NPTEL Online Certification Course on

Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure

Module-B: Condition Evaluation and Testing

EL
PT
Week 2: Lecture B.1
Identification of Distresses

N
Swati Maitra
Assistant Professor
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT Kharagpur

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B

Concepts covered

 Types of Evaluation

 Identification of Distresses in Concrete structures

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 2
Types of Evaluation

 Visual Inspection
 Semi destructive Testing
 Nondestructive Testing

EL
 Structural Health Monitoring

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 3
 Evaluation of the Condition of Infrastructure

Visual Inspection

 To recognize the type of serviceability defects

 To identify any signs of material deterioration

EL
 To identify any signs of structural distress and deformation

PT
 To identify any addition / alteration / misuse in structure which may
cause overloading

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting4and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 4
 Evaluation of the Condition of Infrastructure

Visual Inspection

 General Information of the Structure

 Identification of distresses on the Structural System

 Substructure – settlement of columns, walls, floors,

EL
deflections, cracks

PT
 Superstructure – materials, framing system, cracks,

N
deflections, honeycombing, spalling, slenderness,
rusting of exposed steel

 Identification of distresses due to Dampness and Leakage

5 IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 5

 Evaluation of the Condition of Infrastructure

Semi-Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing

 Equipment based evaluation technique

 External evaluation
 One time evaluation

EL
 Condition evaluation by the analysis of test results

PT
 Estimation of quality, strength, extent of corrosion, carbonation etc.

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting6and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 6
 Evaluation of the Condition of Infrastructure

Structural Health Monitoring

 Sensor-based evaluation technique

 Sensors attached/embedded within the structure
 Continuous monitoring of deflection, vibration, strain etc.

EL
 Condition evaluation by analyzing the real time responses obtained from sensors

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting7and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 7
 Identification of Distresses in Concrete structures

Basic Symptoms of Distress

 Cracking  Honeycombing
 Crazing  Buckling

EL
 Spalling  Seepage

PT
 Disintegration  Delamination
 Scaling  Corrosion

N
 Dusting  Erosion – Abrasion and Cavitation
 Pop out

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 8

 Cracking in Concrete
Type of Cracks

Before Hardening After Hardening

Plastic Early Freezing Physical Structural

Early Thermal Chemical
Movement

Overload Improper

EL
Alkali Seasonal Temperature Sulphate Design
Shrinkage Temperature Attack
aggregate Gradient
reaction Changes Accident
Form Fatigue
Earthquake

PT
Movement
Settlement Drying Corrosion of
Shrinkage Expansion Curling Steel Excessive Creep
Movement

N
Subgrade
Movement
Restrained Carbonation
Shrinkage Contraction Contraction

Late Jointing
Freeze - Thaw Acid attack

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 9

 Cracking in concrete

Types of Cracks

 Structural Crack and Non-structural Crack

 Active Crack and Dormant Crack

EL
 Isolated Crack and Pattern Crack

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 10
 Structural Crack

 Structural cracks result from incorrect design, overloading,

foundation settlement, faulty construction practices,
earthquake etc.

 These cracks can be horizontal, vertical, diagonal, or may

EL
even appear like a staircase

PT
 Structural cracks may appear in the slabs, beams, columns,
[Link]
Cracks-in-Concrete_ep_50.html

N
joints or in foundation. It often extends to the upper floors of
the buildings

 Structural cracks may endanger the safety of a building and

their components
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 11
 Structural Crack

EL
PT
Flexural Crack on a beam tested in Shear Cracks on a longitudinal girder
laboratory

N
Shear Crack on a slab tested in laboratory

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 12

Structural Crack

 In a flexural member, an inclined crack, caused by shear

stress, usually at approximately 45 degrees to the axis

EL
Diagonal Crack

PT
N
Flexural Cracks on a
longitudinal girder

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 13

 Structural Crack

Transverse crack in concrete

pavement due to change in
temperature

EL
Corner Crack in concrete pavement

PT
ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual
Transverse Crack in concrete Inspection of Concrete in Service

pavement

N
[Link]
[Link]

Longitudinal crack due to large

Longitudinal Crack in concrete
joint spacing pavement
[Link]
structure/pavements/ltpp/16073/[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 14

Non-structural Crack

EL
PT
N
Various non-structural cracks in concrete structure

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 15

 Active and Dormant Cracks

 Active cracks in concrete are live cracks which expand

in length, width, and depth over time

 These cracks are formed due to overloading and

thermal expansion, weathering effects like freeze-thaw

EL
PT
[Link]
active-cracks-in-concrete

N
 Dormant cracks are those cracks in concrete which
once occurred does not propagate or extend anymore
and becomes dormant, e.g. shrinkage cracks

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 16

 Isolated Crack

 Fine crack < 1 mm;

 Medium crack 1 – 2 mm;
 Wide crack > 2 mm

EL
PT
Isolated crack

Cracks of varying widths

N
ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of Concrete in Service

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 17

Pattern Crack

Crack pattern
 Cracking in the form of a repeated sequence

 Resulting from a decrease in volume of the material

near the surface, or an increase in volume of the

EL
material below the surface, or both

PT
Map cracking on a concrete wall

 Craze cracks, D-cracks, Diagonal cracks, Hairline

N
cracks, Longitudinal cracks, Transverse cracks,
Corner cracks, Map cracking, Plastic shrinkage
cracking, Random cracks

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 18

 Distresses in concrete

 Fine random cracks or fissures on a surface of concrete,

cement paste, mortar, or plaster

EL
Crazing

PT
Portland Cement Association (2002). Types and ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of
Causes of Concrete Deterioration Concrete in Service

N
 A series of cracks in concrete near and
roughly parallel to joints and edges
D-cracking in a concrete
pavement

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 19

 Distresses in concrete

 Cracking that occurs in the

surface of fresh concrete
soon after it is placed and
while it is still plastic

EL
Plastic shrinkage cracks

PT
spalling
ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual
Inspection of Concrete in Service

N
 A fragment, usually in the shape
of a flake, detached from a
concrete member

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 20

 Distresses in concrete

 Reduction into small fragments and

subsequently into particles

EL
PT
Surface Disintegration

N
Cracking and Spalling

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 21

 Distresses in concrete

 The development of a powdered material

at the surface of hardened concrete

EL
Concrete Dusting

PT
Honeycombing
 Voids left in concrete due to failure of

N
the mortar to effectively fill the spaces
among coarse aggregate particles

Honeycombing
ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of Concrete in Service

