KEY TOOLS AND METHODS FOR

IMPLEMENTATION OF SWC MEASURES

January 2014
Ministry of Agriculture
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Table of Contents

1. NTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1

2. SIMPLE SURVEYING TOOLS AND METHODS .............................................................. 2

2.1 Simple Surveying Tools ............................................................................................... 2
2.2 Simple Surveying Methods .......................................................................................... 2

3. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON SLOPES .............................................................. 13

4. METHODS TO CALCULATE PEAK RUN-OFF RATES FOR CHANNEL DESIGN ........ 17

 1. NTRODUCTION
The implementation of any physical structures on any land use system requires detailed
knowledge about some technical tools and equipment which can determine the quality of the
physical structure to be constructed. The construction of any physical structure requires the
identification of slope percentage, vertical interval and horizontal distance and identification
of appropriate contour lines where further lay out and designing of the physical structure can
take place during the construction period. These issues have been briefly discussed within
each module of the training package on Biophysical SWC measures. Lacking the essential
knowledge and skills related to these tools will undoubtedly affect the quality of the physical
structure and further leads to great destruction of our soils. During the main training
program, we may raise and discuss the importance of identifying slope measurement, soil
types and depth. But, before that the participants should know how to deal with these issues.
The technical tools include:

 Simple survey methods,

 Background information on slopes,
 Methods to calculate peak run off-rates for channel design

To equip the technical staff at various levels and farmers with the concept of each of the
technical tools and their effective utilization, it is necessary to organize a separate and
detailed training program on these topics to address the issues in depth as part and parcel of
the main training program on Biophysical SWC. This portion will be used as springboard for
the implementation of all design and layout of each of the technologies indicated within the
training package on biophysical SWC measures.

Therefore, it is important to organize a separate and in-depth training program that can equip
DAs and farmers with each of technical tools, their equipment and methods of utilization to
improve their knowledge so that they will be in a position to implement good quality physical
SWC structures in their local areas.

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 2. SIMPLE SURVEYING TOOLS AND METHODS

2.1 Simple Surveying Tools

A. LINE LEVEL
The line level is a simple surveying instrument which can be used to lay out contours and gradients,
and also to measure the slope of land. It is simple to operate and is easier to transport than other
similar surveying tools such as the A-frame. It is especially quick and very accurate when used
properly. However a line level does require three people to operate it.

B. WATER TUBE LEVEL

The water tube level is a simple surveying instrument which is used for laying out contours in fields.
It is easy to understand, and farmers can quickly learn how to operate it for themselves.
The concept itself - of matching up levels of water - is especially easy to understand. Advantages of
the water tube level are that it can be operated by only two people and is more sensitive than the line
level on very low slopes. It is, however, slightly less portable than the line level, and is not so simple
to use for determining slopes or laying out graded contours.

C. A-FRAME
A-frame is a cheap and easy to make tool. It can be made from readily available materials and are
easy to use. An A-frame consists of three pieces of wood, fixed together in the shape of a capital
letter "A". The A-frame is held upright, and a weight on a string hangs down from the top of the "A" to
act as a plumb-line. If the A-frame is on perfectly level ground, the string crosses the horizontal bar of
the "A" at a certain point. This point is marked during calibration. The applications of each simple
surveying tool are detailed below.

2.2 Simple Surveying Methods

A. MARKING/LAYING OUT CONTOUR LINES WITH THE LINE LEVEL

a) Definition
Contour lines are horizontal lines across the slope joining points of the same elevation. Contour lines
are used to line out conservation measures which have to be level.
b) Materials
The following items are needed:
• Water-level
• Thin plastic rope, 11 m long and about 2 mm in diameter
• 2 wooden poles, 2 m long, marked every 10 cm
• Meter-band or meter-stick
• Short poles for marking the ground

Operator A (Head person) Operator B (Rear person)

Figure1: Use of Line Level (Source: [Link]

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c) Preparation steps
1. First check the proper functionality of the sprit level by putting it on a level surface and turning it
around.
2. In outlining the work, always start from the outlet of the runoff.
3. Each pole is held by an operator and the line level read by a third person in the middle. The first
pole is held by operator "A" who remains stationary. Operator "B" then moves up and down the
slope by the order of the middle person until the level reads dead centre (see figure 1). For
graded structures, the height of the string on the poles varies depending on the intended gradient.
However, for level structures, we need strings to be tied on similar height of poles.
4. The two positions are marked using pegs, and while "A" moves to "B's" old position, "B" moves
onwards to new position and the process continue until the length of contour required has been
completed.
5. The true contour is then "cleared" by eye to give a better shape for ploughing.

d) Marking contour lines

6. Proceed across the slope to mark contour lines with line level as shown in figure 2 below. Survey
10 m at a time. In difficult topography, it might be inconvenient to survey 10m at a time; so you
can make 5 m (half the rope) by hanging the spirit level at the middle (2.5m).

