Job Analysis

UNIT 6 JOB ANALYSIS

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to understand:
l the concept of job analysis and its significance to the organisations,
l the different methods of collecting information for job analysis, and
l job-anlaysis and its relationship vis-a-vis job description and job specification.

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Job Analysis
6.3 Some Considerations
6.4 Method of Collecting Information
6.5 Job Analysis: Process
6.6 Steps in the Job Analysis Process
6.7 Job Description
6.8 Design of Job Description
6.9 Uses of Job Description
6.10 Job Specification
6.11 Summary
6.12 Self-Assessment Questions
6.13 Further Readings

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Organisation is described as a rational coordination of the activities of employees
through division of labour, responsibility, authority and accountability. Built in this
description is the realisation that organisations perform a series of activities and that
to perform these activities different kinds of skills are required. Each activity carries
its own set of responsibilities and the employees are given appropriate authority to
perform these activities. Not only this, they are also accountable to the organisation
through their immediate supervisors for accomplishing these activities according to
specifications. Hence, a clear understanding of what they are supposed to do becomes
a pre- requisite for effective utilisation of organisational resources. Job analysis helps
us to achieve this objective.

6.2 JOB ANALYSIS

There exists a wide range of job evaluation methods. The choice of an evaluation
method is dependent on the number and kind of jobs to be evaluated, the cost of the
operation, available resources, the degree of precision required and the organisations’
environments- both internal and external. However, whatever be the chosen method,
systematic gathering and analysis of information about jobs is a prerequisite. The job
analysis process involves gathering of such information.

5
Approaches to Job analysis is the process by which data, with regard to each job, is systematically
Analysing Job observed and noted. It provides information about the nature of the job and the
characteristics or qualifications that are desirable in the jobholder. The data from job
analysis could be used for a variety of purposes. The job analysis study attempts to
provide information in seven basic areas:
1. Job Identification or its title, including the code number, if any.
2. Distinctive or significant characteristics of the job, its location setting, supervi-
sion, union jurisdiction, and hazards and discomforts, if any.
3. What the typical worker does: Specific operations and tasks that make up the
assignment, and their relative timing and importance; the simplicity, the routine,
or complexity of tasks, responsibility for others, for property, or for funds.
4. What materials and equipment the worker uses: Metals, plastics, grain, yarns;
and lathes, milling machines, electronic ignition testers, corn huskers, punch
presses, and micrometers are illustrative.
5. How the job is performed: The emphasis here is on the nature of operations, and
may specify such operations as handling, feeding, removing, drilling, driving,
setting up, and many others.
6. Required personnel attributes: Experience, training apprenticeship, physical
strength, coordination or dexterity, physical demands, mental capabilities,
aptitudes, and social skills are some attributes.
7. The conditions under which the work is performed: Working conditions and
work environments is a major contributing factor in the performance of the job,
and the satisfaction of the employee. A dimly highlighted, poorly ventilated and
crowded place of work hampers efficiency. The workers are forced to spend
more energy to accomplish tasks, which they can do, in much lesser efforts in
otherwise conditions. Poor working conditions have been found to cause greater
fatigue, negligence, absenteeism, indiscipline and insubordination among the
employees.
Each of these piece of information is essential; it is not sufficient to merely list a
series of tasks or duties, because each piece of information is used in determining the
level of work and responsibility and the knowledge, skill and abilities needed to
perform them to an acceptable level of proficiency.
The process of assembling and recording information on such essential
characteristics of jobs is known as job analysis. In other words, jobs are subjected to
analysis to find out precisely what the duties, responsibilities, working environment
and other requirements of a job are and to present these in a clear, concise and
systematic way. Job analysis should be undertaken by trained job analyst working in
close collaboration with managers and jobholders.
Before proceeding further, certain terms used in job analysis and related stages in the
job evaluation process need to be clarified.
Element: The smallest unit into which work can be divided.
Task: A distinct identifiable work activity, which comprises a logical, and
necessary step in the performance of a job.
Duty: A significant segment of the work performed in a job, usually
comprising several tasks.
Post (or): One or more duties, which require the services or activities of one
worker for their performance;
Job: A group of posts that are identical or involve substantially similar tasks.
Occupation: A group of jobs similar in terms of the knowledge, skills, abilities,
training and work experience required by workers for their successful
6
performance.
 Job Analysis
6.3 SOME CONSIDERATIONS
Job analysis might give the impression that while identifying components of job, we
are looking at everything that concerns the job. However, in analysing the job,
following considerations must be kept in mind:
1. Job analysis is not a one-time activity. Jobs are changing continuously. What
was a job yesterday is not the same job today and would not remain the same in
future. These changes are caused by changing technology, competition, chang-
ing profile of the workforce, changing expectations of end users and a host of
other factors. Hence, analysis must be continuously done to update the nature of
job.
2. The Job and not the person—an important consideration in job analysis is
conducted of the job and not of the person. While job analysis data may be
collect from incumbents through interviews or questionnaires, the product of the
analysis is a description or specifications of the job, not a description of the
person doing the job.
3. All activities relating to job analysis give us only the minimum requirements of
the job. No analysis can identify either the ultimate or full and complete require-
ments. What it does is simply highlights what are minimum activities that are
entailed in a job. The reason is simple. No one can foresee the final outcome
because of changes taking place in the nature of job.

6.4 METHOD OF COLLECTING INFORMATION

There are several ways in which information about a job can be collected. In order to
have a full understanding of the job contents, a number of sources should be
explored. By and large, the following sources are generally [Link] all the following
three methods, verification of the information collected from the holder of the job is
necessary. Very often, while collecting information people tend to describe those
aspects of the job that they are not doing or would like to do. Hence, after the
information has been collected from the employee, an interview with immediate
supervisor must be conducted to verify the authenticity of the information.

1. Job Questionnaire
To make a start, a job questionnaire could be administered to all concerned
employees asking them about the job, its various components, time spent on each of
them, and so forth. The completed questionnaire could be given to the supervisors for
their comments. In some cases, job-reviewing committees are formed, consisting of
union representatives and specialists from the personnel, work-study, or industrial
engineering [Link] questionnaire has the following advantages:
1. First of all, it is the most cost effective method, since it can elicit information
from a wide number of workers and their immediate superiors in a relatively
short period of time. The main task of the analyst becomes one of planning the
questionnaire well and checking the responses provided.
2. Secondly, workers take an active part in completing the questionnaire providing
intimate detailed knowledge of their jobs, which is not available elsewhere.
3. Thirdly, the questionnaire has to be structured in advance, and this facilitates the
processing of the results.
4. In some cases, once the responses to the questionnaire have been verified, they
can conveniently be used with little further processing to prepare a job
description. 7
Approaches to The questionnaire method however has the following disadvantages:
Analysing Job
1. To start with, the people required to complete it must have a certain level of
education; and even then, questions may be interpreted in different ways so that
the answers may be beside the point.
2. Furthermore, not everyone is able to describe fully and exactly the task that
constitute their job. One may, for example, over-emphasise some features of it
and completely ignore others when they are important.
3. There is less risk of this with a detailed questionnaire that includes a checklist of
points, questionnaire suited to all jobs is not easily drawn up and may be unduly
long.
In practice, while a well-structured questionnaire can get essential information
quickly, it is virtually impossible to get complete comparable information solely by
questionnaire, and this method is generally used in combination with interviews and
direct observation.

2. Interview
In practice, an interview is almost always necessary in order to obtain precise,
complete and comparable information. The interview conducted by the analyst is an
effective way of checking on the information already available on job. The analyst
asks the jobholders questions on the duties and main tasks of their job, generally
working from a previously prepared list of questions as with a questionnaire. After
the interview, the analyst draws up a report, which is shown, to the jobholder and his
immediate superior for their approval. The analyst usually drafts the report in the
form of a job description, which effectively speeds up the preparatory work of job
evaluation.
Following are some of the disadvantages of this method:
1. Interviews are time consuming. At least an hour or two may be necessary for
each case, plus the time spent by the analyst in drawing up his report and by the
jobholder and his immediate superior in checking it. In a large enterprise a team
of analysts would be necessary.
2. The main difficulty of the interview lies in finding high quality analysts who
can win the jobholder’s confidence. As has been noted, “ too many imagine
interviewing to be relatively simple whereas nothing could be farther from the
truth.” Obtaining information from a jobholder about his job is difficult.
3. Many workers show a natural distrust of the analyst who comes to examine their
work, while others will give a lot of information, much of it useless. It is
accordingly essential to have a well trained and experienced team of analysts if
the interview is to be the only method used.
However interview has some advantages:
1. Interview does provide in- depth information, which cannot be achieved through
any other method.
2. It also helps in collecting data about tasks that are not part of the job and yet the
jobholder has to do it.
3. At the same time it can also help in finding ways and means to simplify some of
the operations involved in the job.

3. Observation
For jobs of a simple and repetitive nature, the observation technique could provide
adequate information on the job being performed. A clear picture may be obtained
8 regarding the working conditions, equipment used, and skills required. Although all
jobs could be usefully observed, this technique alone is not enough for more complex Job Analysis
jobs, especially those that have many components or interactions.
Some advantages of this method are:
1. It is most suitable for simple and repetitive jobs.
2. Direct observation by the analyst can clear up points left unclear by other
methods.
At the same time, some of the disadvantages of this method are:
1. The presence of analyst causes stress. The workers may dislike being observed.
2. The jobholders may purposely reduce the pace of activity to justify overtime.
3. Observation cannot be a suitable method where the job calls for considerable
personal judgment and intellectual ability.
4. It may not take into account all the tasks in a work cycle stretched over a week
or a month.