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 22

 Distresses in concrete

 Irregular raising of a thin layer at the surface of mortar or concrete

during or soon after completion of the finishing operation; bulging of
the finish plaster coat

EL
Blistering

PT
N
 A process in which thin flakes of mortar are
broken away from a concrete surface
Peeling

ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of Concrete in Service

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 23

 Distresses in concrete

 Local flaking or peeling away of

the near surface portion of
hardened concrete or mortar

EL
Scaling

PT
 Breaking away of small portions of a

N
concrete surface due to localized
internal pressure that leaves a shallow,
typical conical, depression with a
broken coarse aggregate at the bottom Pop out
ACI 201.1R-08 Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of
Concrete in Service

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 24

 Distresses in concrete

 A separation along a
plane parallel to a
surface or parallel to
reinforcement

EL
 Seepage due to

PT
Seepage
leakage of water

Delamination of concrete due to corrosion

N
in reinforcement

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 25

Summary

 Types of Evaluation

 Identification of Distresses in Concrete structures

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 26
 THANK YOU

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 27
 NPTEL Online Certification Course on
Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure

Module-B: Condition Evaluation and Testing

EL
PT
Week 2: Lecture B.2
Semi-destructive testing

N
Swati Maitra
Assistant Professor
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT Kharagpur

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B

Recap of Lecture B.1

 Types of Evaluation

 Identification of Distresses in Concrete structures

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 2
Concepts Covered

 Semi-destructive Testing

 Pull-out test

 Penetration resistance test

EL
 Pull-off test

PT
 Core Sampling and testing

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 3
 Semi-destructive testing

 Equipment based testing

 Intended to assess in-situ concrete strength, but cause some localized damage

EL
 Damage sufficiently small to cause no loss in structural performance

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 4
 Pull-Out Test

 To estimate the in-situ compressive strength of concrete

 Used during construction to estimate the in-place strength of concrete in
deciding several critical activities like formwork removal, application of post-
tensioning etc. can take place

EL
 It measures the force needed to extract an embedded metal insert from a

PT
concrete mass

N
 The ultimate pull-out force is directly correlated with the
compressive strength of concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 5

 Pull-Out Test

Apparatus

A pullout metal insert with enlarged head, bearing ring, loading system and a
load-measuring system
Pull Out

EL
Concrete Bar
Surface Bearing Ring

PT
N
α

Line of
Fracture Embedded Insert

Author
Schematic View of Pull-Out Test

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 6

 Pull-Out Test

Procedure

 Pre-embedded insert is pulled out by a loading ram seated on a bearing ring

concentric with the insert shaft

 Bearing ring transmits the reaction force to the concrete

EL
 As the insert is pulled out with a force F, a conical shaped fragment of concrete

PT
is extracted from the concrete mass

N
 Frustum geometry is controlled by the inner diameter of
bearing ring (D), diameter of insert head (d), and
embedment depth (h)

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 7

 Pull-Out Test

 Apex angle (2α) of the idealized frustum is calculated to determine the frustum
area
−1
𝐷−𝑑
2𝛼 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛
2ℎ

EL
 Pull-out strength is calculated as the ratio of the force to the area of frustum

PT
 Pull-out strength is correlated with the compressive strength of standard cubes

N
and cylinders

 ASTM C 900 – 87

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 8

 Pull-Out Test
Lok – Test F

Bearing area
 Embedding the insert into fresh concrete while casting or by
attaching it to formwork before placing concrete and then pulling 55 mm

out with a jack after hardening (LOK means ‘punch’)

25 mm
 Application - formwork removal, terminating curing etc.

EL
Capo – Test

PT
Author 25 mm
 Without the need of pre-installed insert. Can be post-installed

N
Schematic of Lok-Test & Capo-Test
 Insert fixed into a hole drilled into the hardened concrete and
then pulling out with a jack (Cut and Pull Out Test)
 Application - quality assurance testing, evaluation of fire-
damaged structures, testing in highly congested reinforcement
area etc.
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 9
Pull-Out Test

EL
[Link]
[Link]/equi
pos/equipos-
para-pruebas-no-
destructivas-y-

PT
semidestructivas-
germann-
instruments/prod
ucto/188-capo-
Capo Testing

N
test-lite

Lok Testing

Capo Test setup

[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 10

Pull-Out Test
Lok-Test and Capo-Test
 Correlated with the
Relationship between Pull-Out Force and
compressive strengths
Compressive Strength
of concrete cylinders
(150 mm diameter X

EL
300 mm diameter) or

PT
cubes (150 mm)

N
Lok – Test results Capo – Test results
[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 11

Pull-Out Test

Factors influencing test results

 Concrete condition

 Equipment specifications

EL
PT
N
Relationship between Pull-Out Force and
Compressive Strength of Concrete

[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 12

 Penetration Resistance Test

 Measures the hardness or penetration resistance of concrete

 Based on the principle that for standard test conditions,

penetration is inversely proportional to the compressive
strength of concrete

EL
 Penetration is measured over a certain depth, not just at the

PT
Penetration testing on
surface concrete surface

N
 Depth of penetration is correlated with Compressive Strength
of Concrete

 Two types - Probe Penetration and Pin Penetration

 ASTM C 803-90
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 13
 Probe Penetration Test

Apparatus

 Powder-actuated Gun or Driver, loaded cartridges, for firing probes into concrete
 Probe, of hardened alloy steel with a blunt conical nose
 Length-measuring device, for measuring the exposed length of the probe

EL
PT
N
Windsor Probe Penetration test set-up Probe Penetration testing on concrete
[Link] [Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 14

 Probe Penetration Test
 Probes are inserted by the gun driver
and the exposed probe lengths are
measured, which depends on the
penetration resistance of concrete

EL
 Correlated with the compressive
strengths of concrete cylinders (150 mm

PT
diameter X 300 mm diameter) or cubes

N
(150 mm)

Relationship between exposed probe length and compressive strength

Malhotra, V.M. and Painter, K.P., Evaluation of the Windsor Probe Test for Estimating Compressive
strength of Concrete, Mines Branch Investigation Rep. IR 71-50, Ottawa, Canada, 1971

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 15

 Pin Penetration Test
Apparatus
 A device that grips a pin of length 30.5 mm, diameter 3.56 mm with an angle tip of
22.5°. Pin is held within a shaft, encased within the main body of the tester