Figure2. Marking/laying out contour lines with the line level (Source: CBPWD Guideline, 2005)

e) How to Survey Land for Levelling

1. The centre of the field is used as the starting point. A flat stone is placed in a hole with one side
level with the ground surface. This is the "bench mark".
2. Operator "A" places his/her pole on this stone. "B" stands downslope with his/her pole on top of a
wooden peg. The peg is driven into the ground until a level is found. The top of the peg will be
above ground surface. "A" then moves the pole to this peg, and "B" continues down the field and
places his/her pole on another peg.

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3. The process is similar for the upslope part of the field, except that the pegs are driven below
ground to find the level.
4. During the land levelling process, soil is scraped away from around the upslope pegs, and
deposited around the downslope pegs. This continues until the tops of all the pegs are at the new
surface level.
Important Points to Remember:
Always check the spirit level;
Each pole should be placed on level ground and held vertically;
Check the centre point of the string each day and its length;
Remember that when laying out a gradient that operator (A) is upslope;
Before excavation starts, remove previous crop residues, if any;
Avoid putting the poles on lumps of soils and hollows.

B. MARKING/LAYINGOUT A CONTOUR WITH THE WATER TUBE LEVEL

a) Description:
 The water tube level is assembled by uncoiling the tube and then filling it with water by
siphoning (sucking one end of the tube with the other end dipped in water). Each end of the
tube is then tied to one pole.
 The poles are held side by side and the levels of water marked on the poles.
 The two levelling staffs are of the same length with a graduated tape attached to each stave.
The tube is filled with water. The ends of the tube are fitted with rubber stoppers to prevent
loss of water. The total length of tube defines the range of the instrument.

b) Materials: It consists of:

 10-20m of clear plastic piping, with inside diameter 610 mm
 two poles of 1.5 -2.0 metres length
 four rubber straps (from inner tube) to attach pipe to poles
 one to two litres of water

Figure2: Use of Water Tube Level

(Source: [Link]

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c) Preparation steps
1. The team begins at the top of the field, and continues downslope. Two operators are necessary to
hold the poles, and a third is required to trace the line on the ground with a hoe.
2. One operator ("A") remains stationary holding one pole, while the other, ("B") moves up and down
the slope with the other pole until the level of water in each tube matches the "level" mark. The
two points are now on the contour.
3. The person with the hoe marks the ground between the poles.
4. Operator "A" now picks up his/her pole and moves to the other side of "B" who remains
stationary. It is now "A’s" turn to find the correct spot.
5. This procedure is carried on until the end of the field is reached. The distance to the next contour
line is paced out, and surveying continues.
6. The true contour can now be "cleared" by eye to make ploughing or excavation easier.

Important Points to Remember:

Work while it is cool - heat causes the tubes to stretch;
Mark the levels again if the water spills;
Make sure the poles are held vertically;
Don't put the poles in hollows or on lumps in the field;

C. A-FRAME

a) Definition
A-frames are a cheap and easy to make tool. They can be made from readily available materials and
are easy to use. An A-frame consists of three pieces of wood, fixed together in the shape of a capital
letter "A". The A-frame is held upright, and a weight on a string hangs down from the top of the "A" to
act as a plumb-line. If the A-frame is on perfectly level ground, the string crosses the horizontal bar of
the "A" at a certain point. This point is marked during calibration.

To use the A-frame, it is "walked" across the slope, making sure that the two legs are level each time
by checking if the string crosses the horizontal bar at the calibrated point (notch). If not, the forward
leg is moved until the string shows the frame is level. The positions of the legs on the ground are
marked with pegs, and then the frame is pivoted around to mark a new point on the slope.
b) Requirements
 Two straight wooden poles (1.5-2 m long), and one straight pole (1-1.5 m long).
 String, hammer, nails, pencil and notcher.
 A round stone.

c) Procedures in using A-frame

Step 1: Making the A-frame
1. Use the poles and nails to make a frame in the shape of an "A" (Picture 1).

2. Tie one end of the string to the top of the "A".

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3. Tie the stone to the other end of the string, so it hangs down just below the horizontal crossbar of
the "A".

Calibrating the A-frame

4. Stand the A-frame upright on reasonably level ground. Mark on the ground where the two legs
stand.
5. Hold the A-frame still, and use the pencil to mark lightly on the crossbar where the string crosses it
(Picture 2).