4. Independent observers
In addition to the employees themselves providing information about the jobs they
are doing, trained observers could also be used to supplement the employees’ data
and to discover inadequate performance in “ crucial tasks”, which would lead to job
failure.
In addition there are some not so often used method of job analysis. Some of them
are presented here:
1. Diary: One or more incumbents are asked to keep a diary of duties noting the
frequency of the tasks performed. These diaries then become the basis for doing
job analysis.
2. Critical incidents: Ask one or more incumbents to brainstorm (if there is only
one person you will have to participate in the brain storming) about critical
incidents that happen routinely and infrequently while working. Separate these
into two lists. Generate one list of incidents indicating good or excellent perfor-
mance and one, which indicates poor performance. This approach is excellent
for determining training and selection strategies. The results lend themself to
meeting discrimination complaints concerning selection choices where the
person chosen clearly possesses the skill and knowledge to perform the most
critical duties indicating success on the job. The analyst will have to extrapolate
a list of duties to be performed from the incidents.
3. Photo tape recording of job performance: This is a good approach because it
can be watched over and over again to perform analysis and because it can be
pulled out later to re-evaluate. Having such a tape is excellent source for
undertaking job analysis.
4. Review of records: Records of work such as maintenance requests is reviewed
and a list of requested repairs is made. In this situation it is important to take
representative samples so that seasonal variations in work requests do not
mislead. This is a good approach for such jobs as mechanic or electrician. The
kinds of repairs being performed and, thus, the duties being performed most
often can be itemized. However, this approach could also be used for computer
programming and computer trouble-shooting jobs in which incumbents have
records of work requests or work competed.
The data to be gathered by all these methods is dependent in large part on the purpose
the analysis is to be put to. Information about training needs requires information
about the transaction of the work so that the trainer can determine the critical skills
and knowledge that must be improved. Selection decisions require the same
information usually on a broader scale. A lot of information can be inferred from 9
well-written task statements.
Approaches to Some of the examples of the kind of data, which can be gathered for job analysis, are
Analysing Job given below.
l List of tasks
l List of decisions made
l Indication of results if decisions are not made properly
l Amount of supervision received
l Supervision exercised
l Kind of personnel supervised
l Diversity of functions performed by supervised staff
l Interactions with other staff (description of the staff interacted with)
l Physical conditions
l Physical requirements (For instance how heavy are the objects that are lifted.
How much stooping and bending is conducted and under what conditions)
l Software used
l Programming language used
l Computer platform used
l Interpersonal contacts with outsiders (customers)
l Interpersonal persuasive skills or sales skills
l Amounts of mental or psychical stress
l Necessity to work as a team member
l Needed contributions to a work group
l Authority or judgment exercised
l Customer service skills
Generally, it is preferable to use a combination of several methods to get information
about the job. One method could well supplement the other, where the objective is to
gain as much information as possible about the job, the crucial tasks, and the
essential qualifications required to perform them satisfactorily. An objective data
gatherer would avoid introducing his own ideas, and also avoid describing the
employees performing the job, rather than the “job” itself, for many of the
employee’s personal traits may have little or no relevance to the job.

6.5 JOB ANALYSIS: PROCESS

To be meaningful and useful for personnel related decision-making, job analysis must
be carried more at frequent intervals. Jobs in the past were considered to be static and
were designed on the basis that they would not change. While people working on
these jobs were different, the jobs remained unchanged. It is now realised, that for
higher efficiency and productivity, jobs must change according to the employees who
carry them out. Some of the major reasons leading such change are:
Technological Change: The pace of change in technology necessitates changes in the
nature of job as well as the skills required. Word processing has drastically changed
the nature of secretarial jobs. Computerization and automation likewise give rise to
new requirements of certain jobs while older requirements become redundant.
Union- Management Agreements: The agreements entered between management and
the union can bring about change in the nature of job, duties and responsibilities. For
example, under employees participation scheme, the workers are encouraged to
10 accept wider responsibilities.
People: Human beings are not robots; each employee brings with him his own Job Analysis
strengths and weaknesses, his own style of handling a job and his own aptitude.
There is a saying that the job is what the incumbent makes of it.
Thus, the job analysis process must take into account the changing nature of job on
account of the factors listed above. Often, role analysis techniques are used in dealing
with the dynamic nature of job requirements.

6.6 STEPS IN THE JOB ANALYSIS PROCESS

The major steps to be followed in carrying out job analysis in an on-going
organization are given below:
1. Organization Analysis: The first step is to get an overall view of various jobs in
the organisation with a view to examine the linkages between jobs and the
organisational objectives, interrelationships among the jobs, and the contribu-
tion of various jobs towards achieving organisational efficiency and effective-
ness. The organisation chart and the work flow or process charts constitute an
important source of information for the purpose.
2. Uses of Job Analysis Information: Depending on organisational priorities and
constraints, it is desirable to develop clarity regarding the possible uses of the
information pertaining to job analysis. In the previous pages it has been already
indicated that such information could be utilised practically for all personnel
functions. Nevertheless, it is important to focus on a few priority activities in
which the job analysis information could be used.
3. Selection of Jobs for Analysis: Carrying out job- analysis is a time- consuming
and costly process. It is, therefore, desirable to select a representative sample of
jobs for purposes of analysis.
4. Collection of Data: Data will have to be collected on the characteristics of job,
the required behaviour and personal attributes needed to do the job effectively.
Several techniques for job analysis are available. Care needs to be taken to use
only such techniques, which are acceptable and reliable in the existing situation
within the organisation.
5. Preparation of Job Description: The information collected in the previous step
is used in preparing a job description for the job highlighting major tasks,
duties, and responsibilities for effective job performance.
6. Preparation of Job Specification: Likewise, the information gathered in step (4)
is also used to prepare the job specification for a job highlighting the personal
attributes required in terms of education, training, aptitude and experience to
fulfil the job description.
Job Analysis thus carried out provides basic inputs to the design of jobs so that it is
able to meet the requirements of both the organization (in terms of efficiency and
productivity) as well as the employees (in terms of job satisfaction and need
fulfilment). Developing appropriate job design is then the outcome of the job analysis
process.
The most important use of job analysis is to produce a basic job description of what
the job is to facilitate basic human resource problem solving. The second is to
provide employees and supervisors with a basic description of jobs describing duties
and characteristics in common with and different from other positions or jobs. When
pay is closely associated with levels of difficulty these descriptions will help foster a
feeling of organisational fairness related to pay issues. Other important uses of job
analysis are given below:
l Indicate training needs
l Put together work groups or teams 11
Approaches to l Provide information to conduct salary surveys
Analysing Job
l Provide a basis for determining a selection plan
l Provide a basis for putting together recruitment
l Describe the physical needs of various positions to determine the validity of
discrimination complaints
l As part of an organisational analysis
l As part of strategic planning
l As a part of any human relations needs assessment
l As a basis for coordinating safety concerns
Job analysis is indeed an essential part of any modern human resource management
system. The kind of information gathered through job analysis varies considerably
depending upon the specific uses to be made of it. Accordingly, job analysis
programmes are usually tailor-made for the specific purpose.

Activity A
“Smaller organisations do not need job analysis for their jobs because most of their
employees conduct a myriad of activities, too far-reaching for a standard job
analysis”. Give your view point.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

Activity B
Discuss the sources of errors in your own organisation or any organisation you are
familiar with, that can distort or render job analysis information inaccurate.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

6.7 JOB DESCRIPTION

Data collected for job analysis provides the basis for preparing job description. It
refers to the job contents and the expectations that an organisation has from its
employees. Job descriptions usually outline the minimum requirements of jobs for
many reasons:
1. First, despite all the attempts, a perfect and fully inclusive job description is not
possible. In fact, as one moves up in the hierarchy of an organisation, a detailed
job description becomes very difficult.
2. Secondly, most organisations would prefer not to describe the job fully, if it is
possible, because employees would then stick to what has been described and
would not do anything beyond it.
3. Thirdly, if a job were fully described, supervision would automatically be taken
care of by the duties performed, making some of the duties of the supervisory
staff redundant.
4. Fourthly, technology is changing fast and hence the nature of job is also chang-
ing. Unless an organisation continuously updates the job description, it would
12 be difficult to monitor the performance of the employees.
 Job Analysis
6.8 DESIGN OF JOB DESCRIPTION
A primary output or result of job analysis is job description. Information obtained by
job analysis is shifted and recorded concisely, clearly and fully in the job description.
The job description must assemble all the important elements of a job, such as
essential tasks, responsibilities, qualifications required and the functional relation of
the job to other jobs.
There is no universally accepted standard format for job descriptions for the reason
that the form and structure of the job descriptions must depend on the kind of work
being analysed and the job evaluation plan being used. For example, if the job
evaluation form comprises factors such as physical and intellectual effort,
knowledge, skills, responsibilities and working conditions, it follows that job
description should be structured to reflect these factors so as to facilitate factor by
factor comparison and evaluation of the jobs. With non- analytical methods, job
description may be more flexible and simpler but most specify the title of the job and
its position in the organisation, summarises the tasks performed and list the skills and
abilities required.
It is helpful to follow the following guidelines when writing a job description:
1. Always be accurate about what is expressed.
2. Omit expressions which are attributes— such as uninteresting, distasteful, etc.
3. Personal pronouns should be avoided— if it is necessary to refer to the worker,
the word “ operator” may be used.
4. Do not describe only one phase of the job and give the impression that all
phases are covered.
5. Generalized or ambiguous expressions, such as ‘prepare’, ‘assist’, ‘handle’ etc.
should be omitted unless supported by data that will clarify them.
6. All statements should be clearly defined and simply set down- promiscuous use
of adjectives only reflects one’s own opinion.
7. Describe the job as is being done, by the majority of workers holding the
designation.
8. Write in simple language— explain unusual technical terms.
9. Description of a job, which is part of teamwork, should establish the team
relationship.
10. The length of description is immaterial; it is not expected even with printed
forms that all job descriptions should be of equal length but write concisely.
11. When the job analyst finds that the data he has to work with is insufficient, s/he
should stop until sufficient data is available.
12. Put the date of completion of each description and revise it as often as changes
in jobs and occupation require.
13. Job description should have the concurrence of the concerned supervisor.
14. Description should contain the initials of the persons who compile them.