 Pin is driven into the concrete by a spring, which is mechanically compressed

EL
when the device is prepared for a test

PT
N
Pin Penetration test set-up Pin Penetration testing on concrete
[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 16

 Pin Penetration Test

 Pin is driven into the concrete and after

removal, a small hole is created
 Penetration depth is measured
 Correlated with the compressive
strengths of concrete cylinders (150 mm

EL
diameter X 300 mm diameter) or cubes

PT
(150 mm)

Relationship between pin penetration and compressive strength of concrete

N
Nasser, K.W. and Al-Manaseer, A., New non-destructive test for removal of concrete forms, Concr.
Int. ACI, 9(1), 41, 1987

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 17

 Pull-off Test

 To measure the in-situ tensile strength of concrete by applying a direct tensile

force

 Also useful for measuring bonding of surface repairs

 Based on the concept that the tensile force required to pull a metal disc from the

EL
surface to which it is attached, is directly related to the compressive strength of

PT
concrete

N
 ASTM C1583

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 18

 Pull-off Test
Loading Conditions Author

50 mm Diameter Steel
or Aluminium Disk
 Metal disc is attached directly on the
concrete surface. With application of load, Epoxy Resin
Adhesive
only the surface concrete, close to the face
of the disk, is stressed. Results indicate the

EL
strength of concrete near the surface

PT
Typical Failure Surface Partial Core

N
Schematic of Pull-off test—surface and partially cored

 For carbonated surface, metal disc is attached on the

surface of partial coring of certain depth. With application
of load, concrete up to the depth of coring is stressed.
Results indicate strength of concrete up to the core depth

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 19

 Pull-off Test

Apparatus

 Cylindrical metal blocks

 Bearing ring or tripod, that can be placed on the

concrete surface concentric with the axis of the block

EL
 Loading system, capable of applying a force to the

PT
‘Limpet’ equipment
block normal to the concrete surface through the [Link]
[Link]

N
bearing ring or tripod

 Load measuring device capable of recording the

maximum load after the force is released

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 20

 Pull-off Test

Procedure

 The disk is glued to the concrete surface with an epoxy resin and jacked off
to measure the force necessary to pull a piece of concrete away from the
surface. This causes tensile failure of the concrete

EL
 If surface carbonation or skin effects are present, partial coring up to a certain

PT
depth can be made

N
 Pull off tensile strength is correlated with compressive
strength of concrete
 The results cannot be directly equated to the tensile
strength of concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 21

 Pull-off Test

 Correlated with the

compressive strengths of
concrete cylinders (150
mm diameter X 300 mm

EL
diameter) or cubes (150
mm)

PT
Long, A.E., Montgomery, F.R. and
Cleland, D. Assessment of concrete
strength and durability on site. Proc.
Struct. Faults and Repair 87,
Engineering Technics Press,
N
Typical relationship between pull-off tensile
strength and cube compressive strength of
Edinburgh, 1987, pp. 61–73.
concrete with natural aggregate

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 22

 Core Sampling and Testing

 Extraction of cylindrical cores from existing structures and testing in the laboratory

 To determine the in-situ Compressive strength of existing concrete

 To carry out Chemical analysis and Petrographic examination of concrete

EL
 To determine the density, thicknesses of layers and their bonding characteristics

PT
 To detect the segregation and honeycombing within the material

N
 Equipment - Core Cutter with diamond-impregnated bit
 IS: 516 part 4 : (2018)

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 23

 Core Sampling and Testing

EL
PT
Core Samples

N
Extraction of Concrete Core using Core cutter
[Link]
[Link]

Author Core cutter

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 24

 Core Sampling and Testing

 Core cutter should be rigidly placed and drilled perpendicular to the surface

 Cores should preferably be taken from the middle portion and not near the edges,
corners and joints

 Drilling through reinforcement should be avoided

EL
 Should not be taken at locations with micro-cracks

PT
 Preferably from locations of compression zone

N
 Results may be influenced by the core size, slenderness
ratio, location of core extraction, reinforcement, curing
condition etc.

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 25

 Core Sampling and Testing

 Core diameter generally ranging from 100 mm to 150 mm

(for nominal maximum aggregate size up to 20 mm)

 Preferred Core length /diameter (l/d) = 2

If (l/d) < 2, a correction factor is used

EL
 Core surfaces must be grinded to make the surfaces flat and parallel for testing

PT
(tolerance +/- 0.05 mm)

N
 Cores need to be capped with calcium aluminate cement
mortar or sulphur sand mixture before testing

 Cores should be tested in saturated condition

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 26

 Core Sampling and Testing

Compression Test
 Rate of load application
~ 14 N/mm2/min

 Compressive strength (N/mm2)

EL
= Maximum load / cross

PT
sectional area

N
Compression Testing Machine
 Failure pattern to be noted

Placing of Core in
Compression Testing Machine
Delhi Metro Rail Coporation Ltd. Core test for hardened concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 27

 Core Sampling and Testing

Correction Factor (F) based on core diameter for cylinder Compressive strength

Diameter of Core (mm) Correction factor (F)

75 ± 5 1.03
< 70 1.06

EL
Correction Factor (F) based on l/d ratio for cylinder Compressive strength

PT
N
F = 0.11 (l/d) + 0.78

Equivalent cube strength of the concrete can be determined

by multiplying the corrected cylinder strength by 5/4
IS: 516 part 4 (2018)

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 28

 Core Sampling and Testing

Assessment of failure
pattern is important in
core testing

EL
PT
Typical cores after testing
Delhi Metro Rail Coporation Ltd. Core test for hardened concrete

Unsatisfactory failure of Cores N

Satisfactory failure of Cores

IS: 516 part 4 (2018) IS: 516 part 4 (2018)

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 29

Summary

Semi-destructive Testing

 Pull-out test

 Penetration Resistance test

EL
 Pull-off test

PT
 Core sampling and testing

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 30
 THANK YOU

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 31
 NPTEL Online Certification Course on
Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure

Module-B: Condition Evaluation and Testing

EL
PT
Week 2: Lecture B.3
Non-destructive tests

N
Swati Maitra
Assistant Professor
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT Kharagpur

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B

Recap of Lecture B.2

Semi-destructive Testing

 Pull-out test

 Penetration resistance test

EL
 Pull-off test

PT
 Core Sampling and Testing

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 2
Concepts Covered

Non-Destructive Testing

 Rebound Hammer Test

EL
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 3
 Non-Destructive Testing

