Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

National Polytechnic School of Algiers

Preparatory Classes Department
2nd year

Practical Work N°1 : Tensile Test

Realized by
AMIAR Maroua Tassanime
AMI MOUSSA Arslane Ibrahim
G1B
AMIAR Maroua Tassanime Lab Report AMI MOUSSA Arslane Ibrahim

1 Introduction
Materials Resistance (Strength of Materials) : Also referred to as Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, this
discipline combines principles of static equilibrium, kinematics, and material properties to analyze how materials
withstand external forces. Mechanical testing is categorized into destructive and non-destructive methods. Des-
tructive tests, such as the tensile test, involve applying force until fracture to determine mechanical properties,
while non-destructive tests preserve the material’s integrity. Key assessments include the bending test, which
evaluates resistance to flexural loads, and the torsion test, which examines material behavior under twisting forces.
These tests are essential for understanding material performance and ensuring structural reliability in engineering
applications.

2 Objective of the Practical Work :

— ✓ Experimentally analyze the mechanical behavior of the tested material.
— ✓ Identify elastic and plastic regions during deformation.
— ✓ Determine key mechanical properties :
— Modulus of Elasticity (E)
— Yield Strength (σe )
— Ultimate Tensile Strength (σm )
— Elongation at Fracture
— Reduction of Area (Z)

3 Theoretical Background
The tensile test involves applying an increasing tensile force to a specimen held in a testing machine until fracture,
allowing the determination of the material’s mechanical properties. During the test, the elongation ∆L (mm) and
applied force F (kN) are recorded and converted into strain and stress, producing the characteristic tensile stress-
strain curve.

Figure 2 – Tensile curve : stress as a function of

strain.

Figure 1 – Tensile Test

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4 Tensile Testing Equipment

— Tensile Testing Machine : Gradually applies tensile force to a securely held specimen, continuously mea-
suring force and elongation.
— Specimens : Typically cylindrical or flat, carefully polished and calibrated for accuracy.
— Comparator : Measures elongation relative to a reference point, not absolute values.
— Vernier Caliper : Measures external and internal diameters, as well as depths, with precision.

5 Procedures and Work Done

5.1 Measuring the Initial Cross-Sectional Area S0 of the Specimen Using the Vernier
Caliper
The initial cross-sectional area S0 of the specimen is calculated using the formula :

πd20
S0 =
4
Given that D1 = 5.06 mm, D2 = 5.02 mm, and D3 = 5.08 mm, we calculate d0 as follows :
D1 + D2 + D3 5.06 + 5.02 + 5.08 15.16
d0 = = = ≈ 5.0533 mm
3 3 3
Substituting d0 ≈ 5.0533 mm into the formula, we get :

π(5.0533)2
S0 =
4
Calculating the value :
π × 25.536 80.217
S0 = ≈ ≈ 20.054 mm2
4 4
Since 1 mm2 = 10−6 m2 , we convert :
S0 = 20.054 × 10−6 m2
S0 ≈ 2.0054 × 10−5 m2
Thus, the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen is approximately 20.05 mm² or 2.0054 × 10−5 m².

• We place the specimen between the jaws of the Tensile Testing Machine, which applies a gradually increasing
tensile force while continuously measuring force and elongation.

• We measure the initial length of the specimen, which is carefully polished and calibrated for accuracy.

• We use a comparator to measure the elongation ∆L relative to a reference point.

• We use a vernier caliper to measure the initial external diameter of the specimen.

• We start the tensile testing machine and record the elongations ∆L as the force is applied.

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5.2 Presenting the results in a table format

Initial diameters
D1 =5.06 D2 =5.02 D3 =5.08
Final diameters
D1 =4.52 D2 =4.6 D3 =2.5
Initial length / Final length
L0 =41.7 Lf =52.1

Table 1 – Summary of Initial and Final Measurements

F (kN) ∆L (mm) σ (MPa) ε (%)

0.0 0 0 0
0.5 0.15 24.9327 0.0375
1.0 0.35 49.8654 0.0875
1.5 0.5 74.7980 0.125
2.0 2 99.7307 0.5
2.5 2.15 124.663 0.5375
3.0 3 149.596 0.75
3.5 3.9 174.529 0.975
4.0 4 199.461 1
4.5 4.1 224.394 1.025
5.0 5 249.327 1.25
5.5 6 274.259 1.5
6.0 6.1 299.192 1.525
6.5 7 324.125 1.75
6.75 7.15 336.591 1.7875
7.0 8 349.057 2
7.0 20 349.057 5
7.0 50 349.057 12.5
7.25 54 361.534 13.5
7.5 58 373.990 14.5
7.75 64 386.457 16
7.90 70 393.936 17.5
7.95 75 396.429 18.75
7.75 82 386.456 20.5
6.75 90 336.591 22.5
5.5 92 274.259 23