6.9 USES OF JOB DESCRIPTION

Apart from being a basis for job evaluation, the job descriptions can be put to many
uses. They are as under:
1. Supervisor- Employee Communication: The information contained in the job
description outlines the work, which the incumbent is expected to perform.
13
Approaches to Hence, it is an extremely useful document for both the supervisor and the
Analysing Job subordinate for purposes of communication. Furthermore, it helps employees to
understand just what work their associates are expected to perform, thus,
facilitating integration of efforts at the work site by the employees themselves.
2. Recruitment, Selection, Promotion, Transfer: Information pertaining to the
knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform the work to an acceptable
standard, can be used as a sound basis on which to base standards are
procedures for recruitment, selection, promotion and transfer.
3. Work Performance Appraisal: To be sound and objective, a performance
appraisal system must be rooted in the work performed by the employee; such
work is indicated by the duties in the job description. In such an approach, using
each duty as the basis for discussion, the employee and the supervisor agree on
work performance goals for the period to be covered by the subsequent
evaluation report; they also agree on the criteria to be used to determine the
extent to which the goals have been attained. The reports resulting from this
methodology minimize subjectivity by focusing attention on the job, as distinct
from the personality traits, habits or practices of the employee. As a conse-
quence, the results are more factual; valid and defensible than is the case in
other types of systems.
4. Manpower Planning, Training and Development: These three processes are
closely interrelated. The job description showing, in specific terms, the
knowledge, skill and ability requirements for effective performance of the
duties, is a sound and rational basis for each of these processes. Analysis of
various types of jobs at progressively more senior levels will indicate logical
sources of supply for more senior posts, as part of manpower planning. It will
also indicate the gap to be bridged in terms of knowledge, skill and ability, thus
providing a sound basis for preparing job- related training and development
programmes.
5. Industrial Relations: Frequently, issues arise in the industrial relations field,
which have their origin in the work to be undertaken. In these instances the job
description may be used to form a factual basis for discussion and problem
resolution.
6. Organization and Procedure Analysis-The duties and responsibilities outlined in
the job description may be used to a great advantage by management in
analysing organisation and procedures, because they reveal how the work is
organised, how the procedure operate and how authority and responsibility are
appointed.
A Job Description should include a:
1. Job Title: It represents a summary statement of what the job entails.
2. Job Objective or Overall Purpose Statement: This statement is generally a
summary designed to orient the reader to the general nature, level, purpose and
objective of the job. The summary should describe the broad function and scope
of the position and be no longer than three to four sentences.
3. List of Duties or Tasks Performed: The list contains an item-by-item list of
principal duties, continuing responsibilities and accountability of the occupant
of the position. The list should contain each and every essential job duty or
responsibility that is critical to the successful performance of the job. The list
should begin with the most important functional and relational responsibilities
and continue down in order of significance. Each duty or responsibility that
comprises at least five percent of the incumbent’s time should be included in the
list.
14
4. Description of the Relationships and Roles: the occupant of the position holds
 within the company, including any supervisory positions, subordinating roles Job Analysis
and/or other working relationships.

6.10 JOB SPECIFICATION

Workload analysis helps in identifying the minimum qualification needed to perform
a particular job. These may include academic qualifications, professional
qualifications, age, years of experience, relevance and nature of previous experience,
and other skills and attitudes. They form the minimum eligibility requirements, which
the candidate must have, for the appointment to a job. A clear indication of
specifications helps in generating eligible applications, because of self-selection. The
candidates who do not possess those qualifications do not apply. On the other hand,
lack of clear- cut specifications may generate a large number of applications, leading
to high costs, in terms of man-hours, in processing them.
There is a great deal of disagreement with regard to developing complete and correct
job specification unlike the job description, which provides more objective
assessment of job requirements. The decision to specify minimum human
requirements for a job is a difficult one as it involves considerable degree of
subjectivity. There is a general feeling that organisations generally tend to establish
relatively high requirements for formal education and training, resulting in a situation
where highly qualified people end up doing jobs of routine nature. Particularly, in
India, highly qualified personnel are recruited for jobs where their abilities, skills and
knowledge are under- utilized.
Despite these problems, however, minimally acceptable human requirements need to
be specified for various jobs and category of jobs. The format for job specification
should include the following items:
l Position Title
l Education/ Training
l Experience
l Knowledge
l Abilities
l Skills
l Aptitude
l Desirable Attributes
l Contra-indicators, if any.
From job analysis to jobless world
Job enrichment means redfining in a way that increases the opportunities for workers
to experience building of responsibility, achievement, growth and recognition by
doing job well.
l Analysing together the job
l Establishing client recognition
l Vertical loading
l Job-Sharing
l Flexible job doing pattern etc.
l Open feedback channels.
Whether specialised, enlarged or enriched, workers skill generally like to have
15
Approaches to specific job to do and the job require job descriptions. But in the emerging
Analysing Job organisation today jobs are becoming more amorphous and more difficult to define.
In other words the trend is towards “do-jobbing in many modern organisation.

6.11 SUMMARY
Job Analysis is the process of job-related data. The data collected will be useful for
preparing job description and job specification. Job description lists job title, duties,
machines and equipment involved, working conditions surrounding a job and the
like. Job specification lists the human qualifications and qualities necessary to do the
job.
Job analysis is useful for HRP, recruitment and selection, training and development,
job evaluation, remuneration, performance appraisal, personnel information and
safety and health programmes. It also aides analysis of the organisation structures and
the work systems/procedures and contribute towards improving the productivity of
the organisation.
A logical sequence to job analysis is job design which is nothing but organisation of
tasks, duties and responsibilities into a unit of work.

6.12 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by job analysis? Explain the process of job analysis.
2. Explain various methods of collecting information for job analysis.
3. Define job description. Explain the uses of job description.

6.13 FURTHER READINGS

Aswathappa, A. (2002) Human Resource and Personnel Management: New Delhi:
Tata McGraw.
Beddoe Robin Forbes (1988). How to prepare a job evaluation: Job Description,
Working Time Analysts.
Burns, M (1978). Understanding Job Evaluation, Institute of Personnel Management,
London, IPM.
ILO (1986), Job Evaluation, ILO, Geneva.
Morris, J. Walker (1973). Principles and Practice of Job Evaluation, London,
Heinemann Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford.
Peterson T.T(1972). Job Evaluation: A manual for Peterson Method. Vol 2, London,
Business Books.
Saiyadain, M.S(2003) Human Resource Management (3rd ed), New Delhi: Tata
McGraw
US Civil Service Commission (1976): Job Analysis. Washington D.C: U.S.
Government Printing Press.

16
 Changing Nature
UNIT 7 CHANGING NATURE OF ROLES of Roles

Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:
l the concept of role, the need and significance of roles,
l the various approaches to role definition, and
l the factors leading to changes required in role description.

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Role Description
7.3 Kinds of Roles
7.4 Need for Role Descriptions
7.5 Uses of Role Descriptions
7.6 Changing Roles: Approaches
7.7 The Changing World of Work
7.8 Factors Contributing to Role Changes
7.9 Role Expectations
7.10 Summary
7.11 Self-Assessment Questions
7.12 Further Readings

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of role and changes taking place in roles can best be understood in the
context of the expectations an organisation has with its employees.
An organisation can be described as the rational coordination of the activities of a
number of people for the achievement of some common objective through division of
labour, hierarchy of authority and accountability. Such a description highlights the
following ingredients of organisations:
1. Organisations are rational entities. This means that they have clearly defined
goals and most economic means to achieve these goals. Rationality demands
maximisation of returns on minimum investment.
2. Organisational goals must be equally understood, shared, and subscribed to by
all the employees in the organisation.
3. A single person does not make an organisation. It requires a minimum of two or
more persons to fulfil the requirements of coordination.
4. One person cannot do all the roles of the organisation; hence these have to be
done through division of labour and function. Each individual has a clearly
defined responsibility that is non-overlapping. Along with responsibility comes
the authority to complete the role.
5. For every individual in the organisation there is an immediate supervisor.
Subordinates are accountable to their immediate supervisor. This is true for all
the levels in the hierarchy except the very top-level employee who does not
have a structurally defined supervisor and the very bottom level employee who
17
does not have subordinates.
Approaches to Given this general description of organisation, roles that are clearly defined play a
Analysing Job significant part in accomplishing the goals of the organisation. Roles can be seen in a
variety of ways.

Role and Role Dynamics

A role is a set of expectations associated with a job or a position. When roles are
unclear or complicated performance problem can occur. Role ambiguity occurs when
some one is uncertain about what is expected of him or her. To do any job; the people
need know what is expected of them. Role clarity is important for every member of
the group, but that is more important for new members. Role ambiguity creates
problems and the whole efforts is either wasted or of appreciated.
Expecting too much or too little may create problem. Role overload occurs when too
much is expected and individual feels overloaded with work/responsibility. Role
underload occurs when too little is expected and the individual feels underutilized
therefore, a balanced and realistic role load is expected.
Role–conflict occurs when a person is unable to meet the expectations of others. The
individual understands what needs to be done but for some reasons can not comply.
The resulting tension can reduce job satisfaction, affects both work performance and
the relationship with other groups members. The Common forms of role conflict are:
1. intra sender role-conflicting which occurs when the same person sends conflict-
ing expectations.
2. inter sender role-conflict occurs when different people send conflicting expecta-
tions.
3. Person–Job–conflict-occurs when one’s personal values & needs come into
conflict with role expectations.
4. inter role conflict occurs when the expectations of two or more roles held by the
same individual becomes incompatible–such as conflict between work & family
demands.
One way of managing role-dynamics in any group or work setting is the role-
negotiation. This is the process through which individual negotiat to clarify the role
expectation each holds for the other.

7.2 ROLE DESCRIPTION

Well-written role descriptions define the work of the organisation and its reasons for
existence as an employer of human resources. Moreover, they define and help
quantify the relative importance of work, what each position contributes to a process
and the organisation as a whole. This definition illustrates an important point
regarding role descriptions. Used in today’s work environment, they describe not
only what the role is all about but also how it contributes to the work of the
organisation. They describe the nature of the work to be done by stating the purpose
and main responsibilities. They may also include information on the type of person
who is best suited to perform the job. Role descriptions are a valuable resource. They
have the potential to be a useful organisational tools, however, to realize their
potential they must be properly monitored. There are two main types of role
descriptions, the generic or general and the specific or individual.
Generic role descriptions are written in broadly stated general terms without
identifying specific responsibilities, requirements, purpose and relationships. Some
organisations use generic role descriptions for the same level within an organisation.
For particular positions an additional duty statement may be developed.
18
Specific role descriptions provide information on all essential responsibilities Changing Nature
assigned to the person performing the role. They are usually quite detailed and of Roles
comprehensive.
Following are some of the important ingredients of roles:
1. A role description must be accurate but not a minutely detailed list of an
employees tasks and duties.
2. Role descriptions are meant to be a guide only staff must not interpret them
rigidly or role descriptions become a barrier to success they are just a ‘map’ that
shows direction.
3. Roles may indicate the authority that the employee must be provided to
accomplish the role expectations.
4. Roles may also specify the areas of accountability.
5. Roles accomplishment or otherwise may become the basis for rewarding or
reprimanding the employees.