 In-situ tests conducted on existing structures using specialized equipment

 To determine the property, condition and durability of the material / structure

without damaging it

 Results are correlated with the results of other destructive / non-destructive tests

EL
 Results may be affected by environmental conditions

PT
N
 Construction details and building components may affect the results

 Generally, more than one test method is required to estimate /

assess the quality of material and condition of structure

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 4

 Rebound Hammer Test

 To measure the hardness of concrete surface by

Rebound Principle in laboratory and in field

 To determine the compressive strength of existing

concrete by correlating with its surface hardness

EL
 Instrument (Schmidt, 1948) – Outer body, Plunger,

PT
Spring-driven Steel Hammer mass of 1.8 kg Schmidt Rebound Hammer
Source: Author

N
Abrasive stone (silicon carbide)

 Inexpensive, simple and quick method

 IS: 516 (Part 5/Sec 4) : 2020

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 5

 Rebound Hammer Test
Test Procedure
 Plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the concrete surface. After
releasing, the hammer strikes the plunger and the spring controlled mass rebounds

 Based on the rebound distance, a rebound number is produced

EL
 Rebound is read on a linear scale marked from 10 to 100 or on an electronic display

PT
and is termed as Rebound Number or Rebound Index

N
 Extent of rebound depends upon surface hardness of concrete

 Harder surface gives higher rebound

 Concrete with high compressive strength generally has
harder surface
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 6
 Rebound Hammer Test

Hammer Plunger pressed Hammer Hammer

ready for test against the surface released rebounds

EL
PT
Testing with Rebound Hammer
[Link]

N
[Link] Working Principle of Rebound Hammer

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 7

 Rebound Hammer Test

Test Considerations

 Surface should be clean, smooth and dry. To be rubbed off with the abrasive stone

 Point of impact should be sufficiently away from edges or shape discontinuity

EL
 Rebound hammer should be held firmly at right angles to the surface of concrete

PT
 Should be conducted all around the points of observation on the accessible faces

N
 At least 5/6 reading to be taken and the average of these
readings is to be considered as the rebound number for
the point of observation

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 8

 Rebound Hammer Test

 Correlation between Rebound Number and

Compressive Strength

 Determined by comparing with the compressive

strength of concrete cubes (150 mm) or

EL
cylindrical cores (150 mm diameter × 300 mm
height) of the same material to be tested with

PT
Relationships between Compressive
Rebound Hammer Strength and Rebound Number

N
[Link]
raset.2019.5526

 Conducted horizontally or vertically - upward or

downward

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 9

 Rebound Hammer Test
Factors influencing test results
 Smoothness of surface under test
 Surface and internal moisture content of concrete
 Curing and age of concrete

EL
 Size, shape and rigidity of the specimen
 Type of aggregate

PT
 Type of cement

N
 Carbonation of concrete surface
 Vertical distance from the bottom of concrete placement
 Surface conditions used in development of correlation
between compressive strength and rebound number

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 10

 Rebound Hammer Test

Some important points

 Open texture concrete typical of masonry blocks, honeycombed concrete or no-fines

concrete are unsuitable for this test
 A wet surface will give rise to underestimation of the strength of concrete calibrated

EL
under dry conditions (nearly 20% lower)

PT
 Rebound indices are indicative of compressive strength of

N
concrete to a limited depth from the surface

 If the concrete in a particular member has internal micro-

cracking, flaws or heterogeneity across the cross-section,
rebound hammer indices will not indicate the same

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 11

 Rebound Hammer Test

Some important points

 Should not be considered as a substitute of standard compression test

 Applicable to assess the in-place uniformity of concrete

 To delineate the regions in a structure of poor quality or deteriorated concrete

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 12
 Rebound Hammer Test

EL
PT
Testing with Rebound Hammer
N
Source: Author

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 13

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test

 Qualitative assessment of strength of concrete

 To assess the condition of structural members on the

basis of recorded ultrasonic velocity
 To evaluate internal cracks, voids, delamination and

EL
other damages in concrete, mortar, wood, masonry,

PT
ceramic and metals UPV Testing on Concrete

N
Source: Author

 To detect the deterioration due to aggressive

chemicals or environmental effects

 To evaluate the severity of deterioration

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 14

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

 Principle of Test - Wave Propagation theory - When the surface of a solid elastic
medium is affected by a dynamic/vibratory load, 3 types of mechanical waves are
created – Compressional waves (longitudinal or P-waves), Shear waves
(transverse or S-waves) and Surface waves (Rayleigh waves)

EL
 Each wave propagates with its characteristics velocities

PT
 Wave velocity depends on the elastic properties and density of the medium

N
 For elastic, homogeneous solid medium, the compressional
wave velocity is expressed as 𝐸(1 − 𝜇)
𝑉=
Where, E = dynamic modulus of elasticity 𝜌(1 + 𝜇)(1 − 2𝜇)
µ = dynamic Poisson’s ratio
ρ = density

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 15

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

 In UPV test, an ultrasonic pulse wave is generated by the transducer held in

contact at a point on the surface of the test object

 After traversing a known path length L within the material, the pulse of vibrations
is converted into an electrical signal by the second transducer held in contact with

EL
the other surface of the member

PT
 Knowing the distance between the two points (L) and the time of travel (T) from

N
that point to another, the velocity (V) of the wave pulse
is determined as V = L / T

 Reflection & refraction occurs when sound waves interact

with interfaces of different acoustic properties

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 16

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Instrument
 A pair of transducers
for pulse generator
and pulse receiver
 Display unit

EL
 Calibration rod

PT
UPV Test Set-up
 Cables Source: Author

N
 Gel

Working Principle of UPV Test [Link]

nf/201819502026

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 17

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Different Types
of Transmission Direct Pulse velocity (V)
Transmission 𝐿
𝑉=
𝑇
L = Path length
Tx = Transmitter

EL
T = Time of travel
Rx = Receiver Semi-Direct

PT
Transmission
L = sqrt (a2 + b2)

N Indirect or Surface
Transmission

Source: Author

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 18

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

 Once the ultrasonic pulse impinges on the surface of material, the maximum
energy is propagated at right angles to the face of transmitting transducer. Thus
best results are obtained for direct transmission or cross probing
 Semi-direct and Indirect or surface probing not as efficient as cross probing