6. Turn the A-frame round, so that each leg stands exactly where the other had stood.
7. Make a second light mark on the crossbar where the string crosses it.
8. The two marks on the crossbar should be fairly close together. Halfway between them shows
where the string would cross if the A-frame was standing on exactly level ground. Make a heavy
pencil mark or notch the bar with a knife at this point (Picture 3).

Step 2: Locate the contour lines using the A-Frame

1. Choose a place on the slope to begin. Stand the A-frame up and mark where the first leg stands
with a peg or large stone.
2. Keeping the A-frame upright, and without moving the first leg, swing the second leg up or down
the slope until the string crosses the crossbar exactly at the heavy pencil mark (Picture 4).

3. Mark where the second leg stands with another peg or stone.

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4. Keeping the second leg in the same place, lift the first leg up and pivot it around. Move it up and
down the slope until you find the place where the string crosses the crossbar at the heavy pencil
mark.
5. Mark where the first leg is now standing with another peg or stone.
6. Continue in this manner to the end of the field.
7. The line of pegs or stones will mark a contour line: they will all be at the same height on the slope.
The pegs are usually not in a straight line. If necessary, make a smooth curve by moving them a
little up or down.
8. To mark another contour line, move up or down the slope a certain distance - usually about 20 m
(20 paces) on a gentle slope, or a drop of 1.5 m on steeper slopes. Repeat the process from Step
9 above onwards.

Step 3: Prepare the contour lines:

After finding and marking the contour lines, prepare them until ready for planting. The width of each
area to be prepared should be one meter. The stakes will serve as guide during ploughing.

Step 4: Plant seeds of nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs

On each prepared contour line, two furrows are laid out. Plant two to three seeds per hill at a distance
of about 0.6cm. Cover the seeds firmly with soil. When fully grown, the hedgerows bank the soil and
serve as source of fertilizer. Examples of hedgerow species are desmodium (Desmodium sp.) and
leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala). (Source: [Link]

D. MEASURING SLOPE GRADIENTS

a) Definition
Slope gradient is the degree of inclination or steepness of the land feature. Slope gradient is also
defined as the change in vertical distance or elevation over a given horizontal distance, or the change
in horizontal distance over a given vertical distance; it is the vertical angle made by the sloping line
and a horizontal line. Slope is measured either in percentage of length (%) or in degree.

(Source: [Link]

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 (Source: CBPWD Guideline, 2005)

E. MEASURING VERTICAL INTERVALS WITH THE LINE LEVEL

b) Materials
The following items are needed:
• Water-level
• Thin plastic rope, 11 m long
• 2 wooden poles, 2 m long, marked every 10 cm
• Meter-band or meter-stick
• Short poles for marking the ground
 On slopes of less than 15% gradients (see (c) under of measuring slope gradient above), the
vertical interval is 1 meter.
 On slopes of more than 15% gradients, the vertical interval is two and half times the soil depth.

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Examples:

(Source: CBPWD Guideline, 2005)

F. HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (HD) OR SPACING

Definition:
The horizontal distance (HD) is defined as the horizontal difference in height between the centre
lines of two terraces. Spacing is the distance between two consecutive physical structures.
In topographical surveys, you measure distances along straight lines. These lines either join two
fixed points or run in one direction starting from one fixed point. They are plotted in the field with pegs,
pillars or ranging poles.
Horizontal Distance can be calculated based on the following formula:

HD = (VI)/land slope (%)

Where, HD = indicates the horizontal distance of the bund (meters)
VI = vertical interval (meters)
S = land slope (%)

Beside the mathematical calculation of spacing, the spacing for physical structures are determined by
several factors such as run-off from the upper site, agricultural activities, soil infiltration, permeability

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and rainfall, farmers demand, the integration/harmonization of different development with physical
measures.
Moreover, the relationship between horizontal distance and vertical intervals can be indicated by the
following formula.
HD = VI*100/S, while VI = S/100*HD (meters)
Example: If S, 50% and HD is 2.5 m, find the VI
VI = S/100*HD
VI = 50/100*2.5m
VI = 1.25m

G. MARKING GRADED LINES WITH THE LINE LEVEL

b) Materials:
The following items are needed:
• Water-level
• Thin plastic rope, 11 m long and about 2 mm in diameter
• 2 wooden poles, 2 m long, marked every 10 cm
• Meter-band or meter-stick
• Short poles for marking the ground

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 (Source: CBPWD Guideline, 2005)

H. HOW TO IDENTIFY THE TEXTURE OF A SOIL

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(Source: CBPWD Guideline, 2005)

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 3. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON SLOPES
a) Concept of the degree of slope
Degree is the measurement unit for an angle between two straight lines diverging from a common
point. Thus, angle of the slope is the angle between the slope line (hypotenuse) and the horizontal
distance (base line) indicated as follows.