7.3 KINDS OF ROLES

In the late 1960s, a graduate student at MIT, Henry Mintzberg, undertook a careful
study of five executives to determine what they did in their jobs. Based on his
observations of these executives, Mintzberg concluded that they perform ten highly
different but interrelated roles, or sets of behaviours, attributable to their roles. These
ten roles can be grouped as being primarily concerned with interpersonal
relationship, the transfer of information, and decision-making. The three groups and
specific roles within each of the groups are given below:
1. INTERPERSONAL– Following three roles are included in this group:
a) Figurehead: Symbolic head, required to perform a number of routine duties
of a legal or social nature;
b) Leader: Responsible for the motivation and direction of subordinates, and
c) Liaison: Maintains a network of outside contacts who provide favours and
information.
2. INFORMATIONAL– Following three roles are included in this group:
a) Monitor: Receives wide variety of information; serves as nerve center of
internal and external information of the organisation;
b) Disseminator: Transmits information received from outsiders or from other
subordinates to members of the organisation, and
c) Spokesperson: Transmits the information to outsiders on organisational
plans, policies, actions, and results; serves as experts on organization’s
industry.
3. DECISIONAL– Following four roles are included in this group:
a) Entrepreneur: Searches organisation and its environment for opportunities
and initiates projects to bring about change;
b) Disturbance handler: Responsible for corrective action when organization
faces important, unexpected disturbances;
c) Resource allocator: Making or approving significant organisational
decisions, and
d) Negotiator: Responsible for representing the organisation at major

19
Approaches to negotiations.
Analysing Job

7.4 NEED FOR ROLE DESCRIPTIONS

An accurate and detailed role description is increasingly becoming a crucial
component of the effective use of valuable human resources in libraries and other
organisations. It is needed because of the following reasons:
1. The primary function of a role description is as a communication tool. It effec-
tively communicates a great deal of information about a role, especially between
the manager and employee.
2. When employees have a road map to success they often perform much better
and that translates into continued business growth for the organisation.
3. They include reporting relationships; skill requirements; major responsibilities;
where the role fits into the organisation and what is required of the position.
This allows them to use the information in relation to many human resource
functions such as recruitment, induction, training and performance management.
4. Well-written role descriptions also provide information to prospective employ-
ees about organisational expectations of a particular role. This aids in attracting
and retaining employees who know about the culture of the organisation and
what is expected of them.

7.5 USES OF ROLE DESCRIPTIONS

Role descriptions have the potential to be used for a number of human resource
functions. Some of these are given below:
1. Selection and recruitment: Role descriptions may be used to advertise roles,
screen applicants, develop questions for the role interview and identify essential
and desirable criteria.
2. Induction and orientation: Role descriptions provide a good introduction and
overview of the role, which enables the employee to understand what the
organization expects of them.
3. Role descriptions allow the employee to see where they fit into the big picture
of the organisation, and how their role contributes to the organisation.
4. Role descriptions may identify initial training requirements for a new employee.
If they are included in a performance management system they may be used as
an aid in identifying training to improve performance or additional training
needed as a result of changing responsibilities.
5. Role descriptions are the foundation of an effective performance management
system and are used in conducting performance reviews or role evaluations.
6. A study of role descriptions can help employees determine what qualifications,
experience and skills are needed to apply for different positions within the
organisation. This information can then be used in career planning or
development.
Additionally they can be used for the following purposes:
1. Orienting new employees on what their subordinates and bosses do
2. Analysing work flows and methods
3. Mentoring the employees
4. Dealing with industrial relations
20 5. Job restructuring
6. Organisational and personal goal setting
7. Conducting an organisational audit Changing Nature
of Roles
8. Defining or reviewing organisational structure
9. Measuring accurate salary administration
10. Quickly preparing substitute workers or temporary help.

7.6 CHANGING ROLES: APPROACHES

Of late there has been an attempt to examine role in different manner. Much of this
thinking has been the result of new light being shed on changing management
practices: Some of these attempts are presented below:
1. Skill Behaviour Matrix: British Petroleum replaced role descriptions with a
matrix reflecting skills and behaviour. This matrix focuses on skills and
behaviours rather than individual roles. Each skill matrix describes steps in the
career ladder, from the lowest to the highest, along the vertical axis. The hori-
zontal axis describes the skills and competencies that are required for each step.
It is argued that skill matrices differ significantly from role descriptions. They
specify roles and levels of performance rather than roles in a box. Through this
system managers know what to expect of their employees and employees know
what the organisation expects of them.
2. Configuration Matrix: Another approach looks at the role descriptions by
defining roles in terms of a ‘contribution matrix’. This matrix identifies team
outputs and contribution made by each member within a team. Agreed outputs
are written along the vertical axis and team members names along the horizontal
axis. Under each output the processes and contributions made by each team
member are listed. The output is then assigned to the person who has the overall
responsibility. Following are some of the advantages of this approach:
1. It focuses on the whole department rather than the individual role,
2. It incorporates team involvement,
3. It can be used to show use of resources, and
4. It is a good vehicle to identify improvement opportunities.
3. Other Approaches: Besides these approaches the shifts in some of the tradi-
tional role responsibilities to more recent descriptions are presented below:
1. There is a shift, from description of duties to description of responsibilities.
Duties represent the methods by which the responsibility areas are accom-
plished. Responsibilities are like mini-roles that must be done to get the
total role successfully completed. In a fast changing work environment,
responsibility areas generally remain constant whereas, duties change
constantly with advances in technology and improvements in processes.
Focusing on duties make it difficult to keep a role description current and
does not represent the true nature of the role to be performed. When focus-
ing on responsibilities it is important that these relate to meeting
organisational objectives.
2. The focus is on what the person is required to do and implies looking at the
role from an inside out approach. However, when focusing on the end
results it implies looking at the role from an outside-in approach. Focusing
on end results helps employees understand why the work is important.
Knowing the results also allows employees to discover new ways to accom-
plish results thus encouraging initiative and creativity.
3. In the past, the department wrote role descriptions with little or no input
from the employee actually doing the role. Today’s role descriptions are
21
usually written by the affected employees and managers. The department
Approaches to now provides a consulting role in the development of role descriptions and
Analysing Job their role is to show managers how to define roles. This approach provides a
more accurate role description, as it is the employees and managers who
have the best insight into the role and are aware of the responsibilities and
results expected. Employee involvement in describing their roles also
creates ownership.
4. Role is not meant to list every duty an employee performs. However, in the
past many roles included statements such as and other duties and responsi-
bilities that may be required on either a temporary or permanent basis. This
allowed
managers to change duties or add duties without discussing this with
employees. In today’s organisation role are marketed differently in that they
are promoted to staff as a role profile outlining the main responsibilities, not
all the duties that need to be performed. Changes to these responsibilities
are discussed between the manager and employee.
5. If roles are to be used as a career development tool they need to be available
for all staff within an organisation. Some organisations make them available
on-line through their intranet. This often was not the case in the past where
roles were only available to the person doing the role, their manager and
senior
management.
6. Traditional roles were often described in a way that implied complete
independence from other positions within the organisation and were very
individualistic in nature. It was not quite clear how a particular role is
related to other positions and processes within the organisation. This type of
description encourages independent rather than group action. Today roles
need to reflect the interdependence of processes and people within the
organisation. If the organisation is based on teams and employees are
expected to work together to accomplish objectives and goals, this needs to
be reflected in the roles.
7. Roles were often only reviewed when a role became vacant or new duties
were added. In today’s work environment roles are incorporated into the
organisations performance management system in order to ensure they are
reviewed regularly with the employee. This maintains currency, accuracy,
relevance and usefulness of the role description.
8. It was stated that roles are not a work schedule, however, in the past many
indicated how much time is spent on different tasks. In today’s work
environment time percentages or frequency have been replaced with perfor-
mance measures or indicators, which provide a clearer indication of what is
expected from the role.

7.7 THE CHANGING WORLD OF WORK

When considering a career action one needs to assess the changes occurring at the
workplace. Most employment environments are changing from what they have been
once. Here are some of the implications of these changes for roles and careers.
1. Previously future was some what predictable. Today there is less certainty and
more ambiguity in roles.
2. Earlier there was a move to a specific job. Now the focus is on matching one
self to work contents based on one’s values.
3. In the past there was an attempt to carry predetermined tasks. Today there are
22 frequent changes in the task and greater focus on teams working.
4. There was a time of stability in work situation. Today the needs of the Changing Nature
organisations are continuously changing. of Roles

5. Traditionally having one job title was the requirement. Now there is a range of
roles and a person may perform many functions.
6. In the past employees joined one occupational stream and retired from the same.
Today, organisations are insisting on transferring skills into many work fields.
7. Previously change was avoided. Today change is embraced.
8. Earlier career success was defined by others. Today the worthwhileness of the
job is realised by individual employee himself/ herself.

7.8 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ROLE CHANGES

Given the changed scenario there is a need to change and / or modify the roles.
Some of the major factors contributing to the need for change are technology,
information processing, competition, changing gender profile of workforce and
changing culture.

1. Technology upgradation
Technology continues to advance rapidly offering wider choices. There are very
sophisticated machines that provide rapid output with zero defects. Manual work has
been replaced by automation. Not only this machine upgradation is taking place at a
very fast pace, and hence there is an urgent need to upgrade the skill level of the
employees. They need to be continuously sent for training programmes to keep them
updated. How many people in accounts still count on fingers, though their roles have
changed to using computers for accounts purposes.

2. Information Technology
Today much of the focus is on Internet and World Wide Web Information technology
has brought a revolution in access, storage and retrieval of information. Electronic
mail is making it easier to seek guidance and advice from specialists around the
world. Transition from printed information to electronic publicity has resulted in
multimedia information service. None of these applications of information
technology can be achieved without trainers and users having the appropriate skills.
It will therefore be vital not only to develop program to improve the skills of users,
but ensure that the information professional has the skills to be able to change roles.
With the availability of high-speed networks, new services and applications, training
becomes an even more urgent issue.
On top of this there is a need for improvement of information and knowledge
handling in the “ subject content”. Content is king, without quality data any system
is devoid of use.

