slow steaming was introduced during the recession with a focus on

cutting costs and absorbing capacity (Barnard, 2010). Maersk is one of
the companies that adopted the method to manage its shipping
capacity and cut the cost of shipping. However, Barnard (2010) argues
that Maersk found that the approach to shipping has a positive effect
on the environment and on the company’s business. Zhao et al., (2020)
assert that the use of slow steaming results in cutting costs that has a
positive effect on innovation for the company. Maersk Line CEO Eivind
Kolding pointed out that adopting slow steaming allowed the company
to direct some of its resources to innovation because of the cost-
saving. The various innovation initiatives that the business was
involved in included those directed towards sustainable shipping and
improving customer quality services.

According to Barnard (2010), the slow steaming, of the ships of the

company reduced their speed by 20%. This implies that the voyage
time of the ship increased by 20%. However, due to slow steaming, the
company managed to save 40% of the fuel. The company saved
 34

operational costs by 40% due to the reduction of the operational costs.

Barnard (2010) also highlights that the reduction in the level of fuel
consumption resulted in a reduction in the level of carbon dioxide
emission levels.

However, the result of the increased voyage time resulted in the

company increasing the number of vessels present on the sea routes.
Barnard (2010) highlights that complementing ships were added to the
operations of the ships on specific routes. Analysis by Degiuli et al.
(2021) on the operations of the Maersk line indicated that despite the
increase in the number of fleet of ships per journey, the operations of
the company because of slow steaming resulted in a reduction in the
level of carbon dioxide emission by 7%. Degiuli et al. (2021) argue that
the company also enjoys the benefit of schedule reliability. The slow
steaming process enables the continual adjustment of speeds of the
ships based on the order. This allows improved reliability of the
schedule of delivery of various cargo. Degiuli et al. (2021) note that the
company aimed at reducing the level of carbon emission by 25% by
2020.

Figure number 3 below is a cognitive map of Maersk’s slow steaming

operations.
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 36

Figure 3 Cognitive map for Maersk’s slow steaming

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Figure 3 above shows the effect of slow steaming for Maersk’s

sustainability operations. The figure shows the slow steaming results to
decrease in the level of fuel consumption for the company, which in
turn results to a drop in the level of carbon emission. Slow steaming
resulted in increased innovation in the scheduling process to address
the delays in delivery in the forms of optimization of freight
management. It also results to increased innovation which enables the
facilitation of the IMO policy on sustainability. However, slow steaming
results to increased voyage time. Increased voyage time has a
negative effect on decreasing the fuel consumption because it results
to increase of the no of ships in a voyage for Maersk that had to
increase its fleets within a particular route. However, with increased
fleet, better scheduling and delivery of packages is possible, which
enhances the reliability on maritime services. This aspect also results
to increase in demand for fuel and thus a reduction in the level of
pursued shipping sustainability levels.

4.4 Modernized Shipping

Modernizing shipping is a process that involved the adoption of more

sophisticated ships that function at a higher efficiency level. The focus
of the performance under this context is on improving engine
performance to reduce the deficiencies and redundancies that result in
unnecessary emissions that have a negative effect on the sustainability
of the shipping industry. Modernization of the ships and the shipping
infrastructure involves measures such as navigation control to the best
routes, improved cargo handling, and vast engine rooms that allow the
ships to be powered most efficiently. Modernization of the existing
ships involves improving the less efficient ships to an operational level
that has minimal waste.
 38

Modernized shipping is a process towards realizing the objectives of

IMO by ensuring efficient operations of the ship to minimize the level of
leakage and to ensure that the engines operate efficiently to minimize
the fuel consumption and subsequently the level of emissions.
Modernized shipping is thus a positive effect on the IMO policy.
Modernized shipping has a positive effect in decreasing fuel
consumption because of the improved efficiency in utilization of fuel
and boosted efficiency in conversion of fuel into the necessary power
that powers the engine.

4.4.1 Mediterranean Shipping Company

Modernization

The Mediterranean Shipping Company is considered the largest

shipping company in the world even though it has 663 ships compared
to the second-placed shipping company which is Maersk which has
729 ships. According to Monsur (2019), the Mediterranean Shipping
company is ranked the largest shipping company because of its high
total Twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) containers. Despite the
company having fewer ships than Maersk by 66 ships, it has a TEU of
4,339,852 compared to Maersk's TEU of 4,245,962 having a difference
of more than 90,000. This difference is associated with the increased
level of efficiency of its ships. The ships can carry more cargo because
of their modern features.