EL
 Signal produced at the receiving transducer has amplitude of only 2-3% of that

PT
produced by cross probing. Test results are influenced by surface layers, which
may have different property from inner materials. Indirect

N
velocity is thus lower than the direct velocity of same concrete
 For surface probing method, pulse velocity may thus be
increased by 0.5 km/sec, for values >=3 km/sec

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 19

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

EL
PT
Direct method Semi-direct method

N
Source: Author Indirect method

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 20

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

 Higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is Pulse Velocity Concrete Quality
good in terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity (Km/sec) (Grading)
> 4.40 Excellent
etc.
3.75 to 4.40 Good
 If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the concrete 3.0 to 3.75 Doubtful

EL
which comes in the way of transmission of the < 3.0 Poor
pulses, the pulse strength is attenuated and it

PT
IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1) : 2018

passes around the discontinuity, thereby making the

N
path length longer. Consequently, lower velocities
are obtained

 IS 516 (Part 5/Sec 1) : 2018

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 21

 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Factors affecting Pulse Velocity

 Contact between the transducer and the concrete

 Path length

 Size and Shape of member

EL
 Moisture content of concrete

PT
N
 Temperature of concrete

 Presence of reinforcing bars

 Stress to which the structure is subjected

 Presence of cracks and voids

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 22
 Rebound Hammer and
UPV testing on a

EL
Concrete Deck Slab from
its bottom

PT
N
Source: Author

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 23

Summary

Non-Destructive Testing

 Rebound Hammer Test

EL
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 24
 THANK YOU

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 25
 NPTEL Online Certification Course on
Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure

Module-B: Condition Evaluation and Testing

EL
PT
Week 2: Lecture B.4
Non-destructive tests

N
(contd.)

Swati Maitra
Assistant Professor
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT Kharagpur

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B

Recap of Lecture B.3

Non-Destructive Testing

 Rebound Hammer Test

EL
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 2
Concepts Covered

Non destructive testing

 Electromagnetic cover measurement

 Half-cell potential measurement

EL
 Resistivity measurement

PT
 Carbonation depth measurement

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 3
 Non-Destructive Testing

 A number of NDT Tests related to corrosion of embedded steel reinforcements

 To detect the corrosion potential, the rate of corrosion and the extent of corrosion
on steel reinforcements

 Tests used in combination for detecting corrosion

EL
PT
 Electromagnetic cover measurement test
Half-cell potential test

N

 Resistivity test
 Carbonation depth measurement test

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 4

 Electromagnetic cover measurement

 Electromagnetic methods commonly used to determine the location of steel

reinforcements and the depth of its cover within concrete
 Based on ferromagnetic principle which is applicable for ferromagnetic materials

 The basic principle is that the presence of steel affects the field of an electromagnet

EL
PT
 Detects a bar by briefly magnetizing it, then registering the magnetic field as it
tapers off

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 5
 Electromagnetic cover measurement
Test Principle
 Test equipment circuitry resembles a simple transformer, in which the test object
acts as a core
 Electrical circuit consists of a primary coil, connected to a power supply for
delivering a low frequency alternating current, a secondary coil which feeds into an

EL
amplifier circuit

PT
 In absence of a test object, the primary coil induces a small voltage in the

N
secondary coil
 In presence of a ferromagnetic object near the coil, a
much higher secondary voltage is induced
 Amplitude of the induced signal is a function of
magnetization characteristics, location and geometry of object
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 6
 Electromagnetic cover measurement

EL
PT
N
Working Principle of
Electromagnetic cover measurement

Malhotra, V. M. and Carino, N. J. (2004).

Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of
Concrete, 2nd Ed., CRC Press, Florida

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 7

 Electromagnetic cover measurement

 Instrument – Cover Meter - Battery-operated device

 Utilizes the eddy current method of magnetic testing

 This method induces éddy

currents to flow around the

EL
circumference of the bar,
producing a magnetic field

PT
Typical simple Covermeter

N
 The head of the device picks
up the magnetic signal

[Link]
[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 8

Electromagnetic cover measurement

EL
PT
N
Detection of reinforcement
and cover depth using
Covermeter

Source: Author

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 9

 Half-cell potential measurement

 Method is used to identify the likelihood of corrosion in steel, its location and extent
 Corrosion potential of reinforcement is measured as a potential difference against a
reference electrode (half-cell)

 The value of the potential difference between steel and the reference electrode

EL
depends upon the corrosion condition of the steel and the type of reference

PT
electrode

N
 Half-cell potentials of steel in concrete can not be measured
directly at the concrete/steel interface due to the presence
of concrete cover

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 10

 Half-cell potential measurement
Test Principle

 When there is active corrosion, the flow of current (ion migration) between the
anodic and cathodic regions is accompanied by an electric potential field
surrounding the corroding bar

EL
 The equipotential lines intersect the surface of concrete

PT
 The potential at any point can be measured relative to a reference half-cell placed

N
on the concrete surface, which functions as an electrolyte

 The risk of corrosion is then related to the measured

potential difference and the portion for likelihood of
corrosion is identified by their high negative potentials

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 11

Half-cell potential measurement

Reference electrode
 Copper – Copper Sulphate electrode (CSE)
 Silver – Silver chloride electrode (SSE)

EL
 Standard Calomel electrode (SCE)

PT
Working principle of Half-Cell
N
Potential Measurement

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 12

 Half-cell potential measurement
Instrument
 Consists of Half Cell, connecting wires, high-impedance Voltmeter (generally>10MΩ)

 Half Cell - a copper bar immersed in a saturated copper sulphate solution

 The positive terminal of the Voltmeter is attached to the reinforcement and the

EL
negative terminal is attached to the half cell

PT
 The half cell makes electrical contact with the concrete by means of a porous plug

N
and a sponge to be moistened with a wetting solution

 If the bars are corroding, the excess electrons in the bar

would tend to flow from the bar to the half cell. A negative
voltage is indicated in the voltmeter

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 13

 Half-cell potential measurement

 Data is acquired at different test points for the display of

equipotential contours

 It is created by locating the test points on a scaled plan

view of the test area. Contours of equal voltages are

EL
generally drawn with an interval not more than 100 mV

PT
 A more negative voltage reading at the surface is Equipotential contours
[Link]

N
interpreted as the embedded bar has more excess
electrons, that is, higher likelihood that the bar is corroding