Table 2 – Tensile Test Measurements

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AMIAR Maroua Tassanime Lab Report AMI MOUSSA Arslane Ibrahim

5.3 Plotting the curves F = f (∆L) and σ = f (ε)

8

F (kN)
4

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
∆L (mm)

Figure 3 – Force vs Elongation Curve : F = f (∆L)

400

300
σ (MPa)

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
ε (%)

Figure 4 – Stress vs Strain Curve : σ = f (ε)

The formulas used are :

F
σ= (1)
S0

 
∆L
ε(%) = × 100 (2)
L0

where :
— σ is the stress,
— F is the applied force,
— S0 is the initial cross-sectional area,

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AMIAR Maroua Tassanime Lab Report AMI MOUSSA Arslane Ibrahim

— ε is the strain in percentage,

— ∆L is the change in length,
— L0 is the original length.

5.4 Determination of the Young’s modulus in giga pascals (GPa)

Young’s modulus (E) is determined using the formula :

σ2 − σ1
E= (3)
ε2 − ε1

From the experimental data, we select two points from the elastic region :

σ1 = 24.9327 MPa, ε1 = 0.0375% = 0.000375

σ2 = 149.596 MPa, ε2 = 0.75% = 0.0075

Substituting the values :

149.596 − 24.9327
E=
0.0075 − 0.000375

124.6633
E= = 17,500 MPa = 17.5 GPa
0.007125

Thus, the estimated Young’s modulus of the material is :

17.5 GPa

5.5 Finding the yield strength F e, σe

To determine the yield strength (σe ) and the corresponding force (Fe ), we need to identify the point at which the
material transitions from elastic deformation (reversible) to plastic deformation (permanent). This is typically done
using one of the following methods :

— Offset Method : The yield strength is defined as the stress at which the strain exceeds a certain offset value,
usually 0.2% strain.
— Proportional Limit : If the offset method is not explicitly specified, the yield strength can be taken as the
stress just before the material begins to deviate significantly from the linear elastic behavior.

In this case, since no specific offset is mentioned, we will use the proportional limit approach, where we identify
the point where the stress-strain curve starts to deviate from linearity.

– From the Force-Elongation graph, we find Fe = 7 kN.

– From the Stress-Strain graph, we find σe = 349.057 MPa.

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AMIAR Maroua Tassanime Lab Report AMI MOUSSA Arslane Ibrahim

5.6 Finding the ultimate tensile strength, Fm , σm

The Ultimate Tensile Strength (σm ) is the maximum stress a material can withstand before failure or fracture.
It can be identified as the highest stress point on the stress-strain curve.

From the given table, the highest stress occurs at the following data point :

F = 7.95 kN, ∆L = 75 mm, σ = 396.429 MPa, ε = 18.75%

Thus, the Ultimate Tensile Strength (σm ) and the corresponding Fracture Force (Fm ) are :

σm = 396.429 MPa
Fm = 7.95 kN

These values represent the fracture point, where the material can no longer withstand the applied stress and begins
to fail.

5.7 Calculating the reduction of area Z

To get D0 , we computed the diameter of three different rods in order to get a mean value to effectively avoid any
superfluous errors.

Strain is the maximum reduction in cross-sectional area of the fractured specimen, i.e., at the fracture section
(Figure 1). The reduction of area coefficient indicates the material’s ability to deform under cold conditions.

 
S0 − Sf
Z(%) = × 100 (4)
S0

π × Df2
Sf = = 11.7810 mm2 (5)
4

Z = 74.34% (6)

6 Comments
From the chart, we can notice the following :
— Data Organization : The chart presents data from a tensile test in a well-organized table format. It clearly
labels the columns with the parameters being measured : Force (P ), Elongation (∆L), Stress (σ), and Strain
(ε).
— Increasing Force and Elongation : As expected in a tensile test, the force (P ) generally increases down
the table, and this is accompanied by a corresponding increase in elongation (∆L). This shows the material
stretching under increasing load.
— Stress-Strain Relationship : The table also shows the calculated stress (σ) and strain (ε) values. Stress,
as expected, increases with increasing force. Strain, representing the deformation, also increases. This data
would be used to plot a stress-strain curve.
— Units : The units for each parameter are clearly indicated in the column headers (kN for Force, mm for
Elongation, MPa for Stress, and % for Strain).

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AMIAR Maroua Tassanime Lab Report AMI MOUSSA Arslane Ibrahim

— Initial and Final Lengths : The initial and final lengths of the specimen are provided at the top of the
table, which are necessary for calculating strain.
— Potential Yield Point : Looking at the data, there’s a noticeable change in the relationship between force
and elongation around the 7 kN to 7.25 kN range. The elongation increases more rapidly in this region, which
could indicate the material starting to yield (enter the plastic deformation region).
— Ultimate Tensile Strength and Fracture : The table shows the force reaching a maximum value and
then decreasing. This suggests that the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) has been reached, and the specimen
has begun to neck and ultimately fracture.
In summary, the chart provides a clear and concise record of the data collected during a tensile test, allowing for
analysis of the material’s mechanical properties.