The Mediterranean Shipping Company uses ships that consume less

fuel because of their modern features and better operational
parameters. The better and more modern ships enable the company to
automate its process based on navigation information systems.
According to Babica et al. (2019), modernized shipping translates to
effective management of the entire fleet through navigation systems
that assist in managing the routes to ensure the best routes with
 39

minimal power needs are used. The cost of operations is also driven
down because of improved efficiency and the level of waste from the
ships is minimized due to the effective management of the routes and
the combustion process.

Figure 4 below shows cognitive map for Mediterranean Shipping

Company Ship modernization.
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Figure 4 Cognitive map for Mediterranean Shipping Company Ship modernization

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4.5 Use of Alternative Fuel

The use of alternative fuels is based on the conception that alternative

fuels result in a lower level of emissions of harmful gas and waste. The
analyzed alternative fuels are Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG), biofuels, methanol, and the use of hydrogen.
The use of alternative fuels results in a positive impact on the IMO
policy. Moreover, its use is complimentary and has a positive effect on
decreasing the level of fuel consumption, which is responsible for
harmful emissions and waste. The use of alternative fuels that are less
pollutive results in a positive effect on sustainable shipping. However,
the alternative fuels must be analyzed individually and their effect on
the environment provided within the context of the analysis.

4.5.1 Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV) Use of Alternative

Fuel

DNV (2021) report the adoption of various type of alternative fuels to

reduce its carbon footprint during its operations. The different forms of
fuels that are used by the company are oil fuel, LNG, LPG, methanol,
Biodiesel, biogas, hydrogen, and the use of floating offshore wind
power. Analysis of the usage of these fuels by the company indicates
that there is a substantive reduction in the green gas emissions during
the operations of the ship. DNV (2018) points out that hydrogen is the
cleanest and safe alternative fuel for the shipping industry. However, its
level of development for commercial use is low making it costly. Oil
fuels, on the other side, are readily available for use but have a
 42

relatively high level of greenhouse gas emission compared to other

options.

DNV (2021) asserts that the use of alternative fuels has a positive
effect on the sustainability of the shipping industry. However, it comes
with additional costs. The ships using different forms of fuels register
significantly low levels of carbon dioxide emission based on the choice
of the gas. DNV has achieved significant levels of drop in the level of
greenhouse gas emissions. It is closely in compliance with the
requirements of the IMO policy. However, this has come at extensive
levels of investment in research and development and capital
investment in the adjustment of the ships towards the use of alternative
forms of fuels.

The use of alternative methods of fueling the ship translates to the

reduction of reliance on fossil fuels that are pollutants thus reducing the
production of greenhouse gases during the shipping process. However,
GNV has made extensive investment in research and development of
the different fuels and the adjustments of their shipping infrastructure
for use with the alternative fuels. Some of the fuels are also expensive
to acquire and operate. These aspects affect the operating expenses of
the business and thus its level of profitability. Nevertheless, the
company makes significant gains towards the attainment of the desired
level of operational sustainability. As such, the use of alternative fuels
is most effective as a long-term strategy. . Pursuit of alternative fuels
resulted to increased investment in research and development on
these alternative energies which resulted to increase in the level of
innovation.
 43

The cognitive map below shows Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV) use of
alternative fuel.
 44

Figure 5 Cognitive map for Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV) use of alternative fuel
 45

4.6 Intelligent Shipping

Intelligent shipping is a process that involves the use of data to make

decisions that assist in the shipping process in the most efficient way in
terms of fuel use reduction. There are various forms of intelligent
shipping that can be employed in the shipping industry to enhance the
minimization of the consumption of fuel. Intelligent shipping is the direct
result of the IMO policy. Its results have a positive effect on the
reduction of the fuel that is consumed during the shipping operations,
meaning that it has a positive effect on the sustainability of shipping.

There are different forms of intelligent shipping that are presently

applied within the maritime industry that facilitate a reduction in the
level of emission. However, intelligence shipping is focused on the use
of data and various methodologies in making various decisions that
positively affect the pursuit of sustainable shipping. Intelligent shipping
is more inclined toward logistical management and the use of various
methods to control the consumption of fuel and the level of emissions
that are derived in the operation of the ships.