 ASTM C876

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 14

Half-cell potential measurement

Half Cell Potential

measurement

EL
PT
N
[Link]
.humboldtm
[Link]/blog
/perform-
report-half-
cell-
corrosion-
mapping/

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 15

 Half-cell potential measurement
Risk of corrosion against the potential difference readings
(Copper-Copper sulphate electrode)
Potential difference levels (mv) Chance of rebar being corroded

-350 to -500 95%

-200 to -350 50%

EL
More than -200 5%

PT
N
 Access to reinforcement is necessary for the test
 Concrete surface should be sufficiently moist to complete
the circuit
 Cannot be applicable for epoxy-coated reinforcement or
concrete with coated surfaces
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 16
Half-cell potential measurement

EL
PT
N
Half-Cell Potential Tests on
Concrete deck slab and girder

Source: Author

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 17

 Resistivity measurement

 Useful test to measure the resistivity of concrete in conjunction with Half-Cell

Potential method to assess the corrosion rate/risk

 Half-Cell Potential Method gives an indication of the likelihood of corrosion activity

and is effective in locating regions of corrosion activity, but not the rate of corrosion

EL
 Rate of corrosion depends on (after a bar loses its passivity)

PT
 the availability of oxygen for the cathodic reaction

N
 the electrical resistance of concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 18

 Resistivity measurement

 Electrical resistance of concrete controls the ease

with which ions migrate between anodic and cathodic
sites

 A high resistance path between anodic and cathodic

EL
sites normally associated with a low rate of corrosion

PT
 Resistivity measurements determine the current
Four-probe resistivity equipment
[Link]

N
levels flowing between anodic and cathodic portions,
or the concrete conductivity over the test area

 Electrical resistance depends on the microstructure of

the paste and the moisture content of concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 19

 Resistivity measurement

 Resistivity is numerically equal to the electrical resistance of a unit cube of a

material. Unit of Resistivity - resistance times length (ohm-cm or k-ohm-cm)

 Resistance R of a
conductor of area A

EL
and length L is related

PT
to resistivity ρ as Malhotra, V. M. and Carino, N. J. (2004). Handbook on
Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, 2nd Ed., CRC
Press, Florida

N
𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨

Relationship between concrete

resistivity and corrosion current

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 20

 Resistivity measurement

Test Principle A low frequency alternating electrical current is

passed between the two outer electrodes whilst the
voltage drop between the inner electrodes is
measured. The apparent resistivity is calculated as

EL
2𝜋𝑠𝑉
𝜌=

PT
𝐼

N
Where,
s = electrode spacing
V = voltage drop
Working Principle of Resistivity test I = current
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 21
 Resistivity measurement
 Instrument - Resistivity Meter - Wenner four-probe Resistivity Meter

 Equipment consists of 4 electrodes - 2 outer current probes and 2 inner voltage

probes, placed in a straight line at a spacing of 50 mm

 Spacing of the 4 probes determines the regions of concrete being measured

EL
 A low frequency alternating electrical current is passed between the 2 outer

PT
electrodes while the voltage drop between the inner electrodes is measured

N
 Pre-wetting the concrete surface desirable to have better
electrical contact using water or conductive gel
 Resistivity is influenced by moisture content, salt content,
temperature, water/cement ratio and mix proportions
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 22
Resistivity measurement

EL
PT
Resistivity Meter

N Resistivity test on
concrete girder

Source: Author

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 23

 Carbonation depth measurement

 To determine the depth of concrete affected due to carbonation as a result of

reduction in the level of alkalinity and degradation

 Carbonation of concrete occurs due to ingress of atmospheric CO2 and its reaction
with Ca(OH)2 present in concrete in presence of moisture to produce CaCO3.

EL
Carbonation causes depassivation of reinforcing steel

PT
 Lowering of pH of the surrounding concrete (pH < 9)

N
 Carbonation penetrates the exposed surface of concrete
very slowly

 Phenolphthalein is used as an indicator for the pH of concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 24

 Carbonation depth measurement

Test Procedure
 The 1% phenolphthalein solution is made by dissolving
1 gm of phenolphthalein in 90 cc of ethanol. The solution
is then made up to 100 cc by adding distilled water

EL
 Core is extracted and the phenolphthalein solution is
sprayed on the freshly extracted cores, as pH indicator

PT
Cores after carbonation test
of concrete [Link]

N
concrete-cores_fig2_298034410

 Can be conducted by drilling holes on concrete surface

and by removing the dust
 The depth of uncoloured portion indicates the depth of
carbonation

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 25

 Carbonation depth measurement

 Change in colour of concrete to purple indicates concrete still retains its alkaline
characteristic – no carbonation
 No change in colour
indicates acidic

EL
characteristics with
reduction in pH, i.e.

PT
carbonation taken [Link]

N
place

 Depth measurement
at 4/8 locations and
the average is taken Carbonation depth measurement
[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 26

 Non Destructive Testing
Challenges for NDT Tests

 All NDT methods are Indirect. Correlation to be developed between measured

parameters and material strength/other properties based on destructive test results

 Require specialized equipment - Instruments are expensive

EL
 Require limited manpower but trained manpower for carrying out the tests

PT
 Results are dependent on too many parameters

N
 Interpretation of results is not straight forward and requires
strong judgement

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 27

Summary

Non destructive testing

 Electromagnetic cover measurement

 Half-cell potential measurement

EL
 Resistivity measurement

PT
 Carbonation depth measurement

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 28
 THANK YOU

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 29
 NPTEL Online Certification Course on
Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure

Module-B: Condition Evaluation and Testing

EL
PT
Week 2: Lecture B.5
Other tests

N
Swati Maitra
Assistant Professor
Ranbir and Chitra Gupta School of Infrastructure Design and Management
IIT Kharagpur

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B

Recap of Lecture B.4

Non Destructive Testing

 Electromagnetic cover measurement

 Half-cell potential measurement

EL
 Resistivity measurement

PT
 Carbonation depth measurement

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 2
Concepts Covered

Other tests

 Petrographic Analysis

 Load testing of existing structure

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 3
 Petrographic Analysis

 Petrography is a branch of geology that is applied to rock

and similar materials, concrete and concrete raw
materials. This technique examines and evaluates the
optical properties and microstructural characteristics of
the materials. It is like pathology test for any material

EL
A 20µm thick fluorescence
impregnated thin section in uv-light

PT
 Petrography involves the use of a variety of microscopical [Link]