Angle of slope

The slope of a line is therefore expressed in various ways:

 As a percentage, or the number of metres of change in elevation over a horizontal distance

of 100 m. This may be written in two ways, either as a percent (%) or as a decimal value, in
hundredths.

 In degrees, as the measurement of the vertical angle made by the slope and the horizontal
plane.

Remember here that:

 degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes (60'), each minute equalling 60 seconds (60");
 a right angle equals 90º, and therefore a slope is always measured between 0º (horizontal)
and 90º (vertical) as shown below.

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From soil and water conservation point of view, as we levelled the land we changed its landscape to a
straight line for which the angle of slope will be 0 degree to reduce the run-off. On the contrary,
keeping the vertical line constant and reducing the base line to its zero level will end up with the
formation of a perpendicular line with an angle of 90 degrees. At this stage, it is impossible to have a
slope of 90 degrees and/or above. When the slope is 90 degree, it is called vertical. Normally no
natural land has 90 degree slopes.

Converting percentage of a slope into degrees, or degrees into percentage

 Depending on the instrument you are using to measure a slope directly, you may sometimes
have to convert the percentage of the slope into degrees, or the degrees into percentage. For
help with such a conversion, you should use the following table (Table 1).

Note: from the table you can see that:

 1 degree is about 1.75 percent;
 1 percent is about 0°35';
 A 45° slope = a 100 percent slope.

Table1. Conversion of slope units

From Percent into degrees From degrees into Percent
Degrees/ Degrees/min/s Percent Degrees/min/s Percent
Percent
min/s 0.25(15') 0.44 11 19.44
0.5 0°17'10'' 0.50(30') 0.87 12 21.26
1 0°35' 0.75(45') 1.31 13 23.09
2 1°08'40'' 1 1.75 14 24.93
5 2°51'40'' 2 3.49 15 26.79
10 5°42'40'' 3 5.24 16 28.68
20 11°18'36'' 4 6.99 17 30.57
30 16°42' 5 8.75 18 32.49
40 21°48'05'' 6 10.51 19 34.43
50 26°33'55'' 7 12.28 20 36.40
100 45° 8 14.05 30 57.74
9 15.84 40 83.91
10 17.63 45 100

Remember: 60 min = 1 degree and 60 s = 1 min

Examples:
 A slope of 17 percent is equal to (10 + 5 + 2) percent, which is equivalent to 5°42'40'' +
2°51'40" + 1°08'40" = 8°101'120'' = 8°103' = 9°43';
 A slope of 9º43' is about equal to (9º + 30' + 15'), which is equivalent to 15.84 percent + 0.87
percent + 0.44 percent = 17.15 percent or 17 percent.
(Source: [Link]

b) Steepness and erosion

Steepness is a very important factor in controlling erosion. The steeper the slope of land the higher
the speed (velocity) of the run-off and even the more higher the removal /erodability/ of soil particles
by the erosion force. The relationship between steepness, velocity and erodability is indicated Table2
below.

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Table2. Relationship between steepness, velocity and erodability
No Steepness Speed /velocity/ of run-off Removal of particles
2 4
1 by 2 times 2 = 4 times 2 = 16 times
2 4
2 by 3 times 3 = 9 times 3 = 81 times
2 4
3 by 4 times 4 = 16 times 4 = 256 times

One important point from Table 2 is that the speed and the extent of run-off depend on the degree
and length of slope of the land. The steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of flow of run-off water
will take place. In accordance with the law of the falling bodies, velocity varies on square root of the
vertical drop. If the land slope is increased 4-fold, then the velocity of water flowing on the slope is
2
approximately doubled (4 ). If the velocity of run-off water is doubled (two times), its energy, i.e.
2
erosive power, is increased by 2 , because the erosive power varies as the square root of the velocity.
5
Similarly, the quantity of the material of a given size that can be carried out is increased 2 (32-fold)
6
and the size of the particles that can be transported by pushing or rolling is increased by 2 (64-fold)
of the velocity.

c) Forms of slope
Slope can be categorized into different forms. These are a constant (linear), waxing (convex), waning
(concave) and combined. Erosion on a waxing slope tends to be higher than that of constant; while
along the waning (concave) erosion occurs less than that of constant.

