Sampling
Census method
It deals with the investigation of the entire population. Here
the data are collected for each and every unit of the universe.
All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A
complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census
inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered,
no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
Census method
But in practice this may not be true.
Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and
larger as the number of observation increases.
there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except
through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and
energy.
At times, this method is practically beyond the reach of ordinary
researchers.
Sampling method Population:
Population or universe means, the entire mass of
observations, which is the parent group from
which a sample is to be formed. The term
population or universe conveys a different
Here a small group is selected as meaning than a traditional one. In census survey,
representative of the whole universe. It the count of individuals (men, women and
works with the objective to obtain children) is known as population.
accurate and reliable information about
the universe with minimum of cost, time
and energy and to set out the limits of
accuracy of such estimates. It makes
exhaustive and intensive study possible
with much less time, money and
material. Its more popular in research
work.
Characteristics of a Good Sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties.
2. The population is known as aggregate of certain properties and
sample is called sub-aggregate of the universe.
3. A good sample is free from bias; the sample does not permit
prejudices, the learning and pre-conception, imaginations of the
investigator to influence its choice.
4. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting
procedure or absence of subjective elements from the situation.
Characteristics of a Good Sample:
5. A good sample maintains accuracy .It yields an accurate estimates or
statistics and does not involve errors.
6. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a closely
linked with true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of
a sample which is controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A
sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a good
representative of the population.
7. A good sample has the practicability for research.
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sample
Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. For example, if you
want to study the reading habits of university
students, you could assign each student a number
and then use a random number generator to select
a sample
Methods of drawing a random sample: Computer
program, Lottery method, Throwing a dice …
There are 80 students in the class, and so the
first step is to identify each student by a
number from 1 to 80. Suppose you decide to
select a sample of 20 using the simple random
sampling technique. Use the fishbowl draw,
the table for random numbers or a computer
program to select the 20 students. These 20
students become the basis of your enquiry
Stratified Random Sample
The population is divided into subgroups (or strata)
based on certain characteristics, and then random
samples are taken from each subgroup. For instance, if
you're researching the academic performance of
students, you might divide them into strata based on
their majors and then randomly select students from
each major.
This approach proves beneficial when we aim to
guarantee a well-rounded representation of various
subgroups within the overall population. For instance,
we can employ stratified sampling to choose a sample
of students from various socio-economic backgrounds
to examine how poverty affects student achievement.
For example, you might divide the population into
strata based on gender, ethnicity, age range or level of
education, and then select randomly from each group.
The benefit of this sampling method is that it gives you more
control over the impact of large subgroups (strata) within the
population. For example, if a population comprises 80% males
and 20% females, you may want to “balance” this skew out by
selecting a random sample from an equal number of males and
females. This would, of course, reduce the representativeness of
the sample, but it would allow you to identify differences
between subgroups. So, depending on your research aims, the
stratified approach could work well.
Cluster Sampling
The population is divided into clusters, and then a random
sample of clusters is selected. All individuals within the
chosen clusters are included in the sample.
For instance, if you're studying attitudes towards recycling in
a city, you might randomly select several neighborhoods and
survey all households within those neighborhoods.
This method is useful when it’s too hard or expensive to study
everyone in the whole population, and you want to make sure
different regions or groups are included in your sample.
For example, if you want to see how well a new
teacher training program works, you might use
cluster sampling to select schools from various areas.
If a population is relatively homogeneous, cluster
sampling will often be adequate. Conversely, if a
population is quite heterogeneous (i.e., diverse),
stratified sampling will generally be more
appropriate.
Systematic Sampling
This method simply involves selecting
participants at a set interval, starting from
a random point. Researchers select every 10th
member from the population. For example, if you
want to survey employees in a large company, you
might choose every 10th employee on the
employee list.
For example, if you have a list of students that
reflects the population of a university, you could
systematically sample that population by
selecting participants at an interval of 8. In other
words, you would randomly select a starting
point – let’s say student number 40 – followed
by student 48, 56, 64, etc.
What’s important with systematic sampling is that
the population list you select from needs to be
randomly ordered. If there are underlying patterns in
the list (for example, if the list is ordered by gender,
IQ, age, etc.), this will result in a non-random
sample, which would defeat the purpose of adopting
this sampling method. Of course, you could
safeguard against this by “shuffling” your
population list using a random number generator or
similar tool.
