Ecosystems
Ecosystem
A distinct self-supporting system of organisms interacting with each other and their physical environment
Ecology
The study of living organisms and their environment
Habitat
A place where an organism lives
Population
All organisms of a particular species found in an ecosystem at any one time
Community
The population of all species (animals, plants, and decomposers) found in a particular ecosystem at any one time
Producers
Organisms that photosynthesis to produce food
Consumers
Organisms that get energy by feeding on other organisms
Decomposers
Organisms that decay dead material and help to recycle nutrients
Primary Consumers
These are herbivores that obtain their energy from plants
Secondary Consumers
These are carnivores that obtain their energy by feeding on primary consumers
Top Carnivore
The final consumer in a food chain
Predator
An animal that hunts, kills and eats another animal
Herbivore
An organism that obtains their energy from plants
Carnivores
Organisms that obtain energy by feeding on other animals
Omnivores
Organisms that feed on both animals and plants
Food Chain
A simple way to show feeding relationships between organisms
Food Web
Interlinked food chains
Trophic Level
A stage in a food chain
Ecological Pyramids
These are diagrams that represent the relative amount of organisms at each trophic in a food chain
Pyramid of Numbers
It represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in a food c
hain regardless of their mass
Pyramid of Biomass
It shows the total mass of organisms at each trophic level regardless of their numbers
Parasitism
An association between two organisms in which one is dependent (parasite) on another (host)
Saprotrophism
Living and feeding on dead organic material
Symbiosis/Mutualism
Relationship between two organisms that live together and are dependent on each other. For example: Lichen
(fungus and algae)
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
All the living organisms make up the biotic environment. Many but not all involve feeding relationships. These
include:
Availability of food and competition for energy resources
Predation
Parasitism
Disease
Presence of pollinating insects
Availability of nesting sites
The sum of all physical and chemical components of an ecosystem makes up the abiotic environment. They include:
Climate, such as light intensity, temperature, and water availability
Hours of sunlight
Soil conditions such as clay content, nitrate levels, particle size, water content, and pH
Other factors specific to a particular habitat such as salinity, flow rate in a river and oxygen concentration in
a lake
Biodiversity
The amount of variation shown by species in an ecosystem. It is a combination of two measurements:
1. Number of different species present
2. Relative abundance of each species
Measuring Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be measured by calculating a diversity index. One example is called the Simpson’s Index. The
formula of Simpson’s Index is:
( )
2
n N = the total number of individuals of all species
D=1−Σ
N
n = the total number of individuals of a particular
Energy Flow through an Ecosystem
Only about 10% of the energy entering a trophic level is passed on to the next trophic level. This is why a
very small number of food chains have more than 5 trophic levels. There just isn’t enough energy left for
another trophic level.
A B C D E
100% 10 1% 0.1% 0.01%
%
Causes of Loss of Energy
Biological processes use the energy released in respiration
Energy is lost to the surroundings in the form of heat as a product of respiration
Energy is also lost in excretion and decomposition
Some of the food might not be eaten, digested or absorbed
If energy is used to produce new cells, it remains fixed in the molecules and passed on to the next
trophic level through feeding
Energy Flow Diagram
Secondary
2
Consumers
(18)
Death & Excretion
D
R 20 KJ e
e c
s Primary o
(175)
p Consumers Death & Excretion m
200 KJ p
i
o
r
Producers (1750) s
a Death & Excretion
2,000 KJ i
t t
i
o
57 Sun
i
o
n 200,000 KJ n
(Light Energy)
Energy Lost (1943)
Reflected Energy Lost
as Heat (198,000 KJ)
as Heat
Carbon Cycle
Carbon is a component of all major biological molecules. This carbon is obtained from the carbon dioxide
by plants and then transferred to the minerals by feedings. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere remains
relatively constant at 0.04%. The various processes by which carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is reused
and restored to the atmosphere, constitutes the carbon cycle.