3. Competition
With the globalization and creating a world without border competition has become
the force to reckon with. It has given boost to consumer preferences, better product
quality expectations, and reliable service. Just about 20 years ago, there were only
2-3 models of cars. Today we have as many as 30-35 models available in the easiest
possible way. Business executive cannot afford to live in their own world and sell
whatever they produce. It is a buyers market now. They have to get out from the
comforts of their offices, identify customers’ preferences and satisfy them before they
loose out in the competition.

4. Women in work
Taking care of others is the primary role of women. Traditionally, women have 23
Approaches to tended the home. It was their duty, honour, and obligation to devote themselves to the
Analysing Job young, the sick, and the elderly. Women were raised to be “good wives and wise
mothers,” and still are. Yet there is a quiet revolution going on. Women make up 40
percent of the labour force. More than half of all the married women work.
Management positions held by women in India have doubled as compared to ten
years ago. Though this figure still represents only about 1 percent of all management
positions, as opposed to over 10 percent, as is the case in the United States. In
addition, women are shedding their traditionally subordinate roles and using the
courts to assert their rights. If one goes by the number of women students in
professional courses, their number in workforce is going to increase. Hence some of
the traditional roles have to be modified to suits the requirements of female
workforce.

Activity A
List out the factors contributing to role changes in your organisation or any
organisation you are acquainted with.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

Activity B
What kinds of roles do you feel that are more useful in any organisation. List out the
defferent approaches to roles followed in your organisation or any organisation you
are familiar with.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

7.9 ROLE EXPECTATIONS

Some of the emerging role expectations are presented below:
1. Top leaders and managers must serve as learning roles models by sharing their
own learning goals and by encouraging others to learn. They should also
recognize the need for individual learning for all levels of employees.
2. Individual employees have to accept responsibility for their own careers and
their own personal learning. They should not wait to be taught nor expect the
organisation to provide career paths.
3. Learning and personal growth must be actively encouraged and rewarded. There
must be incentives for individuals to stretch their abilities.
4. The “not invented here” syndrome should not practiced by individuals. There
should be constant scanning of the internal and external environment for new
ideas and trends that will lead to improvement.
5. Employees must be held accountable for their performance and excellence must
be rewarded.
6. Procedures and policies must be in place to ensure on going and timely
reevaluation of changing job skill and requirements. Roles and job require-
24
 ments must be examined regularly to accurately reflect the work being per- Changing Nature
formed or skills required. of Roles

7.10 SUMMARY
The concept of role can better be understood in the context of the expectations an
organisation has with its employees. A single person does not make an organisation,
it requires two or more persons to fulfil the requirements of coordination. One person
cannot do all the roles of the organisation. Each individual has a clearly defined
responsibility which is completely different from others, along with responsibility
comes the authority to complete the role. Each role has its written descriptions define
the work of the organisation and its reasons for existence as an employer of human
resources.
There are different kinds of roles, these are Interpersonal, Informational and
Decisional. These roles can be grouped as being primarily concerned with
interpersonal relationship.
The role of description is needed as a communication tool; it effectively
communicates a great deal of information about a role, especially between the
manager and employee. Role descriptions have the potential to be used for selection
and recruitment, induction and orientation, analysing work flows and methods, job
structuring, etc.
Roles will be changing from time to time according to prevailing situation. There is a
shift from description of duties to description of responsibilities; when considering a
career action one needs to assess the changes occurring at the work place. Most
employment environments are changing from what they have been once. Some of the
major factors contributing to the need for change are: technology, information
processing, competition, changing gender profile of workforce and changing culture.
Roles and job requirements must be examined regularly to accurately reflect the work
being performed or skills required.

7.11 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the various approaches to role definition.
2. Describe the factors leading to changes required in role descriptions.
3. Define role description and explain the uses of role descriptions.

7.12 FURTHER READINGS

Davis and NewsStrom , (1985) Human Behaviour at Work; organizational
Behaviour: New York: McGrawHill.
Flippo, F. B. (1971), Principles Of Personnel Management, NewYork: McGraw Hill.
Geisler, E. B. (1967) Manpower Planning: An Emerging Staff Function, New York:
AmericanManagement association.
Koontz, H. and O’ Donnel, C. (1959) Principal Of Management, New York:
McGraw Hill.
Mintzberg H (1973) The Nature of Managerial work, New York: Harper & Raw.
Prasad, L. (1973) Personnal Management and Industrial Relations in the Public
Sector, Bombay: progressive.
Saiyadain, M.S.(2003) Human Resources Management (3rd Ed.), New Delhi: Tata
McGraw Hill. 25
Stephen P. Robbins (1997) Organizational Behavior Concepts Controversies Appli-
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Approaches to
Analysing Job 8.3 OBJECTIVES OF JOB EVALUATION
The primary objective of Job evaluation is to find out the value ofwork, but this
value which varies from time to time and from place to place under the influence of
certain economic pressures, not least of which is the worth of money itself.
Nevertheless, the value of work at a specific time and place is absolute, governed by
supply and demand, and related to the value of all otller work. The aim ofjob
evaluation is not to create a rate, but to discover what that rate is at that time and i n
that place.
Another aim ofjob evaluation is to supply bases for wage negotiations founded on
facts rather than 011 any vague ideas. Wages are always under pressure of one kind or
another and some wages are influenced Inore than the others by such pressures -
resulting in anomalies in rates of pay. It is the function ofjob evaluation to reveal
these anomalies, rather than create them. When job evaluation is used in the design of
a wage structure, it helps in rationalising or simplifying the system by reducing
number of separate and different rates.
The technique ofjob evaluation can also be used to determine not only what the job is
worth but also the value of each ofthe aspects such as the skill and responsibility
levels. Such information could be useful for devising measure for improving labour
productivity.

8.4 ASSUMPTIONS IN JOB EVALUATION

Job evaluation is based on certain basic postulates, It assumes the following:
I. 'The work must have some intrinsic worth when judged against certain criteria,
but that whateverthis worth may be it will not necessarily be the same as the
wage. Implicit in this assumption is that these criteria can be ideiltified, specified
and quantified. These criteria are i n terms of the human characteristics or
qualities that are required to do the work satisfactorily.
2. It is logical to pay the most forjobs which corltribute most to attaining the
organisational objective(s).
3. The enterprise goals are better served and furthered by installing and maintaining
a job-cum-pay structure based on relative job worth.
4. People 'feel fair' if two men at the opposite ends of the conveyor belt (one
putting on the raw material and the other ullloading the finished article) get the
same pay. Hence wages lnust be based on relative worth ofjob. The 'relative
worth ofjobs' is not easy to gauge. Ry f a , the most important element in job
price is the content factor. Tlle content factor consists of duties and responsibili-
ties of tlie post, the difficulty level (s) encountered by the incumbents, demands
that are made by the post on job holder in terms of mental, intellectual, physical
and environmental requirement for discharge of the duties attached to the post.
These obviously are central points related to the post and, hence, are basic to the
determination of tlie base rate for the job. Pzy or salary str~lcturemay thus be
seen to consist ofthe following:
1. The job rate whic11 is related to the importance ofthe job, the responsibilities
involved in it, skill levels and pattern ofexperience rieeded for adequate
job performance, and the mental and physical demands made on the job
incum bent.
2. Special or personal allowzllces connected with long service, skill scarcily,
and compensation for porsonal or social inconvenience.
 3. Fringe benefits, holidays with pay. pensions, life insurance, car, etc. Job E v a l u a t i o ~ l :
. Concepts and
4. Payments associated with reward according to performance (payment by Methotls
result scheme, merit rating or profit sharing schemes, share of production
plan, etc.)
Though tlie wage structure is contingent upon the functional inter-relations alnoligst
these components, tlie job base rate constitutes the cornerstone of a sound
remuneration system. In evaluating jobs, all the relevant factors have to be taken into
acc~~unt,and the total job cost evolves through interplay of the following factors:
It is wortliwliile finding out what is tlie worth of work and tliat the knowl-
edge thus acquired can be put to some use. It can be argued that i~iilessthere
were some tangible advantage to be gained from what is a fairly costly
exercise it were better left alone.
Job evaluation also assumes tliat if the correct factors are chosen and valued
correctly in relation to each other and if the work is properly evaluated in
terms of tliese factors, then the job value slioi~ldbe proportionate to the
current wage rates.
3. While the economic pressures affect the wages tliey do not affect the basic
evaluations of the work. The evaluation depends upon the criteria and so
long as the criteria do not change, the evaluation sliould remain as it were.
Likl: everything else job evaluation decays. It might begin to decay even before it is
con~pletedand can be kept in good order only by careful maintenance. But once a
system has begun to collapse tlie best maintenance possible will not restore it and it
will need to be replaced by another system.