Linear waning (concave) waxing (convex)

The situation at the ground level is more complicated, because in most cases the hillside may show
more than one form of slopes.

d) Slope length
The length of the slope is the total length of a sloping land measured along the slope. Slope length
also can be measured between two points on a slope.
The total length of the slope is determined as a requirement for estimating the number of bunds or
terraces to be made across the slope. If the slope is uniform the plots between bunds and the
terraces will be of uniform size. But if the length of the slope is not uniform then the size of the plots
between bunds and the terraces will vary, which will take place even within the same plot due to
certain factors such as slope percent, soil type and depth and physical nature of the land presence of
roughness or rocks. Therefore, it is impossible to have a straight length of a slope on any land.

Exercises
1. On a hillside/degraded land with 15% slope and 2.5 m vertical interval, hillside terracing is
required to be constructed. Find out its spacing. Please discuss on the real challenges related to
lack of accuracy in identifying and clearly indicating spacing for the construction of physical
structures and its alternative solutions.

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2. Within X Kebele, there is hillside working area mostly with 25% slope and 0.8m soil depth. But
DAs and farmers could agree how to begin and implement contour line measurement. From your
practical point of view, please discuss and proposed:
 How they can identify the 1 contour line?
st

 Describe detail activities and necessary steps to accomplish their task on the 1
st

contour line?
 Farmers may come across huge rock/s while they are working the contour line and if
they ask you for solution, how can you help them?
 Provide alternative advice on how to identify their next contour line to continue with
the same procedure.
3. A group of survey sent for a field work on a hillside/degraded land having all the mix of slope
classes except flat (gently slope, sloping, moderately, steep and very steep) to carry out slope
measurement. The team was a bit confused about how to start its assignment. Discuss and
propose on how you can help this survey group.

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4. METHODS TO CALCULATE PEAK RUN-OFF RATES FOR
CHANNEL DESIGN
In general, before getting into the design of any drainage management structures (cut-off drain,
waterways, graded bunds and broad bed furrows), it is a prerequisite to understand the elements of
hydrology particularly rainfall and runoff and their relationship. This will help to easily understand
and use various alternate methods of runoff estimation for design of cuff drains as well as other
drainage structures.

Rain fall and runoff relationships

When it rains part of the rain never reaches the ground and falls on buildings, trees and other
materials. This is called interception. The rest of the rain fall reaches the ground and soaks in to the
soil. This is called infiltration.
The part of the rainfall which does not infiltrate to the ground but makes its way to Streams, Rivers,
Lakes and Oceans is called Run-off. The run-off/drain needs to be managed to minimize the
erodability of the soil and the maximum productivity of the water. Run –off is affected by many factors
and all can be categorized under two groups: (1) precipitation, and (2) watershed characteristics.

1. Precipitation: involves the following factors.

1.1 Rainfall amount: during high rainfall, the soil pore space is filled with water which results in
decreasing the infiltration rate of the soil.

1.2 Rainfall intensity versus run-off- If the intensity of rainfall increases, the run-off increases
rapidly. There are two method of determining the intensity of rainfall. These are:
i. From the automatic rainfall recording rain gage, and
ii. Measuring the amount of rainfall and recording the time taken.

1.3 Duration of rainfall: longer duration of rainfall produces more runoff than short duration keeping
other factors constant.
1.4 Duration, frequency and distribution: a long duration of low intensity rainfall causes less
erosion compared to short duration of high intensity rainfall. A fairly well distributed rainfall causes
low erosion. A rainfall with high frequency causes more erosion.

2. Watershed characteristics: factors included under this category include:

2.1 Shape of a watershed: a watershed which is long and narrow is likely to have low rate of run-off
than one which is broad and compact. In long and narrow watershed, the tributaries will comparatively
short, numerous and the drainage areas will be small and produce small run-off. On the other hand, in
a broad and compacted watershed, the tributaries will be longer and fewer in number and will drain
larger area and produces high run-off.

2.2 Size of the watershed: on larger watershed the total flood flow will take more time to pass the
outlet while on small watershed. The flood water collects quickly.

2.3 Topography of the watershed: watersheds with steeper slope (rolling or steep slope) produce
more frequent and greater run-off than those which are more level.

2.4 Geology of the watershed: refers to the soil parameters such as texture, depth, structure,
permeability and soil temperature. Sand, gravel, and loam soils have larger part of precipitation and
absorb water rapidly producing fewer run-offs. On the other hand, a clay soil and rocky areas will
absorb water slowly and produce more run-offs. Soil with high organic matter will produce less runoff.
Moreover, deep and high temperature soil is producing relatively less run-off.