4.6.1 CMA CGM Intelligent Shipping

To assist in the management of the shipping operations, CMA CGM

has adopted the use of smart technologies (CMA CGM, 2021). The
effectiveness of the system is in the management of logistics and
navigation of the ships to ensure the most efficient use of resources
specifical fuel in the provision of the essential shipping services. Some
of the technologies employed that rely on data analysis to assist in the
decision making are tracking and control of ships and cargo,
optimization of the supply chain, use of analytics in the scheduling of
 46

ships and delivery of cargo, and the use of technology in the

management of essential resources such as fuel (CMA CGM, 2021).
The technology is particularly effective in business decision making to
ensure that less fuel is used and thus minimized emissions.

Perčić et al. (2020) assert that data analytics and the use of smart
technologies are effective in tracking carbon dioxide and greenhouse
gas emissions, especially for the expansive shipping industry. Perčić et
al. (2020) the employment of data analytics in the process allow the
evaluation of the actual environmental cost of the operations and the
understanding of the necessary measures to reduce the level of carbon
dioxide emission and destruction to the environment. The use of data
analytics by CMA CGM in the management of its ships and
understanding the waste produced eases its attainment of the set
standards by IMO policy.

The use of intelligent and data analytical methods in decision-making

processes improves performance in various aspects. Figure 4 shows
that these measures enhance the analysis and monitoring of the level
of emissions. Decisions can be made on resource management that
reduces the fuel consumption levels and thus the level of emissions
that are registered in the operations of the company. There are other
benefits associated with intelligent shipping. However, these benefits
translate to increased profitability and performance levels in the
shipping industry which in turn challenges sustainability in the industry.

Below is a cognitive map for CMA CGM intelligent shipping.

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Figure 6 Cognitive map for CMA CGM intelligent shipping

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4.7 Conclusion

There are differences in the cognitive maps of the different options

analyzed and employed by the evaluated companies. Slow steaming
results in increased voyage time while shipping modernization results
in increased cargo that is carried. Adoption of alternative fuels results in
increased investment in research and development which translates to
higher operational costs. On the other side, intelligent shipping results
in increased reliance on analytics and data in decision making. All
these aspects translate to an increased level of innovation in the
industry which aligns with the IMO policy. However, increased voyage
time and increased investment in research and development indirectly
result in increased levels of emissions and the use of fossil fuels. While
increased reliance on data analytics and information technology and
increased cargo carried by every ship reduces the levels of fossil fuels
use and thus emissions. Nevertheless, all the technologies stake a
different route to make shipping more sustainable.

There are measures that can be adopted towards achieving the level of
sustainability in shipping that is required. The study has illustrated the
different applicable measures and their effectiveness in achieving the
intended intentions. These measures also take different approaches to
the solution. However, the most common form of pollution that results
in environmental degradation in the industry is the use of fossil fuels
during their combustion to power the shipping and release gases and
pollutants that are harmful to the environment. The adopted measures
in attaining sustainable shipping are focused on reducing the reliance
and the level of exploitation of these fuels.
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5. Discussion

5.1 Sustainability in the Shipping Industry

The shipping industry is one of the major pollutants to the environment.
The main source of pollution is the emission of toxic gases that are
released in the burning of fuel during operation and released as
exhaust. The industry has a significantly high climate footprint. From
the international trade through the movement of goods, the merchant
ships burn approximately 300m metric tons of fossil fuels during their
operations annually, which results in an approximate 1bn metric tons of
carbon emissions (Bui and Perera, 2019). The cumulative value of the
level of emissions from ships can be compared to the emission from
Japan. This aspect makes the redress of the sustainability issues in the
industry a critical aspect in the fight against climate change and
degradation of the environment. The IMO adopted a policy to ensure
that the process is guided in a way that the relevance and the role that
the maritime businesses play in the global economy are not extensively
interrupted.

There are various ways through which sustainability can be attained

within the shipping industry. The first approach is through slow
steaming, which has been practically adopted by Maersk, one of the
largest shipping companies. Slow steaming will decrease the level of
fuel consumption by the ships and thus reduce the level of carbon
emissions. However, the process increases the voyage time for the
ships, compelling Maersk to increase the number of boats used by the
company, thus increasing the carbon emission levels even as it
improves the cargo schedule. However, the case analysis shows that
the increased number of ships to cushion the company from the
increased voyage time results in a lower level of carbon emission
compared to an operation without slow steaming. Slow steaming thus,
has a positive effect on shipping sustainability. Improved scheduling
resulting from Maersk's slow steaming has a positive impact on the
demand for maritime services due to improved reliability.
 51

The other aspect of the process of more sustainable shipping is the

Mediterranean Shipping Company Ship modernization. This approach
shows that the use of modernized ships improves their performance
and reduces the level of waste because of incomplete combustion.
Modern ships consume less fuel due to their increased level of
efficiency in operations, thus reducing the level of carbon and
greenhouse gas emissions. Despite the Mediterranean Shipping
Company having fewer ships than Maersk’s, it managed to carry more
cargo than Maersk because of its high efficiency in performance. More
cargo can be transported with fewer ships and thus lower levels of
carbon emission registered. Modernization of the ships may be capital
intensive but it would increase the performance levels of the company.
It is therefore necessary for the attainment of the IMO policy set.