-
8.5 METHODS OF JOB EVALUATION
The next step in the job evaluation process is to select or design a method of
evaluating jobs. Four basic methods have traditionally been mentioned. These are
ranlcing, classification, factor comparisoti, and tlie point plan methods. These four
baslc inetliods are pure types. I11 practice there are numerous combinations. Also,
there are many ready-made plans as well as numerous adaptations of these plans to
specific organisatioii needs.
Following three dimensions distinguish these methods:
1. Whether tliey are qualitative versus quantitative,
2. Whether they vary from job-to-job versus job-to-standard comparison, and
3. Whether it considers of total job against separate factors that make up the job.
These four methods as listed below:

A. ,Job Kanking
The simplest and least formal of all job evaluation systems is known as the Ranking
Methods. Under this method no effort is made to break ajob down into its elements or
factors, but the aim is rather to judge the job as a whole and determine tlie relative
values by ranking one whole job against whole job. This is usually done by using a
narrative position description, but in many cases even this is omitted. With or without
information concerning tlie job at hand, an individual or group of individuals rank the
jobs, in the order of dieir difficulties or value to tlie Company.
This procedure is followed for jobs in each department and an attempt is then made to
equate or compare jobs at various levels among the several departments. When this is
corr~pleted,grade levels are defined and salary groups formed. In a great many
Approaches to instances, the rankings are not based on job descriptions but on the raters' general
Analysing Job knowledge of the position. It is difficult to group together jobs that are similar or to
separate jobs, which are dissimilar, unless carefully prepared, job descriptions have
been developed.
This method might serve the purposes of a small organisation with easily defined jobs
but would probably be most unsuitable for a large company with a complex
organisation structure. Developing job ranking consists of the following steps:
1. The first step in job evaluation is job analysis. Job descriptions are prepared, or
secured if already available.
2. Raters who will attempt to make unbiased judgments are selected and trained in
the rating procedure.
3. Although ranking is referred to as a "whole-job" approach, different raters may
use different attributes to rank jobs. Ifjudgments are to be comparable,
compensable factors must be selected and defined.
4. Altliougli straight ranking is feasible for a limited number ofjobs (20 or less),
alternate Ranking or paired comparison tends to produce more consistent results.
Straight ranking involves ordering cards (one for each job) on which job titles or
short job briefs have been written. Alternate ranking provides raters with a form
on which a list ofjob titles to be ranked are recorded at the left and an equal
number of blank spaces appear at the right. The raters are asked to record at the
top ofthe right-hand column the job title they adjudge the highest, aiid cross out
that title in the list to the left. Then they record the lowestjob in the bottom blank
and tlie remaining jobs in between, crossing out the job titles from the left-hand
list along tlie way.
5. It is advisable to have several raters rank the jobs independently. Their rankings
are then averaged; yielding a composite ranking that is suff~cientlyaccurate.
Although job ranking is usually assumed to be applicable primarily to small
organisations, it has been used in large firms as well. Computers make it possible to
use paired co~nparisonfor any number of raters, jobs, and even factors. But the other
disadvantages remain. Unless job ranking is based on good job descriptions and at
least one carefully defined factor, it is difficult to explain and justify in work-related
terms. Although the job hierarchy developed by ranking may be better than paying no
attention at all to job relationships, the method's simplicity and low cost may produce
results of less than the needed quality.
Following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of this method:

Advantages
1. Easily understood and easy to administer.
2. Sets a better rate than the arbitrary rate based purely on judgment and
experience.

Disadvantages
1. The classification is in general terms and only an overall assessment is possible.
2. In a complex industrial organisation, it is not possible to be familiar with all the
jobs and thus general descriptions will not enable correct assessment of the
relative importance of all the jobs.
3. The grading is very much influenced by the existing wage rates.
4. It does not indicate the degree ofdifference between jobs, but only indicates that
one job is more or Less important than another one.
B. Job Classification Job Evaluatio~a:
Concepts and
This method received widest recognition in 1922 when the US Congress passed the Methods
Classification Act, which made this system applicable to all clerical, administrative,
professional and managerial civil service positions.
The:method is similar to ranking in that in both methods neither points nor money
v a l ~ ~are
e s used to classify jobs. No complicated procedures are involved; once the
structure and definition of grades are fixed, tlie evaluation process is comparatively
quick and simple. However, classification differs from ranking in that the order of
operations is reversed. First of all, the grades are determined and then the jobs are
graded by reference to their content. Figuratively, the method may be described as a
series of carefully labelled shelves in a bookcase. The primary risk is to describe
each of the classes so that no difficulty is experienced in fitting each job into its
proper niche. Jobs are then classified by comparing each job to the descriptions
provided.
In this method the most difficult and important operation is defining the grades; it
s h o ~ ~be
l ddone so as to bring out perceptible differences between levels of skill,
responsibility etc. Before defining the requirements of the various grades it is usual to
select those factors, which constitute essential aspects ofjobs. Skills, knowledge,
expsrience and responsibility required are generally used as basic factors, but the
choice and number of factors depend on the nature of the organisation's activities. It
sho~lldbe noted, however, that while the classification method may rely on selected
general factors, the evaluation itself is carried out on the basis of whole. The factors
are used to provide general guidance for the decisions but are unweighted and
unscored.
The classification method has historically been the one most widely used for salaried
jobs, particularly in government and service occupations, although there is also some
evidence of its use in industry.

Steps in Job Classification

Cla:;sification method customarily employs a number of compensable factors. These
factors typically emphasise the difficulty of the work but also include performance
requirements. The terms used in grade descriptions to distinguish differing amounts of
com pensable factors necessarily require judgment. For example, distinguishing
between simple, routine, varied, and complex work and between limited, shared, and
independent judgrneiit is not automatic. While the judgment involved in such
distinctions may produce the flexibility just cited as an advantage, it may also
encourage managers to use inflated language in job descriptions and job titles to
manipulate the classification ofjobs. Developing a job classificatiolisystem requires
follc~wing steps:
1. Obtain Job Information: Classification, like all other job evaluation methods,
must start with job analysis. A description is developed for each job. Sometimes
key jobs are analysv; first and their descriptions used in developing grade
descriptions; then the other jobs are analyzed and graded.
2. Select Cornpensable Factors: Job descriptions are reviewed to distill factors that
distinguish jobs at different levels. This is often done by selecting keyjobs at
various levels of the organisation, ranking them, and seeking the factors that
distinguish them. Obviously, the factors must be acceptable to management and
employees.
3. Determine the Number of Classes: The number of classes selected depends
upon tradition, job diversity, and tlie promotion policies ofthe organisation.
.ganisations tend to follow similar other organisations in this decision. Those
Approaches .to favouring more classes argue that more grades mean more promotions and
Anrlys I; : Job
employees approve of this. Those favouring fewer classes argue that fewer
grades permit more management flexibility and a simpler pay structure.
Obviously, diversity in the work and organisation size increases the need for
more classes.
4. Develop Class Descriptions: This refers to defining classes in sufficient detail to
permit raters to readily slot jobs. Usually this is done by describing levels of
compensable factors that apply to the jobs in a class. Often, titles of benchmark
jobs are used as examples ofjobs that fall into a grade. Writing grade
descriptions is more difficult if one set of classes is developed for the entire
organisation, than if separate class hierarchies are developed for different
occupational groups. More specific class description eases the task of
slotting jobs, but also limits the number ofjobs that fit into a class. A
committee is usually assigned the writing of class descriptions. It is often
useful to write the descriptions ofthe two extreme grades first, then those
in the middle.
5. Classify Jobs: The committee charged with writing grade descriptions is often
also assigned the task of classifying jobs. This involves comparing job
descriptions with class descriptions. The result is a series of classes, each
containing a number ofjobs that are similar to one another. The jobs in each
class are considered to be sufficiently similar to have the same pay. Jobs in other
classes are considered dissimilar enough to have different pay. Classification
systems have been used more in government organisations than in private ones.
Most are designed to cover a wide range ofjobs and are based on the assumption
that jobs will be relatively stable in content. Although classification tends to
produce more defensible and acceptable job structures than ranking, it may
substitute flexibility for precision. It is easy to uilderstand and communicate, but
its results are non-quantitative.
Following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of this method:

Advantages
1. Comparatively simple and easily administered;
2. Since written job descriptions are used evaluation ofjobs tend to be inore
accurate than under ranking system.

Disadvantages
1. Classification is in general terms and only an overall assessment is possible,
2. It is very difficult to make comprehensive class specifications for a complex
organisation. The specifications tend to overlap and it is difficult to decide which
class a particular job belongs, and
3. Placing jobs in classes is very much influenced by the existing wage rates.

C. Factor Compa rison Method

This method, as the name implies, compares jobs on several factors to obtain a
numerical value for each job and to arrive at a job structure. Thus it may be classified
as a quantitative method. Factor comparison method itself is not widely used: it
probably represents less than 10 percent ofthe installations ofjob evaluation
plans. But the concepts on which it is based are incorporated in numerous job
evaluation plans.
 Fac1:or comparison involves judging which jobs contain more of certain compensable Job Evaluation:
factors. Jobs'are compared with each other (as in the ranking method), but on one Concepts and
Methods
factor at a time. The judgments permit construction of a comparison scale of key jobs
against which other jobs may be compared. The compensable factors used are usually
1. Mental requirements,
2. Physical requirements,
,3. Ski1l requirements,
4. Responsibility, and
5. Working conditions.
These are considered to be universal factors found in all jobs. This means that single
job-comparison scale for all jobs in the organisation may be constructed. However,
separate job-comparison scales can be developed for different functional groups, and
other factors can be elnployed.
The Factor Comparison Method involves the following methods:
1. Selecting bench-markjobs: The jobs selected as benchmark jobs must satisfy a
number of conditions. Firstly, they should be capable of clear descriptions and
analysis in terms of factors used; secondly, they must be representative of the
hierarchy and thirdly, when the rates for the benchmark jobs are to be used as the
standard for fixing the wages, these rates should be regarded as appropriate by
all concerned.
2. Ranking benchmark jobs by factors: Once a number of benchmark jobs are
chosen, they are ranked successively by reference to each of the factors chosen.
When acommittee does the ranking, each member must make his own ranking
and the results are then averaged.
3. n ~ values to eachfactoc The factors comparison method may
~ i o c a t i money
also be used in fixing up wages in money units by ranking the jobs. The wage
rate for each bench mark job is broken down and distributed among the factors in
the proportions in which these are considered to contribute to the total price paid
for each bench mark job in the form of tlie wage rate. For example, if tool
making is the example of the of bench rnark job and its wage rate is 20 money
units, it may be decided to assign nine of these to skill, five to mental require-
ments, two to physical requirements, three to responsibility and one to working
conditions.
4. Ranking otlzerjobs: On the basis ofjob descriptions, each job is analysed and
compared with the benchmark job in terms of each of the factors separately.
Following are some ofthe adva,, .ages and disadvantages of this method:

I
1. Factor Comparison method permits a Inore systematic comparison ofjobs than
the non-analyticai methods.
2. Evaluation is easier than by the point method, as a set of similar jobs are
, compared and ranked against each other,
I
I 3. Analysis of benchrr~arkjobs is very comprehensive.
I
I 4. In a scheme that incorporates money values, the determination of wage rates is
1 automatic.

I 5. Reliance of the method on guarantees that the scheme Is tailor-made and that the
ranking necessarily reflects the actual wage structure while eliminating
anomalies.
Approaches to Disadvantages
Analysing Job
1. This method is comparatively complicated to apply and difficult to explain to workers.
2. The wage rates for the benchmark jobs are presumed to be correct and definitive
and all other rates are determined by reference to them.
3. It goes against the common belief that the procedures of evaluating jobs and
fixing their wages should be kept separate.