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2.5 Vegetation: A watershed with good vegetation cover retards the flow of water over the surface,
increases the percolation opportunity and produces fewer run-offs.

2.6 Surface storage: A watershed containing lakes and swampy areas producing fewer run-offs than
those embracing no such areas.

2.7 Land management: a watershed with contour cultivation, terraces, organic fertilizer and mulching
will produce fewer run-offs than the unterraced with up & down slope cultivation.

Run-off estimation /Run-off rate/

Structures, channels, ditches and other protection works are designed in such a way that they can
carry run-off which occurs with specified return period. Run –off rate is commonly referred to the peak
run-off rate. The peak run-off rate is the maximum expected run-off rate from the maximum rainfall of
a given period of time. Vegetation controls and temporary structures are usually designed for a peak
run-off rate that may be expected to occur once in 10 to 15 years. Permanent structures will be
designed for run-off expected only once in 50 to 100 years. Selection of design for return period is
also called recurrence internal. Considering the peak run-off rate in designing structures is to avoid
risk of designing low or high capacity channels. Low capacity channels would not be required since
they allow overtopping and high capacity channels are not required either because they entail
unnecessary cost.

There are various methods of predicting peak run-off rate. This is needed for channel design. The
main methods are: simple estimation method, Cook’s method, rational method and the run off
coefficient method.

A. Simple estimation method

Run-off equals to Rainfall minus infiltration
The run-off is expressed in terms of the depth which is not convenient to determine the capacity of the
disposal structures. Here, there is a need to multiply the result with the area of the catchments. For
the watershed which has soils with good infiltration capacity, consider that 50% of the rainfall
infiltrates into the soil and the run-off expected in this case is 50% of the rainfall.

B. Cook’s method
It is used to estimate the peak run-off rate for smaller catchments areas (<50ha). This method
requires the assessment of catchment features that are easy to determine/calculate:
• Size (ha)
• Ground cover;
• Soil type and drainage properties
• Ground slope

Design Steps Using Cook’s method to determine peak runoff and channel design
Steps1:
 To estimate the peak runoff using Cook’s method, determining first the role played by
surface conditions (vegetative cover, soil conditions and topography) of the runoff area is
important;
 Determine the runoff area from a map or by field survey;
 Determine the summarized value or characteristic of the surface conditions of the runoff
area using Table 1;
 Using the summarized value and runoff area got, read or interpolate the peak runoff from
Table 2;

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 Table 1: Value of summarized characteristics
Vegetation cover Soil conditions Topography

Forest or thick grass cover Well drained soils e. g. Slope 0-5%

10 Sand 10 5

Scrub or medium grass Moderately pervious soils Slope5-10%

cover 15 e.g. Silt 20 10
Cultivated land 20 Slightly pervious soil Slope10-30%
e.g. loam 25 15
Bare or sparse cover 25 Shallow soils with impeded Slope more
drainage 30 than 30%
20
Clay and rock 40 Mountainous
25

Example 1: Find the summarized characteristics for a land with the following surface conditions. The
land is cultivated having a loam soil on a 35% slope.
Solution: The summarized characteristics for the land would be found as follows:
 For cultivated land the value under the first column of Table 1 (vegetative cover), for a
cultivated land is 20, from the second column of soil conditions (Table 1), you have the value
of 25 for loam soils and from the third column of topography you have a value of 20 for a 35%
slope. Thus, the summarized characteristics = 20 + 25 + 20 = 65.

Table 2: Runoff values in cubic meters per second

Runoff Summarized characteristics of the runoff area
Area
(ha) 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
4 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5
6 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1
8 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7
12 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.8
16 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.7 4.2 5.0
20 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.7 6.1
30 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.3 4.0 4.8 5.7 6.7 7.6 8.8
40 1.1 1.5
50 1.2 1.8

Example 2: Find the runoff to be produced from a catchment with a square runoff area of 20 hectares
with the summarized characteristics calculated in the example 1 above.
Solution: To find the runoff, you have to have two pieces of information: the runoff area (from Table 2
above) and the summarized characteristics (from example 1 above). Thus, runoff area = 20 ha, the
summarized characteristics is [Link] read from Table 2 the value corresponding to the value of 20
for runoff area and the value of 65 for summarized characteristics. Therefore, the reading for the
3
runoff from the Table is 4 m /sec.

Step 2: Find out the value of permissible flow velocity.

 Permissible velocity is the velocity of water allowed to flow in a channel without causing
scour in the channel bed and that does not allow siltation in the channel.