The next option for reducing the level of pollution and making shipping
sustainable is through the use of alternative fuels. There are several
alternative fuels that have lower emissions than presently used fossil
fuels. The alternative fuels for use are oil fuel, LNG, LPG, methanol,
Biodiesel, biogas, hydrogen, and the use of floating offshore wind
power. One of the companies that have adopted alternative fuels is
Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV). While most of these alternative options have
a lower carbon footprint compared to standard fossil fuels, their use to
facilitate sustainable operations is costly and complex. The
implementation of these fuels requires a readjustment of the vessels
used to ensure that they run on the technology and consider a
sustainable source of the fuels.

Comparatively, CMA CGM employs intelligent shipping in reducing its

carbon blueprint. Intelligent shipping involves harmonizing data to
streamline the operations to realize the highest level of efficiency. The
use of data analytics is effective in managing waste and ensuring that
the route and schedule that has one of the most efficient and less fuel
consuming decisions are made. Smart technologies are also effective
in the monitoring of carbon dioxide and green gas emission levels for
organizations, such as CMA CGM. The transportation and shipping
 52

company can track its performance in the context of conformity with

IMO set standards and required levels of emissions based on the set
requirements.

5.2 Implications and Limitations

The study plays an important role in highlighting the progress in the
pursuit of IMO policy on sustainable shipping. The policies were bound
by various target timelines that were expected to be achieved. Through
an analysis of actual information from the companies’ authoritative
reports, and understanding of the level of progress attained is possible,
which can enhance the level of research in the area. The study’s
primary limitation is that it relied on secondary data. The study relied on
data that is extracted from various other sources on the operations of
the shipping industry and not on the data that was collected directly.
This limited the level of information that would be gathered on the
operations and understanding of the prospects of the companies
analyzed. The study is also limited by the fact that it was based on the
most recent available information on these operations. Any other
development after the publication of the sources of information on the
different studies was not captured in the presentation.

5.3 Strength and Weaknesses

The strength of the study is that it relied on published and authoritative
materials. The study focused on publications that were made on
authoritative platforms and official documents/reports of the respective
companies. This provided some level of integrity and reliability to the
information that is gathered in the analysis of the issue investigated.
The study also conducted a case analysis adopting a practical
approach to investigating an existing issue. The study is thus, not
merely based on theory. However, the study has the weakness of
failing to rely on primary data or the most recent information on the
status of development in the industry. Any major development and
pertinent information that are not open to the public are excluded from
the analysis. The findings are, therefore, based on the information that
the companies would allow the public to assess it could thus not
 53

capture strategic information, such as the types of ships, the prospects

of the companies, and other critical information that would provide
insight on the trend and future of sustainable shipping.
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6. Conclusion

6.1 Review of results

In the analysis, the company with the most ships, Maersk employed
slow steaming in reducing the level of fossil fuel used and thus the level
of carbon emissions realized. According to Degiuli et al. (2021), slow
steaming is one of the most effective and widespread measures
adopted in the reduction of carbon emissions within the shipping
industry. However, the approach is not very effective in realizing the
required levels of emission reduction. In the analysis, the study
established that Maersk adopts this approach to reducing the level of
carbon emission by reducing the level of fossil fuels used in the
movement from one location to another. However, slow steaming
translates to higher voyage time. Nevertheless, the study realized that
there is a net effect in the reduction of carbon emission into the
atmosphere.