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Also known as Haphazard sampling. This involves selecting
individuals who are most readily available and accessible to
the researcher. For instance, if you're studying the opinions of
shoppers in a mall, you might approach people who happen to
be passing by.
The main drawback of convenience sampling is that it can lead
to biased results. Because participants aren’t chosen randomly,
they might not represent the broader population’s views. It’s a
bit like asking only our friends about their favourite food —
the answers won’t show what everyone else thinks.
For example, if we want to gather quick feedback on a
new product, we might ask opinions from whoever is
nearby or available at the moment, like colleagues in the
same office or friends and family.
Suppose you're conducting research on the effectiveness
of a new teaching method for EFL learners. You might
select participants from a class that is readily available to
you, such as the students in your own English language
classroom.
Quota Sampling
Researchers divide the
For research on the attitudes of
population into subgroups
EFL learners towards studying
based on certain
abroad, you might set quotas
characteristics and then
based on demographic factors
set quotas for each
such as age, gender, and English
subgroup. Sampling is
proficiency level to ensure a
then done non-randomly,
diverse sample. You could then
but the quotas ensure that
recruit participants from various
the final sample reflects
EFL classes until each quota is
the diversity of the
met.
population.
Suppose researchers are interested in understanding how gender
and age influence EFL learners' attitudes towards language
learning. They might set quotas to ensure an equal representation
of males and females across different age groups, such as
teenagers, young adults, and older adults.
In a study investigating the motivational factors driving EFL
learners' language learning efforts, researchers might set quotas
to include participants with different levels of motivation, such as
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and instrumental
motivation. This allows for an examination of how different
motivational factors impact language learning outcomes.
Purposive Sampling
Also known as judgmental or selective sampling, this
involves the researcher selecting specific individuals or
groups based on their expertise, knowledge, or
characteristics relevant to the study.
For instance, if you're studying the experiences of
immigrant entrepreneurs, you might purposively select
individuals who have successfully started businesses in
a new country.
Purposive sampling is often used in studies where the aim is to gather
information from a small population (especially rare or hard-to-find
populations), as it allows the researcher to target specific individuals
who have unique knowledge or experience. Naturally, this sampling
method is quite prone to researcher bias and judgement error, and it’s
unlikely to produce generalisable results, so it’s best suited to studies
where the aim is to go deep rather than broad.
However, a potential limitation of this approach is its subjectivity. Just
because we believe certain participants are ideal doesn’t necessarily
mean our choice is accurate. Consequently, the findings might not
represent the broader population’s perspectives.
If you're studying the experiences of EFL
teachers who have implemented project-based
learning in their classrooms, you might
purposively select teachers who have extensive
experience with this teaching method or who
have received specialized training in it.
Snowball Sampling
In this method, existing study subjects recruit future subjects from
among their acquaintances. This is often used when the population
of interest is hard to reach. For example, if you're researching rare
diseases, you might start with one patient and ask them to refer you
to others in their network who also have the condition.
Snowball sampling is often used in research contexts where
it’s difficult to identify and access a particular population. For
example, people with a rare medical condition or members of an
exclusive group. It can also be useful in cases where the research
topic is sensitive or taboo and people are unlikely to open up unless
they’re referred by someone they trust.
Imagine you're researching the use of English
language learning apps among EFL learners. You
could start by interviewing a few students who are
known to use such apps, and then ask them to refer
you to other EFL learners who also use these apps.
How to determine Sample Size
The population: that is, how many people fall into the demographic group you want to study.
For example, for a study about people who drink coffee in Italy, the size of your population
will be the total number of people who drink coffee in Italy. Keep in mind that this number is
often indicative and not precise.
The margin of error or confidence interval: that is, how much margin of error you
anticipate in your research. This margin is usually expressed as a percentage.
The confidence level: which is how confident you are that your data will be reliable. This
value is also expressed as a percentage and it is usually in line with the margin of error.
The standard deviation: i.e., an estimate of how much the responses will vary from each
other and from the average number. Since at the time of sample creation you have not yet
conducted your survey, a safe choice is 50%.
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References
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