19
  In constructing the drain, the velocity of water flowing in the drain should not exceed the
maximum permissible/allowable velocity for the soil type. In this case erosion will not be
created.
 The ability of water to cause scouring and erosion varies with lining material (earth, grass,
stone or concrete); and for each of these, there is a maximum permissible velocity above
which scouring can occur (see Table 3).
 The maximum permissible/allowable velocity is governed by soil type and degree of
vegetative/grass cover in the channel.

Table 3: Maximum permissible velocity in channels (m/sec) – Hudson 1981

Vegetative/grass cover
Surface material/soil type Good/Medium grass
Bare Very good grass cover
cover
Very light silty sand 0.3 0.75 1.5
Light loose sand 0.5 0.9 1.5
Coarse sand 0.75 1.25 1.7
Sandy soil 0.75 1.5 2.0
Loam .9 1.5 2.1
Firm clay loam 1 1.65 2.3
Stiff clay or stiff gravelly soil 1.5 1.8 2.5
Coarse gravels 1.5 1.8 Unlikely
Shale, hardpan, soft rock, etc. 1.8 2.1 -
Hard cemented conglomerates 2.5 - -

Step 3: Compute the cross-sectional area of the channel.

The cross-sectional area should be able to accommodate the peak runoff rate (Q p) and fulfill the
permissible flow velocity (V) requirement. It is computed by the following equation:
Qp = A × V → V = Qp /A
Where,
3
Qp = Peak discharge (m /s)
V = Maximum permissible velocity (m/s)
2
A = Cross-sectional area of the drain (m )

Step 4: Compute the various dimensions using Table 4 to suit the area of the cross-section obtained
in Step 3. The dimensions of the channel are its depth, bottom width and top width. Geometrical
formulas used to find the size of the channel for parabolic and trapezoidal shapes is shown in figure 2
below.

Example 3: From table 4 below it is given that the channel depth is 0.5m and the gradient is 0.5%.
3
Therefore, the discharge found from the Table is 0.95 m /sec.

20
Table 4: Discharge in cubic meter per second per width
Depth of channel (m) Gradient (%)
1.0 0.5 0.25
0.3 0.6 0.4 0.25
0.4 0.9 0.65 0.45
0.5 1.3 0.95 0.65
0.6 1.8 1.3 0.95
0.7 2.25 1.7 1.2
0.8 2.8 2.15 1.5
0.9 3.4 2.65 1.8
Source: Daniel Danano (1996).

Figure1: Channel cross section, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius and top width formulae

Step 4: Determine estimated channel width.

 The width of the channel expressed in meters for a trapezoidal or parabolic section can be
calculated by dividing the estimated runoff in cubic meter/second (see Table 2) by the value
of the discharge obtained from Table 4 above.

Channel width = Estimated runoff

Discharge of channel
Example: For a 12 ha of land with the following surface condition( cultivated, loam soil on 35% slope
and for the channel slope of 1%,if the velocity is 1.5 m/s & the channel depth is 0.5m). Find the width
of the channel?

Solution:
3
 Peak runoff from table 7= 2.5m /sec
3
 Discharge o the channel from table 8= 1.3 m /sec/m
3
 Width of the channel = 2.5m /sec = 1.9m
3
1.3 m /sec/m

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 C. The rational method

Q = CIA/3.6 (US Soil Conservation Service)

3
Where, Q = Design peak flow rate, m /s
C = Runoff coefficient, (from Table 5 below)
I = Rainfall intensity, in mm/hr for the design period and for a duration equal to the time of
concentration of the watershed.
A = the run off producing area (ha)
Or the following table prepared from the rational method can also be used to determine catchment
peak discharge per hectare depending on the soil type, cover and slope of the area; and then the total
discharge could easily be generated by multiplying with the total area.

Table5. Peak runoff discharge rate (m3/s/ha) based on max. Rainfall intensity of 150mm/hr
(also assume the time of concentration of 30 minute)
3
Soil Type Vegetation Topography Run off coefficient( K Qpm /sec/ha
value)

Sandy loam Woodland Flat (<5% slope) 0.10 0.0417

0.25 0.1042
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.30 0.1250
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Pasture Flat (<5% slope) 0.10 0.0417
0.16 0.0667
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.22 0.0917
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Cultivated Flat (<5% slope) 0.30 0.1250
0.40 0.1667
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.52 0.2167
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Clay and Woodland Flat (<5% slope) 0.30 0.1250
silt loam 0.35 0.1458
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.50 0.2083
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Pasture Flat (<5% slope) 0.30 0.1250
0.36 0.1500
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.42 0.1750
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Cultivated Flat (<5% slope) 0.50 0.2083
0.60 0.2500
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.72 0.3000
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Tight clay Woodland Flat (<5% slope) 0.40 0.1667
0.50 0.2083
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.60 0.2500
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Pasture Flat (<5% slope) 0.40 0.1667
0.55 0.2083
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.60 0.2500
Hilly (10-30% slope)
Cultivated Flat (<5% slope) 0.60 0.2500
0.70 0.2917
Rolling (5-10% slope) 0.82 0.3417
Hilly (10-30% slope)

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Design Steps Using Rational method to determine peak flow and to fix flow depth and bottom

Determination of H and L from the catchment map.