N
analysis-of-hardened-concrete/

techniques including Stereo Microscopy, Polarizing

Microscopy, Fluorescent Microscopy, Metallurgical
Microscopy and Electron Microscopy for sub-micro
examination

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 4

 Petrographic Analysis of Concrete

 Identification of ingredients used such as types of cement,

aggregates and cement replacement materials
 Estimation of original mix proportion, for example, cement
content, aggregates content and water cement ratio

EL
Plane Polarized Light
 Determination of air void content which includes entrained micrograph of alkali silica

PT
air and entrapped air
reaction (ASR) induced cracking

N
[Link]

 Investigation of chemical and durability performance, like

chemical attack, alkali silica reaction, aggregate or cement
paste shrinkage, frost attack, carbonation, leaching,
detection of unsound contaminants, fire damage

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 5

 Petrographic Equipment
Petrographic Polarising Microscope
Low-power Stereo
 Used for low to
Microscope
higher magnification
examination of thin
 To determine the air
sections and small
void content including

EL
particles of rock, soil,
entrained air and
concrete, cement

PT
grout etc. entrapped air

N
 For taking photo-
micrographs on the
order of fractions of a
millimeter
Concrete Petrography: A
handbook of investigative
techniques, second edition by [Link]
Alan B. Poole and Ian Sims content/uploads/2018/02/[Link]?w=600&ssl=1

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 6

 Petrographic Equipment

Reflected Light Microscope

 Used for top-light illumination to examine

polished specimens of rocks, concrete, cement
grout etc.

EL
 May also be used to identify opaque minerals

PT
N
[Link]
resource/primer/java/microscopy/reflected/

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 7

 Petrographic Equipment

X-Ray Diffractometry (XRD)

 X-ray bombardment of a powder sample and
then measuring the intensities and scattering
angles of the X-rays that leave the material
 Identify the crystalline phases present in a

EL
material and thereby reveal chemical
composition information XRD analysis

PT
N
[Link]
ray-diffractometer-xrd-agilent-supernova/

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 8

 Petrographic Equipment

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

 Produces images with very high magnifications

 Used to analyze both crystalline and non-

crystalline materials

EL
 Can provide detailed images of very small
particles on a submicron scale and provide their

PT
elemental compositions

[Link]
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 9
 Specimen for Petrographic Analysis
Specification of Specimen
 The thickness of the thin sections: 25 to 30 µm
(geological/ petrological/ mineralogical examination of rocks)

EL
Variable Speed Grinder Polisher

PT
N
Thin Sectioning System

Core Cutter & Thin Section Sampling Preparation of Cast Thin Section of concrete

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 10

 Specimen for Petrographic Analysis

Information need to be provided for each specimen

 Location of the core taken

 Orientation of the core
 Age of the structure

EL
 Reasons and objectives of the examination including the observed

PT
symptoms of deterioration of the structure

N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 11
Petrographic Analysis
Investigation of Durability of Concrete

 External Sulfate attack

 Delayed Ettringite formation

Alkali Silica reaction

EL


PT
 Acid attack

N
 Carbonation induced Corrosion

 Chloride induced Corrosion

 Shrinkage

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 12

 Investigation of Deterioration in Concrete Structure

Sulfate Attack
SEM image analysis
Crack
 Parallel surface cracks
 Presence of gypsum and ettringite

EL
 Depletion of calcium hydroxide
 Decalcification of calcium silicate

PT
hydrates SEM micrograph of ettringite needles
demonstrating porous volume

N
[Link]

Crack
61/(ASCE)MT.1943-
5533.0000255

Scanning Electron Microscope

image of sulfate attack in
concrete
[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 13

 Investigation of Deterioration of Concrete

Internal Sulphate Attack Texture of surface attacked

by sodium sulphate: the
Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) zone of sulphate attack
contains an extensive
 Presence of gaps completely encircling the system of fine cracks that
aggregates form an exfoliation texture;
many of the cracks are filled
 Wider gaps around large aggregates than with crystals of gypsum

EL
Concrete Petrography: A handbook of
around small aggregates investigative techniques, second edition by Alan
B. Poole and Ian Sims

PT
 Absence of an external sulphate source
 Documentation of the use of high

N
temperature during the curing phase, or
mass concrete pours

Formation of gaps
between aggregates
and cement paste
[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 14

 Investigation of Deterioration of Concrete

Alkali Silica Reaction

Optical Microscopy and SEM/EDS analysis

 Presence of alkali silica reactive aggregates

 Nature of the crack pattern

EL
Quartzite fragment damaged by several cracks partly inlayed by
 Presence of alkali silica gel in the cracks

PT
alkali–silica gel (Q – quartzite rock fragment, MQ – monomineral
quartz fragment, Cr – cracks, CP – cement paste, ASG – alkali–silica
 Presence of calcium hydroxide depleted paste gel partly inlaying a crack

N
Optical microscope,
non-polarised (left) and
polarised light (right))

[Link]

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 15

 Investigation of Deterioration of Concrete

Carbonation

EL
PT
Concrete Petrography: A handbook of investigative
techniques, second edition by Alan B. Poole and Ian Sims

N
(a) (b)
Thin-section views showing the deeper penetration of carbonation along cracks
and other discontinuities in two concrete samples
(a) buff-coloured carbonation, (b) crack filled with yellow-dyed resin, bordered
by orange-brown carbonation

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 16

 Investigation of Deterioration of Concrete

Shrinkage Cracks
Fluorescent
Microscopy
image

EL
PT
N
(a) (b)
Examples of aggregate shrinkage in concrete in thin sections (peripheral cracks
infilled with yellow-dyed impregnating resin)
(a) concrete from Puerto Rico and (b) concrete from Northern Ireland

Concrete Petrography: A handbook of investigative techniques, second edition by

Alan B. Poole and Ian Sims

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 17

 Investigation of Deterioration of Concrete

Chloride Induced Corrosion

SEM image analysis

 Incorporation of chloride into SEM micrograph showing the

incorporation of chlorides into
passivating film of steel the passive film

EL
reinforcement

PT
 Debonding of passivating film

N
Concrete Petrography: A handbook of investigative techniques, second edition by
Alan B. Poole and Ian Sims

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 18

 Load testing of structure

 As the built environment is aging, assessment of existing structures becomes

increasingly important
 Load testing – an effective means of evaluating the structural response non-
destructively