D. Point-factor method
The point-factor method, or point plan, involves rating each job on several
compensable factors and adding the scores on each factor to obtain total points for a
job. A carefully worded rating scale is constructed for each compensable factor. This
rating scale includes a definition of the factor, several divisions called degrees (also
carefully defined), and a point score for each degree. The rating scales may be thought
of as a set of rulers used to measure jobs.
Designing a point plan is complex, but once designed the plan is relatively simple to
understand and use. While numerous ready-made plans developed by consultant; and
associations exist, existing plans are often modified to fit the organisation.

The steps in building a point-factor plan are as follows:

1. Analyze Jobs: As in all other job evaluation methods, this step comes first. All
jobs may be analysed at this point, or merely a sample of benchmark jobs to be
used to design the plan. A job description is written for each job analysed.
2. Select Cornpensable Factors: When job information is available, compensable
factors are selected. Although the yardsticks on which jobs are to be compared
are important in all job evaluation methods, they are especially important in the
point-factor method. Because a number of factors are used, they must be the
ones for which the organisation is paying.
3. Define Cornpensable Factors: Factors must be defined in suff~cientdetail to
permit raters to use them as yardsticks to evaluate jobs. Such definitions are
extremely important because the raters will be referring to them often during
their evaluations. When the factors chosen are specific to the organisation, the
task of defining them is less difficult. Also, it is often argued that definitions may
be more precise when the plan is developed for one job family or function.
4. Determine and Define Factor Degrees: The rating scale for each factor consists
of divisions called degrees. Determiningthese degrees would be like determining
the inch marks on a ruler. It is necessary first to decide the number of divisions,
then to ensure that they are equally spaced or represent known distaiices, and
filially to see that they are carefully defined. The number of degrees depends on
tlie actual range of the factors in the jobs. If, for example, working conditions are
seen to be identical for most jobs, and ifjobs that differ from the norm have very
similar working conditions, then it is sufficient to have no degrees. If, on the
other hand, seven or even more degrees are discernible, that number of degrees is
specified. A major problem in determining degrees is to make each degree
equidistant from the two adjacent degrees. This problem is solved in part by
selecting the number of degrees actually found to exist and in part by careful
definition of degrees. Decision rules such as tlie following are useful in
determiningdegree:
a) Limit degrees to the number necessary to distinguish between the jobs.
b) Use terminology that is easy to understand.
c) Use standard job titles as part of degree definitions.
d) Make sure that the applicability of the degree to the job is apparent.
5. Determine Points for Factors and Degrees: Compensable factors are rarely 'Job Evaluation:
Concepts and
assigned equal weights because some factors are more important than others and
Methods
should bear more weight. Factor weights may be assigned by committee
judgment or statistically. In the committee avproach, the procedure is to have
committee members.
a) Carefully study factor and degree definitions,
b) Individually rank the factors in order of importance,
c) Agree on a ranking,
d) Individually distribute 100 percent among the factors.
e) Reacli agreement.
The result is a set of factor weights representing committee judgment. The weights
thereby reflect the judgments of organisation members and may contribute to
acceptance of the plan. The committee may then complete the scale by assigning
points to factors and degrees. Next a decision is usually made on the total points
possible in the plan. Applying tlie weights just assigned to this total yields the
maximum value for each factor.
6. Write a Job Evaluation Manual: A job evaluation manual conveniently
consolidates the factor and degree definitions and the point values (the yardsticks
.. to be used by raters in evaluating jobs). It should also include a review procedure
for cases where employees or managers question evaluations of certain jobs.
Usually the compensation specialist conducts such re-evaluations, but sometimes
tlie assistance of the co~npensationcommittee is called for.
7. Rate tire jobs: When the manual is complete, job rating can begin. Raters use the
scales to evaluate jobs. Key jobs have usually been rated previously in the
development ofthe plan. The others are rated at this point. In smaller
organisations, a co~npensationspecialist may do job rating. In larger firms,
co~n~nittee ratings developed from independent ratings of individual members are
usual. As jobs are rated, the rating on each factor is recorded on a substantiating
data sheet. This becomes a permanent record of the points assigned to each
factor and tlie reasons for assigning a particular degree of the factor to the job.
Substantiating data come from the job description.
Following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of this method:

1. The graphic and descriptive types of rating scales used have been accepted as
most reliable and valid. Agreement among rates is usually quite close
2. Compensable factors are not limited to any particular number. These factors,
which the parties decide as important can be used.
3. Job classes, which are the aim of all job evaluation systems, are easily set up.
Job classes are simply determined in terms of arbitrary point ranges or on agreed
point ranges.
C

Disadvantages
1. [t is difficult to develop a point rating scheme. Defining factors and their degrees
in such a fashion that all the raters will have the same meaning needs
{considerableamount of skill.
2. Assigning proper weightages to each factor and then assigning point values to
each degree without being unfair to either easy or difficult jobs, requires careful
md detailed study.
Approaches to 3. The point factor system is diff~cultto explain. The concept of factors, degrees
Analysit~gJob
relative to weights and points and relating points to money value. cannot be
easily interpreted to employees. If the workers do not understand the system
clearly, it may have adverse effect.
4. Point rating scheme is certainly a time consuming process. Collecting job
descriptions, defining degrees and factors, allocating degrees to each factor of
each job, co-relating them with points and then ultimately with money value
unanimously by evaluation committee is a long process. Considerable clerical
work is also involved in preparing the job descriptions, final table ofjobs
evaluated, degrees assigned and points scored. -.

Activity A
Briefly explain, what are the job evaluation methods being followed in your
organisation or any organisation you are familiar with. Give reasons for using these
methods.

Activity B
An individual hired for a position finds out that the work he was asked to do was not
the work he was hired to do. Is it possible? Discuss.

8.6
- -
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN JOB EVALUATION
-

The question of choosing and weighing factors is one of the most difficult issues
encountered in basic qualitative methods. Some job evaluation schemes are rejected
because of the factors chosen, and others categorised as vague and confusing because
of too many factors and sub factors. As a result. aorne researchers and practitioilers of
job evaluation have proposed and experimented ,.tit!? single factor scheme which is
briefly outlined next.

The Hay Guide Chart-Profile Method

Undoubrcdly the best-known variation of factor comparison, Ray Guide Chart-
Profile Mcthud is reportedly used by more than 4,000 profit and nonprofit
organisations in some 30 countries. It is described by the Hay Group (a team of
tnanage~nentconsultants) as a form of factor comparison for the following reasons: it
uses universal factors, bases job values on Ispercent intervals, and makes job-to-job
comparisons. The plan is tailored to the organization. Profiling is used to adjust the
guide charts and to check on the evaluation of-jobs. The plan rnay be used for all types
ofjobs and is increasingly uscd for all jobs in an organisation.
The universal factors in the Hay plan are know-how,t)robZ~m solving, and
accountability. These three factors are broken down into eight dimensions. Know-how
involves (1) procedures and techniques, (2) breadth of management skills, and (3)
person-to-person skills. The two dimensions of problem solving are (I )thinking Job Evaluation:
envir~mmentand (2) thinking challenge. Accountability has three dimensions: (1) Concepts and
Methods
freed~xnto act, (2) impact on results, and (3) magnitude. A fourth factor, working
conditions, is someti~nesused forjobs in which hazards, environment, or physical -
demands are deemed important.

The heart of the Hay Plan is its guide charts use of 15 percent intervals. Although
these charts appear to be two-dimension point scales, the I-Iay Group insists that,
except for the problem-solving scale they may be expanded to reflect the size and
complexity of the organization. It also states that the defiilitions of the factors are
moditied as appropriate to meet the needs of the organisation.

Profiling is used to develop the relationship anlong the three scales and to provide an
additional con~parisonwith the points assigned from the guide charts. Jobs are
assumed to have characteristic shapes or protiles in terins of problem-solving and
accountability [Link] and production jobs, for example, emphasise
accountability over problem solving. Research jobs emphasise problem solving more
than accountability. Typically, staffjobs tend to equate thq two.
Hay Guide Chart-Profile Method consists ofthe following:
. .
1. Studying the organisation and selecting and adjusting guide charts,
2. Selecting a sample of benchmark jobs covering all levels and functions,
3. P~nalysingjobs and writing job descriptions in terms of the three universal
filctors,
4. Selecting a job evaluation committee consisting of line and staff managers, a
personnel department representative,often employees, and a Hay consultant, and
5. Evaluating benchmark jobs and then all otherjobs. .
Point values from the three guide charts are added. yielding a single point value for
each jcbb.~rofilesare then constructed and compared on problem solving and
accour~tability,as an additional evaluation.

The jol) evaluation is a set of systematic procedures to determinethe relative worth of

jobs within the organisations. Job evaluatio~~ is the process of analysing and
appraising the content ofjobs, set in the family of otherjobs, so as to put them in a
suitably evolved rank order which can then be utilised for installation of an acceptable
wage slructure in an organisation.
The primary objective ofjob evaluation is to find out the value of work, but this value
which v~ariesfrom time to tinie and from place to place under the influence of certain
econon~icpressures. Another aim ut'jrlh evaluation is to supply bases for wage
negotiations founded on fapi. -:];her rlra~ron any vague ideas. The technique ofjob
evali~ationcan also be used to deterna:lne not only what the job is worth but also the
value ofeacl~of the aspects such as the skills and responsibility levels.
The next step in the job evaluation process is to select or design a method of
evaluating jobs. Four basic methods have traditionally been ment~[Link] are:
ranking, classification, factor comparison, and the point plan methods. Depending
on its needs and ethos, an organisation to develop a method that may combine the
features oftwo or more than two methods, chosen nlethod shoi~ldsecure the
satisfaction of all concerned, namely management, the employees and the
unions.
Approaches to
Analysing J O ~ 8.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the various job evaluation methods and its objectives.
2. Briefly describe the recent developments in job evaluation system.
3. Define job evaluation and explain the uses ofjob evaluation methods.