Step 2: Find the corresponding intensity (I) for duration equal to tc for a certain return period, from
the Intensity - duration - frequency curve prepared for the area.

I= P*{2/(1 + Tc)}
Tc= Time of concentration, hr
I= Intensity of rainfall amount, mm/hr
P= Maximum daily rainfall at 30 minute interval ( 85-108mm)

23
As it is shown on the intensity - duration - frequency curve above, the blue dotted arrows show how
to find the intensity for the duration equal to tc. In the sample the return period of 15 years is
considered. It is also possible to utilize the depth - duration - frequency curve. In that case, first the
rainfall depth is obtained and later on the dividing the obtained rainfall depth by the duration (t c)
results in the required intensity value. The Intensity-duration-frequency curve is prepared as follows:
 get a record of rainfall intensity values with the corresponding durations
 select from the record, rainfall amount with similar duration (eg. 5, 10, 15, . ...minutes)
 make a frequency analysis on each set of data (rainfall amounts for 5, 10, 15 ... minutes of
duration).
 collect the rainfall intensity values & duration corresponding to a given . ...frequency.
 repeat the previous step for various frequencies.
 plot the rainfall intensity values versus duration for desired frequencies (1, ...10, 20,... years)
 the resulting plot yields intensity-duration -frequency curves.

Step 3: Select suitable rational runoff coefficient (Kr), having knowledge of the surface cover of the
catchment area. Use the following Table 6.

Table 6: Values of Runoff Coefficient

Runoff Coefficient
Land Use/Cover
Slope (0-5%) Slope (5-10%) Slope (10-30%)
CULTIVATE LAND
Open Sandy loam 0.25-0.30 0.4 0.52
Clay and silt loam 0.5 0.6 0.72
Tight Clay 0.6 0.7 0.82
PASTURES
Dense cover 0.1 0.16 0.22
Medium cover 0.3 0.36 0.42
Open pastures 0.4 0.55 0.6
FOREST/WOODLAND
Dense cover 0.1 0.25 0.3
Medium cover 0.3 0.3 0.5
Scattered 0.4 0.5 0.6

Step 4: Compute Qp using the rational formula.

Qp = Kr x I x C
3.6
The rational formula is one of the most used methods for the determination of peak discharge. It
makes use of the rainfall intensity (I) (mm/hr), rational runoff coefficient (kr), which is different from
2
that of the seasonal runoff coefficient (K), and the area of the catchment (km ). In the formula, the
constant 3.6 appears to take care of the unit conversion.

Step 5: Compute hydraulic radius R, (use Manning’s formula)

S 1/ 2 R 2 / 3
V → S = V *S *R
2 / 3

n
Here the maximum permissible velocity corresponding to the riprap size is used. The bigger the size
of the riprap, the higher will be the permissible velocity and vice versa. The bed slope is estimated
from the damsite map. The Manning’s roughness coefficient is dependent on the channel condition
and discharge (Garg, 1989). Therefore, the value corresponding to specific condition can be looked
from tables.

24
 Step 6: Compute Flow area, A

Step7: Compute wetted perimeter, P.

A
P
R
Step 8: Compute flow depth, d. the solution gives two values.


P  P2  4 A 2 H 2 1  H  
P  P2  4 A 2 H 2 1  H 
d1 

2 2 H 1  H
2

d2 

2 2 H 1  H
2

Step 9: Compute bottom width:two values are computed corresponding to y values.

b1  P  2 y1 H 2  1
b2  P  2 y 2 H2 1
From (y1, b1) & (y2, b2) select the reasonable pairs, i.e. non-negative one.

D. Runoff coefficient method

This method gives a very rough estimate of runoff.
R= KP
Where, k=the runoff coefficient from table 6
P=the rainfall (mm)
R= the runoff depth (mm)

Example: find the runoff from a cultivated land of silt loam soil having a slope of 8%, assuming the
rainfall of 45 mm.

Solution: From Table 6 above the value of K corresponding to silt loam soil and 8% slope is .060. This
means that 60% of the rainfall is runoff.
R = KP = .060 x 45mm = 27mm

25