The second approach that is adopted in the reduction of the level of

greenhouse gas emissions by private companies is modernized
shipping. According to Charchalis (2019), the process of ship
modernization involves the upgrade of the existing ships to adopt a
modern operating system and the replacement of the fleet with modern
ships that have higher efficiency levels. This translates to better
efficiency in operations, such as carrying more cargo, reducing carbon
emissions by efficient combustion of fossil fuels, and improving
measurement and monitoring systems. With these improved
operations, the fuel used in running the ships is reduced and thus a
reduction in the level of emissions. In the case analysis, the study
established that the Mediterranean Shipping Company has adopted
this measure in reducing the level of greenhouse gas emissions. The
modernization of the Mediterranean Shipping Company allowed the
 56

company to carry more cargo than Maersk even though the

Mediterranean Shipping Company had 66 fewer ships in its fleet. By
carrying more cargo with fewer ships, less fossil fuel is used. In
addition, the combustion of the fuel is complete resulting in cleaner
emissions. However, the study established that ship modernization is
capital intensive.

The other approach to reduction of pollution in the shipping industry

and enhancing sustainable shipping is through the use of alternative
types of energy. Fuels that are cleaner or have lower emission levels
can be used to power the ship and thus, reduce the pollution levels
(Radonja et al., 2019). In the analysis, the identified alternative sources
of power with lower emission levels are oil fuel, LNG, LPG, methanol,
Biodiesel, biogas, hydrogen, and the use of floating offshore wind
power. Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV) was identified to use alternative fuel
to power its ships. However, there are several challenges. The cleanest
power source is hydrogen. Nevertheless, the production and the
development of the hydrogen-powered engine are at their early stages
of research, making it expensive and economically unsustainable. The
other challenge with the use of alternative power sources is the need
for readjustment of the ship engines to use the power, which is a
capital-intensive process given its need for extensive investment in
sources of the alternative forms of fuel. Therefore, most of the ships in
operation still use fossil-fuel-powered engines.

The other method adopted in the industry to enhance the level of

sustainable shipping is intelligence shipping. CMA CGM was identified
as a case of employment of intelligent shipping in pursuing sustainable
shipping. According to Bao et al. (2020), intelligent or smart shipping
involves the use of data analytics in making decisions that would assist
in the reduction of the level of pollution that the shipping operation
causes in the environment. It involves measures, such as analyzing the
right routes, improvement of engine performance and analysis of the
 57

emission levels to enhance the evaluation of the impact of the

operations on the environment. Nonetheless, this measure is only
effective if the decisions based on the analytical process are adopted.

6.2 Future predictions

The findings of the study established that there are various adopted
measures for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. All these
methods in pursuit of sustainable shipping are inclined towards
reducing the use of fossil fuels in the operations within the industry.
However, the study is pessimistic that the adopted methods will be
effective in attaining the IMO policy goals within the required timeframe.
The most effective method which is the use of alternative fuels in the
shipping operation is still in its early stages and only a few ships have
adopted alternative fuels exclusively or as a complement to the fossil
fuels. The future prediction is that most of the methods will become
more popular and will be adopted in many ships and organizations
because of the cost and environmental implications.

The issue of sustainable shipping is largely associated with and

implemented by the IMO policy. According to Wu and Lin (2020), the
International Maritime Organization (IMO), which is a specialized
agency of the United Nations is focused on the promotion of safe,
secure, environmentally healthy, efficient, and sustainable global
shipping operations. The body’s scope of operation across the
international space makes it most suitable for addressing the
sustainability issues in the shipping industry because of the global
nature of operations in the industry. Wu and Lin (2020) argue that while
the body is more of a humanitarian organization with the interest of the
planets, the operational nature of the industry requires a financially
sustainable approach because most of the companies in this space are
commercial and profit-focused organizations. Wu and Lin (2020) also
highlight that the required operational measures to ensure sustainable
 58

shipping require the commitment of capital and extensive adjustments

to the operations in the industry that would affect not just the bottom
line of the companies but also the role of the industry in global trade.
The study predicts that the set targets and deadlines will be delayed by
around 20 years. However, there will be smaller gains and milestones
which will be interrupted by commercial interest and global economics.

Sciberras and Silva (2018) assert that annex VI of the international

convention for the Marine Prevention of Pollution from Ships set a
target of marine fuel not to exceed 0.5wt.% in 2020. For the reduction
to be achieved, the various private companies would have to make
necessary adjustments in their operations and realize a change in their
operations. The full realization of the intentions of the IMO relies on the
adoption of various measures by the different private companies that
operate within the industry. The primary focus with the most effect on
realizing the set goals is through the implementation of various
measures by the largest companies that operate in the industry. These
companies failed to realise the set target of marine fuel consumption
being lower than 0.5wt. The study predicts that this level will be
achieved in the next 5 years.
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7. List of References