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Introduction to Mathematical Proofs

Chapter 1 introduces mathematical proof writing, covering essential terminology and properties of real numbers, integers, and natural numbers. It explains statements, conditional statements, and the concept of closure under operations, along with examples and definitions for rational and irrational numbers. The chapter concludes with methods for constructing direct proofs and includes exercises to reinforce understanding.

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10 views10 pages

Introduction to Mathematical Proofs

Chapter 1 introduces mathematical proof writing, covering essential terminology and properties of real numbers, integers, and natural numbers. It explains statements, conditional statements, and the concept of closure under operations, along with examples and definitions for rational and irrational numbers. The chapter concludes with methods for constructing direct proofs and includes exercises to reinforce understanding.

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unknown14685
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© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Writing Proofs in Mathematics

Some math terminology review

1. R represents the set of real numbers.


2. a ∈ R means a is an element of the set of real numbers, that is a is a real number.
3. Similarly, Z represents the set of integers, that is Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.

4. The set of natural numbers is denoted N and is the set of nonnegative integers.
That is, N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
Note: The Sundstrom text does NOT include 0 as considered part of this set, but
Rosen does. We will include 0 in the set of natural numbers in this course.

5. Multiplication and addition are commutative operators:

(a) If a, b ∈ R, then ab = ba.


(b) If a, b ∈ R, then a + b = b + a.

6. Multiplication and addition are associative operators:

(a) If a, b, c ∈ R, then (ab)c = a(bc).


(b) If a, b, c ∈ R, then (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

7. The real numbers are closed under multiplication, addition, and subtraction.

(a) If a, b ∈ R, then ab ∈ R.
(b) If a, b ∈ R, then a + b ∈ R.
(c) If a, b ∈ R, then a − b ∈ R.

8. The integers are closed under multiplication, addition, and subtraction.

(a) If a, b ∈ Z, then ab ∈ Z.
(b) If a, b ∈ Z, then a + b ∈ Z.
(c) If a, b ∈ Z, then a − b ∈ Z.

9. The multiplicative identity is 1 since if a ∈ R, we have a · 1 = a = 1 · a.


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10. If a ∈ R and a ̸= 0, the multiplicative inverse of a is a since we have a · 1a = 1 = 1
a · a.

11. The additive identity is 0 since if a ∈ R, we have a + 0 = a = 0 + a.


12. If a ∈ R , the additive inverse of a is −a since we have a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a.

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Section 1.1 Statements and Conditional Statements

Definition 1. A statement is a sentence that states a “fact” that is either true or false
(cannot be both).
Example 2. Are the following statements?
1. The earth is flat.

2. 5 − 2 = 3.
3. Do your homework.
4. This statement is false.

Figuring out if a statement is true or false.


• Start with guesses/conjectures

• Work with examples

One special kind of example is called a counterexample which is an example that shows
the statement is false.

• Use prior knowledge.

• Brainstorming

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Definition 3. Let p and q be statements. The conditional statement “p implies q” is
denoted p → q and means: “If p is true, then q is true.” (This statement is often shortened
to “If p, then q.”)

In this statement, p is the hypothesis and q is the conclusion.

Consider the four cases. What are the truth values?

We will give what is called a truth table for these cases.

Example 4. Let p be the statement “Daria works a summer job” and q be the statement,
“Daria buys a new pair of sneakers”.
Write the following statements in symbolic form.
Then if the given statement below is true and Daria does not work a summer job, what
(if anything) can you conclude whether Daria buys a new pair of sneakers?

1. ”If Daria works a summer job, then they buy a new pair of sneakers”.

2. ”If Daria buys a new pair of sneakers, then they work a summer job”.

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Example 5. Consider the statement:

5n2 +3n
If n is an integer, then 2 is an integer.

Try some examples. Can we conclude anything from them?

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Closure Property

Definition 6. A set S is closed under an operation ⋆ if for any a, b ∈ S, we have a ⋆ b ∈ S.


Example 7. Consider the set of integers, Z.

1. Give some operations that Z is closed under.

2. Give some operations that Z is not closed under.

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Definition 8. A real number r is rational if and only if there exist integers p and q where
p
q ̸= 0 such that r = . A real number x is irrational if and only if x is not rational. The set
q
of rational numbers is denoted Q.
Example 9. 1. Is Q closed under subtraction?

2. Is Q closed under addition?

3. Is Q closed under multiplication?

4. Is Q closed under division?

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Example 10. Using only Theorem 11, what can you determine about the following functions?
Theorem 11. If f (x) = ax 3 + b where a, b are real, then f (x) has at most one real root.