Graph01 : The graph represents the variation F = f (∆l). In the beginning, the elongation increases slowly as the
applied force increases.

At a certain point, when F reaches 7 kN, the elongation continues to grow without requiring a further increase
in force (this is the yielding plateau). After this stage, a slight increase in force results in a significant increase in
elongation. Eventually, the force decreases while ∆l remains constant, marking the fracture point.

Graph02 : The graph represents the variation of shear stress as a function of strain (ε). It clearly illustrates the
different deformation zones :

— Zone (0 < ε < 2) : Elastic or Reversible Deformation Zone :

— This is the initial linear portion of the curve.
— Elastic Behavior : The material deforms under stress but returns to its original dimensions when the
stress is removed.
— Proportional Limit : The end of the linear portion, where stress is directly proportional to strain
(Hooke’s Law).
— Zone (2 < ε < 12.5) : Yield Plateau (Yielding) :
— The stress remains relatively constant while the strain increases significantly.
— Yield Point : The point where the material begins to deform plastically (permanently).
— Zone (12.5 < ε < 19) : Uniform Plastic Deformation Zone :
— Plastic Behavior : The material undergoes permanent deformation without further increase in stress.
— The specimen elongates uniformly along its length.
— Zone (19 < ε < 22.5) : Non-Uniform Plastic Deformation Zone (Necking) :
— The deformation becomes localized, with a reduction in cross-sectional area (necking).
— The stress decreases while the strain continues to increase until fracture.
— Point (ε = 22.5) : Fracture - The specimen breaks.

We can hence conclude that the experiment we conducted was sufficiently accurate, as all the steps were clearly
represented. This demonstrates a high level of precision and a strong resemblance between the theoretical graph
and the one we obtained.

Comparison of the Two Graphs : We can notice that both graphs have the same appearance because σ is
directly proportional to F , and the strain is directly proportional to the elongation. Thus, multiplying both axes
by a constant does not change the overall form of the graph. However, stress-strain curves provide a more universal
and insightful representation of material behavior under load, facilitating better understanding, comparison, and
application of materials in engineering and design.

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7 Conclusion
In this lab, we learned how to :

— Use the tensile testing machine.

— Measure using a vernier caliper and a comparator.
— Understand all the theories related to traction.
— Measure both the initial diameter (D0 ) and the initial length (L0 ).
— Calculate the initial cross-sectional area (S0 ) from D0 .
— Collect data to populate our chart.
— Draw graphs, such as stress-strain and force-elongation curves.
— Analyze why these graphs exhibit a similar overall shape.
— Determine Young’s modulus (a measure of stiffness).
— Identify the yield strength and the ultimate strength, which represents the fracture point.

Additionally, we understood the direct relationship between shear and force, as well as the correlation between
strain (ϵ) and elongation. We observed how an increase in force leads to greater elongation.

8 Key Findings
In other words, we determined :

8.1 Mechanical Properties

— Strength : We identified the material’s yield strength (the point at which it starts to deform plastically) and
ultimate tensile strength (the maximum stress it can withstand).
— Ductility : We assessed how much the material can deform plastically before breaking, often expressed as
elongation at fracture or reduction in area. A higher value indicates greater ductility.
— Stiffness : We calculated Young’s modulus (elastic modulus), which represents the material’s resistance to
elastic deformation. A higher Young’s modulus means the material is stiffer.
— Toughness : While not directly obtained from the basic stress-strain curve, we inferred toughness (the energy
a material can absorb before fracturing) by analyzing the area under the stress-strain curve.

8.2 Material Behavior

— Elastic vs. Plastic Deformation : We observed the material’s behavior in both the elastic region (where
deformation is reversible) and the plastic region (where deformation is permanent).
— Yielding : We identified the yield point, where the material transitions from elastic to plastic behavior.
— Necking : We witnessed and measured necking, the localized reduction in cross-sectional area that occurs
before fracture in ductile materials.

8.3 Material Suitability

— Design Considerations : Based on the determined properties, we assessed whether the material is suitable
for specific applications. For example, a structural component requiring high strength would need a material
with a high yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
— Quality Control : Tensile testing can be used to ensure that materials meet specified standards.

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8.4 Theoretical Validation

— Comparison with Theory : We compared the experimental graphs with theoretical ones and observed a
strong resemblance.

In summary, this traction lab allowed us to characterize the fundamental mechanical properties of a material,
understand its deformation and fracture behavior, and ultimately determine its suitability for specific engineering
applications.

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