Removal of Carbon Dioxide from the Atmosphere
During photosynthesis, the green plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it to
manufacture glucose. Glucose can be changed to other organic compounds like fats and proteins. When
animals feed on green plants, the carbon compounds become part of the bodies of these animals. The
carbon compounds may be preserved in fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil.
Release of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
The following processes release carbon dioxide in the atmosphere:
1. Respiration
When living organisms respire, glucose is broken down and carbon dioxide is released into the air.
2. Combustion
Burning of fossil fuels like coal and natural gas add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
3. Decomposition
When organisms die their dead bodies are decayed i.e. – broken down into simple organic and
inorganic substances by decomposers (bacteria and fungi). When decomposers respire, carbon
dioxide is released into the environment. It is also one of the end products of decomposition.
Importance of Carbon Cycle
The recycling of carbon is essential for an ecosystem to function. This cycle ensures that there is a
continuous supply of carbon dioxide for the plants to carry out photosynthesis. It enables a linear flow of
energy through the ecosystem. The carbon compounds are the vehicles through which the trapped solar
energy passes from organism to organism in the food chains of an ecosystem.
Carbon Dioxide in Atmosphere
Plants
Combustion
Respiration Decomposers
Death & Excretion
Fossil fuel Decay
Animals Feeding
Fossilization
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is one of the primary nutrients critical for the survival of living organisms. It is a necessary
component of many biological compounds including proteins, most vitamins, DNA, RNA, ATP and
chlorophyll. Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere, it is largely inaccessible in this form to most
organisms. Only when nitrogen is converted from nitrogen gas to ammonia does it become available to the
plants.
A series of processes by which nitrogen and its compounds are interconverted in the environment and in
the living organisms is known as the nitrogen cycle. Steps involved in the nitrogen cycle are:
1. Nitrogen fixation
2. Nitrification
3. Assimilation
4. Ammonification/Decomposition
5. Denitrification
1. Nitrogen Fixation
This is the first step in the process of making nitrogen useable for plants. Here nitrogen is changed
into ammonia and other oxygen-containing compounds by the following:
a) Lightning
It makes the nitrogen present in the air to react with oxygen to form various oxides of nitrogen.
These dissolve with rainwater and enter the soil.
b) Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria
Most fixation is done by free living nitrogen fixing bacteria i.e. azotobacter. These convert
nitrogen gas into ammonia which is used up by the bacteria to make proteins. When the
bacteria die, they release ammonia back into the soil. Some bacteria such as rhizobium usually
live in root nodules of leguminous plants. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is
used up by the plants for making proteins and amino acids.
2. Nitrification
This is the process by which ammonia, ammonium ions, and nitrites get changed into nitrates by
nitrifying bacteria.
3. Assimilation
Plants absorb nitrates from the soil into their roots by active transport which are then used up by
the plant. This nitrogen is then passed along food chains through feeding.
4. Ammonification/Decomposition
Decomposition by bacteria and fungi produces ammonia from the decay of organic compounds and
re-enter the nitrogen cycle.
5. Denitrification
Denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil as an energy source and convert them into nitrogen gas
that re-enters the nitrogen cycle.
N2 in the Atmosphere
Denitrification Nitrogen Fixation
NO2/NH3
Feeding
Plants Animals
Ammonification Excretion
NITRIFICATION
Assimilation NH3
Nitrification
NO3 (nitrates)
Using Quadrats to Sample a Habitat
Sampling plants and animals that do not move much can be done using sampling square called a quadrat. A
quadrat is usually made from metal, wood or plastic. A suitable size of the quadrat depends upon the size
of an organism being sampled, for example a quadrat with sides 0.5 or 1 meter in length can be used on a
school field. Sampling carried out in any area should be random to avoid bias. This is done by dividing the
sample area into a grid and using a random number generator on a calculator to pick coordinates to place
the quadrats. The number of a specific species of invertebrates or plants is counted within each quadrat.
Repeat multiple times. The average of all organisms found in the quadrat are calculated. This shows an
estimate of the number and type of species in a larger area.