1. g(x) = x 3 + 5

√
2. L(x) = 4x 3 − 7

3. h(x) = 2x 2 + 8

4. k(x) = 17

5. R(x) = 3x + 9

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Section 1.2 Constructing Direct Proofs

To prove a statement directly, we will want to prove a statement of the form p → q by


assuming that p is true and showing that this forces q to be true as well.

Definition 12. An integer n is even if and only if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k.
Similarly, an integer n is odd if and only if there exists an integer m such that n = 2m + 1.

Theorem 13. If n is an odd integer, then n3 is odd.

Example 14. Using only Theorem 13, what (if anything) can you conclude about n3 with
each given n?
1. n = 6

2. n = 7

√
3
3. n = 7

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Example 15. Prove Q is closed under subtraction.

Example 16. Prove or disprove: The set of even numbers is closed under addition.

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Example 17. Prove or disprove: The set of odd numbers is closed under addition.

Example 18. Prove or disprove: The set of non-zero rational numbers is closed under division.

Note: Section 1.3 gives a summary of the Chapter.

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Common questions

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The set of rational numbers Q is defined as the set of numbers that can be expressed as the quotient of two integers p and q, where q is not zero. Q is closed under subtraction, meaning the difference between any two rational numbers is still a rational number. This can be shown as follows: if r1 = a/b and r2 = c/d are two rational numbers, then r1 - r2 = (a/b) - (c/d) = (ad - bc)/(bd), which is also a ratio of integers, thus a rational number .

Theorem 11 states that the polynomial function f(x) = ax^3 + b has at most one real root. For g(x) = x^3 + 5, let a = 1 and b = 5. According to the theorem, g(x) can have at most one real root. The function's cubic term ensures the possibility of only one sign change across the real number line. However, verifying exact roots requires further specific analytic methods or numerical approximations not provided in the theorem .

The set of odd numbers is not closed under addition. An odd integer n can be expressed as n = 2m + 1 for some integer m. The sum of two odd integers, say n1 = 2m1 + 1 and n2 = 2m2 + 1, is n1 + n2 = (2m1 + 1) + (2m2 + 1) = 2(m1 + m2 + 1), which is an even integer. Thus, the sum is not in the set of odd numbers, proving the set is not closed under addition .

An integer n is even if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k. For closure under addition, consider two even integers n1 = 2k1 and n2 = 2k2. Their sum n1 + n2 = 2k1 + 2k2 = 2(k1 + k2) is a multiple of 2 and therefore an even integer. This shows that the set of even numbers is closed under addition, as adding any two even numbers produces another even number .

In the set of real numbers R, the commutative property for multiplication states that for any two real numbers a and b, the result of a multiplied by b is the same as b multiplied by a (ab = ba). Similarly, for addition, a + b = b + a. The associative property for multiplication and addition means that for any three real numbers a, b, and c, the grouping of operations does not affect the result: (ab)c = a(bc) for multiplication, and (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for addition. These properties simplify computation and are fundamental to algebraic manipulations .

The closure properties of the set of rational numbers Q under division are of particular interest. Q is closed under division, except when dividing by zero. For rational numbers r1 = a/b and r2 = c/d where c ≠ 0, the division r1 ÷ r2 = (a/b) / (c/d) = (a/b) × (d/c) = ad/bc, which is a ratio of integers, thus a rational number, provided c is not zero. This demonstrates that Q is closed under division, except for division by zero, which is undefined .

The conditional statement 'p implies q' is represented as p → q. In this logical expression, 'p' denotes the hypothesis or condition, while 'q' signifies the conclusion or outcome. The statement asserts that if 'p' is true, then 'q' must also be true. This relationship forms the basis for deductive reasoning in proofs and logic .

The theorem "If n is an odd integer, then n^3 is odd" can be evaluated by letting n = 7. Since 7 is odd (expressed as 2m + 1, m = 3), calculating n^3 gives 7^3 = 343, which is also odd. This aligns with the theorem that the cube of any odd integer is odd, demonstrating consistency with this mathematical property .

The closure property states that a set S is closed under an operation ⋆ if for any elements a, b in S, the result of the operation, a ⋆ b, is also in S. For the set of integers Z, it is closed under operations such as addition, multiplication, and subtraction because for any integers a and b, the results of a + b, ab, and a - b are also integers .

If the conditional statement is true, that "If Daria works a summer job, then they buy a new pair of sneakers," but Daria does not work a summer job, we cannot conclude that Daria does or does not buy a new pair of sneakers. The status of buying sneakers when not working a summer job is irrelevant to the truth of the conditional statement since the condition (working a summer job) was not met .

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