EL
Purpose of load testing of structure

PT
 When the integrity of a structure is in question
 If the structure will be used for a new function with higher loading

N
 After exposure of the structure to an extreme load
 To evaluate the structure after repair and retrofitting
 To calibrate analytical models of existing structure by
obtaining field data of load testing
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 19
 Load testing of structure

Test Load Magnitude (TLM) (ACI 437.2-13)

Includes dead load, live load, snow load and rain load with their combinations
using load factors. Structure is loaded with Test Load Magnitude (TLM)
𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 1.3 ( 𝐷𝑤 + 𝐷𝑠 )
𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 1.0𝐷𝑤 + 1.1𝐷𝑠 + 1.6𝐿 + 0.5 ( 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 )

EL
𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 1.0𝐷𝑤 + 1.1𝐷𝑠 + 1.6 ( 𝐿𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 ) + 1.0𝐿

PT
Dw - Load due to self-weight of the concrete structural system
Ds - Superimposed dead load including construction materials, fixed service equipment etc.

N
L - Live load due to use and occupancy of the building
Lr - Roof live load produced during maintenance by workers, equipment,
materials or during the life of structure by moveable objects such as
planters and people
S - Snow load
R - Rain load

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 20

 Load testing of structure

Monotonic Load Testing and Cyclic Load Testing

 Structure is loaded with TLM monotonically or cyclically and then unloaded

 Load is applied using hydraulic jack/ stacking of mass/ mobile test vehicles/ static
loads on vehicles etc.

EL
 Response of the structure like deflection, strain, rotation, crack width etc.

PT
during/after the test is monitored and recorded continuously or intermittently using

N
dial gauges, LVDTs, deflectometers, strain gauges, crack
meters, FOS, Total Station etc.

 Structure is considered satisfactory if the responses are

within acceptable limits
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 21
 Load testing of structure

Monotonic Load Testing Protocol

 Loading the structure in a monotonic manner

by gradually applying the load until reaching the
TLM, which is maintained for 24 hours

EL
 At least 4 equal increment of load application

PT
Monotonic Load Testing Protocol (ACI 437.2-13)
 Each load step to be held for at least 2 minutes

N
 Deflections are recorded at each load step

 After that, TLM to be removed quickly

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 22

 Load testing of structure

Cyclic Load Testing Protocol

 Repeated application of loading and unloading

the structure by applying loads in increments

 Multiple cycles of incremental loading and

EL
unloading until reaching the TLM

PT
 Each load step to be held for at least 2 minutes Cyclic Load Testing Protocol (ACI 437.2-13)

N
 Deflections are recorded at each load cycle

 Load to be applied without impact and without

causing vibration of the structure

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 23

 Load testing of structure
Acceptance criteria (ACI 437.2-13)
For the structure to pass the load test,
𝚫𝒍
 Residual deflection, 𝚫𝒓 ≤
𝟒
𝒍𝒕
 Maximum deflection, 𝚫𝒍 ≤ (to be recorded during 24-hour load hold)

EL
𝟏𝟖𝟎

∆l = Maximum measured deflection (cyclic or monotonic load test) (inches)

PT
∆r = Residual deflection measured after the 24-hour recovery period following complete

N
removal of load at the completion of load test (inches)
lt = Free span of the member under load test (inches)

If the measured Δ𝑟 not satisfying its limiting criterion, but the

measured Δ𝑙 satisfies its limiting condition, repeat test is permitted
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 24
 Load testing of structure
Acceptance criteria (ACI 437.2-13)

For the structure to pass the repeat test,

𝚫𝒍𝟐
 Residual deflection of the repeat test, 𝚫𝒓𝒓𝒕 ≤
𝟏𝟎

EL
∆rrt = Permanent or residual deflection measured after the 24-hour recovery period

PT
following complete removal of the load at the completion of repeat load test

N
Δl2 = Maximum deflection measured from the repeat test

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 25

 Load testing of structure
Stages of Load Testing of Bridges (IRC: SP: 51 – 2015)

 Selection of the critical span

 Selection of type of load test and method of loading
 Selection of Instruments for the measurement of responses

EL
 Placement of sensors and instruments
 Calibration of instruments

PT
 Mobilization of personnel and testing agencies

N
 Application of loads and recording the responses
 Supervision and Quality assurance
 Check for the Acceptance criteria
 Retesting, if required

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 26

 Load testing of structure
Precautions for Load Testing of Bridges (IRC: SP: 51 – 2015)

 All staging should be stable and safe

 Staging for instruments and observers should be independent and rigid
 Safety staging may be erected depending on the site and traffic condition

EL
 Contact between the sensors and the structure should be maintained
 Temperature and weather conditions to be noted

PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 27
 Load testing of structure

EL
PT
N
Source: Aimil Ltd.
Load Testing of a Flyover

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 28

Load testing of structure

Measurement of Responses

EL
PT
N
Source: Aimil Ltd.

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 29

 Reference
 CPWD Handbook (2002). Repair and Rehabilitation of RCC Buildings
 Emmons, H., Peter. (1994). Concrete Repair and Maintenance Illustrated: Problem Analysis; Repair Strategy; Techniques, R.S. Means
Company, Inc., Kingston
 Portland Cement Association (2002). Types and Causes of Concrete Deterioration
 Neville, A.M. and Brooks, J.J. (2010). Concrete Technology, 2nd Ed., Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, Noida
 Malhotra, V. M. and Carino, N. J. (2004). Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, 2nd Ed., CRC Press, Florida
 International Atomic Energy Agency (2002). Guidebook on non-destructive testing of concrete structures,

EL
Vienna.
 American Concrete Institute (2008). Guide for Conducting a Visual Inspection of Concrete in Service (ACI

PT
201.1R-08)

 Bungey, H., J. , Millard, G., S. and Grantham, G., M. (2006). Testing of Concrete in Structures, 4th Ed.,

N
Taylor & Francis, New York
 Poole, B., Alan. and Sims, Ian. (2016). Concrete Petrography : A handbook of investigative techniques, 2nd
Ed., CRC Press, Florida
 Indian Roads Congress (2015). Guidelines For Load Testing of Bridges (First Revision) (IRC:SP:51-2015)
 U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation Technical Service Center (2015). Guide to
Concrete Repair, 2nd Ed.

IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 30

 THANK YOU

EL
PT
N
IIT Kharagpur Retrofitting and Rehabilitation of Civil Infrastructure Module B 31