8.9 FURTHER READINGS

Bradley, Katherine, (1 979), Job Evaluation: Theory & Practice, Northants. British
Institute of Management.
Byars, L.L. and Rue, L.W (1997), Human Resource Management, Homewood, Ill.
Irwin.
Dessler, Gary (2000), Human Resource Management (Sh Ed). New Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Elizur, Dove. (19 87), Systematic Job Evaluation and Comparative Worth,
Hemspshire. Gower.
Henderson, R. (1994), Compensation Management and Rewarding Performance.
New Jersey ;Prentice Hall.
ILO, (1986), Job Evaluation Vol2, ILO, Geneva.
Patten, Thomas, H. (1988), Fair Pay: The Managerial Challenge of Comparable Job
Worth and Job evaluation, London Jossey-Bass.
Peterson, T. T. (1972), Job Evaluation (Vol. 2), A Manuel for Peterson Methods,
London, Business Books.
Thomson, George, F. (1980), Job Evaluation: Objectives and Methods, London
Institute of Personnel Management.
Trieman, Donald, J. (1980), Job Evaluation: Analytical Review, New York, National
Academy of Sciences.
Walker J. Morris, (1973), Principles and Practice of Job evaluation, London,
Heinemann Haliey Court.
 Competency Approaches
UNIT 9 COMPETENCY APPROACHES TO to Job Analysis

JOB ANALYSIS
Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be ale to understand
l the concept of competency and competency mapping,
l the various methods of the competency mapping, and
l the benefits of competency approach to job analysis.

Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 What is Competency Approach
9.3 How is it Used by Organisations
9.4 The Benefits of the Competency Approach
9.5 Competency Mapping
9.6 Approaches to Competency Mapping
9.7 Summary
9.8 Self-Assessment Questions
9.9 Further Readings

9.1 INTRODUCTION
We presume that you are doing this course to acquire or enhance your knowledge
about the modern management concepts and techniques. This understanding should,
undoubtedly, improve your skills as a manager, especially as a manager of men. You
will also appreciate that an effective manager is one who is able to handle his people
efficiently. In order to be a good manager of men, it will also be imperative for you to
have an adequate understanding of the jobs assigned to them as also the relative job
differentials in terms of their level of difficulty, responsibility, knowledge and skill.

9.2 WHAT IS COMPETENCY APPROACH?

A skill is a task or activity required for competency on the job. Competency in a skill
requires knowledge, experience, attitude, and feedback. Performance assessment
criteria clearly define the acceptable level of competency for each skill required to
perform the job. The individual’s level of competency in each skill is measured
against a performance standard established by the organisation.
These competency skills are grouped according to a major function of the
occupation, and are presented in a two-dimensional chart. Each skill has its own set
of “learning outcomes”, which must be mastered before a competency in the
particular skill is acknowledged.
The competency based job analysis involves the following steps:
1. Identification of major job functions.
2. Identification of skills performed within each of the major job functions.
3. Generation of several drafts to be reviewed by employers and employees and
modified to accurately reflect the skills performed on the job. 39
Approaches to 4. Development of an occupational analysis chart. The chart is a two-dimensional
Analysing Job spreadsheet chart displaying the major job functions and skills.
5. Identification of performance standards for each skill using a competency-based
rating scale which describes various levels of performance.

9.3 HOW IS IT USED BY ORGANISATIONS?

The job analysis is a foundation upon which to build a variety of human resource
development initiatives. This adaptable, flexible and scalable tool has been used for
the following benefits to the organisation:
1. Provide a systematic approach to planning training;
2. Customize training delivery to the individual or organisation;
3. Evaluate suitability of training programmes to promote job competence;
4. Provide employees with a detailed job description;
5. Develop job advertisements;
6. Interview and select personnel;
7. Conduct performance appraisals;
8. Target training to skills that require development;
9. Give credit for prior knowledge and experience;
10. Focus on performance improvement;
11. Promote ongoing employee performance development;
12. Identify employee readiness for promotion;
13. Guide career development of employees;
14. Develop modular training curriculum that can be clustered as needed; and
15. Develop learning programs.

9.4 THE BENEFITS OF THE COMPETENCY APPROACH

There are many different approaches to competency analysis while some competency
studies take months to complete and result in vague statements that have little
relevance to people in the organisation but if done well they provide the following
benefit:
1. Increased productivity,
2. Improved work performance,
3. Training that is focused on organisational objectives,
4. Employees know up front what is expected of them,
5. Employees are empowered to become partners in their own performance
development, and
6. The approach builds trust between employees and managers.
One of the strong points of this approach is that it requires interaction between the
employer and the employee. The job analysis is a catalyst to meaningful discussion
of job performance because the employer and employee have a common
understanding of expectations. This is due to the explicit nature of the competency
statements pertaining to the job. The fact that the employee conducts a self-appraisal
of performance and the employer must confirm this assessment requires a counselling
type of interaction to take place. The growth plan requires input from the employer
40 and the employee for its development and follow-up.
 Competency Approaches
9.5 COMPETENCY MAPPING to Job Analysis

Competency approach to job analysis depends on competency mapping. Competency

Mapping is a process to identify key competencies for an organisation and/or a job
and incorporating those competencies throughout the various processes (i.e. job
evaluation, training, recruitment) of the organisation. A competency is defined as a
behaviour (i.e. communication, leadership) rather than a skill or ability. Competency
is the combination of knowledge, skills, attitude and personality of an individual as
applied to a role or job in context of the present or future environment that accounts
for sustained success within the framework of organisational values.
The steps involved in competency mapping are presented below:
1. Conduct a job analysis by asking incumbents to complete a position information
questionnaire (PIQ). This can be provided for incumbents to complete, or used
as a basis for conducting one-on-one interviews using the PIQ as a guide. The
primary goal is to gather from incumbents what they feel are the key behaviours
necessary to perform their respective jobs.
2. Using the results of the job analysis, is developed a competency based job
description. It is developed after carefully analysing the input from the
represented group of incumbents and converting it to standard competencies.
3. With a competency based job description, mapping the competencies can be
done. The competencies of the respective job description become factors for
assessment on the performance evaluation. Using competencies will help to
perform more objective evaluations based on displayed or not displayed
behaviours.
4. Taking the competency mapping one step further, one can use the results of
one’s evaluation to identify in what competencies individuals need additional
development or training. This will help in focusing on training needs required to
achieve the goals of the position and company and help the employees develop
toward the ultimate success of the organisation.

Activity A
Do you think that the competency approach is being followed in your organisation?
If yes, then list out the benefits of competency approach to the organisation.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

Activity B
Are you aware of the competency mapping process of your organisation? If yes,
identify key competencies required to fulfil the job requirements.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
41
Approaches to
Analysing Job 9.6 APPROACHES TO COMPETENCY MAPPING
It is not easy to identify all the competencies required to fulfil the job requirements.
However, a number of methods and approaches have been developed and
successfully tried out. These methods have helped managers to a large extent, to
identify and reinforce and/or develop these competencies both for the growth of the
individual and the growth of the organisation. In the following section, some major
approaches of competency mapping for job analysis have been presented.

1. Assessment Centre
Employees are not contented by just having a job. They want growth and individual
development in the organisation. “Assessment Centre “ is a mechanism to identify
the potential for growth. It is a procedure (not location) that uses a variety of
techniques to evaluate employees for manpower purpose and decisions. It was
initiated by American Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1960 for line personnel
being considered for promotion to supervisory positions. An essential feature of the
assessment centre is the use of situational test to observe specific job behaviour.
Since it is with reference to a job, elements related to the job are simulated through a
variety of tests. The assessors observe the behaviour and make independent
evaluation of what they have observed, which results in identifying strengths and
weaknesses of the attributes being studied.
The International Personnel Management Association (IPMA) has identified the
following elements, essential for a process to be considered as assessment centre.
1. A job analysis of relevant behaviour to determine attribute skills, etc. for
effective job performance and what should be evaluated by assessment center.
2. Techniques used must be validated to assess the dimensions of skills and
abilities.
3. Multiple assessment techniques must be used.
4. Assessment techniques must include job related simulations.
5. Multiple assessors must be used for each assessee.
6. Assessors must be thoroughly trained.
7. Behavioural observations by assessors must be classified into some meaningful
and relevant categories of attributes, skills and abilities, etc.
8. Systematic procedures should be used to record observations.
9. Assessors must prepare a report.
10. All information thus generated must be integrated either by discussion or
application of statistical techniques.
Assessment centre is multi-technique approach to individual assessment which
focuses on individual behaviour. That is grouped under various competencies.
Competencies is a group of behaviour the some total of individual’s competencies is
his potential. This can be classified under the following groups.
1. Intellectual competencies–Analytical ability, organisation ability, communica-
tion skills, creativity and innovativeness and decisions taking ability etc.
2. Emotional competencies–self confidence, tolerance to pressure, leadership skills
etc.
3. Social competencies–inter-personal skills, team spirit, sense of responsiblity,
etc.
4. Motivational competencies–Achievement drives willpower, risk taking
42
 ability, etc. Competency Approaches
to Job Analysis
Data thus generated can become extremely useful in identifying employees with
potential for growth. Following are some of the benefits of the assessment centre.
1. It helps in identifying early the supervisory/ managerial potential and gives
sufficient lead time for training before the person occupies the new position.
2. It helps in identifying the training and development needs.
3. Assessors who are generally senior managers in the organisation find the
training for assessor as a relevant experience to know their organisation a little
better.
4. The assessment centre exercise provides an opportunity for the organisation to
review its HRM policies.
Assessment Centre is a complex process and require investment in time. It should
safeguard itself from misunderstandings and deviations in its implementation. For
this, the following concerns should be ensured:
1. Assessment Centre for diagnosis are often converted as Assessment Centre for
prediction of long range potential.
2. The assessors’ judgement may reflect the perception of reality and not the
reality itself.
3. One is not sure if the benefits outweigh the cost.

Methods in Assessment Centre

Assessment Centre comprises a number of exercises or simulations which have been
designed to replicate the tasks and demands of the job. These exercises or simulations
will have been designed in such a way that a candidate can undertake them both
singly and together and they will be observed by assessors while they are doing the
exercises.
The main types of exercises are:
a) Group Discussions: In these, candidates are brought together as a committee or
project team with one or a number of items to make a recommendation on.
Candidates may be assigned specific roles to play in the group or it may be
structured in such a way that all the candidates have the same basic information.
b) Tray: This type of exercise is normally undertaken by candidates individually.
The materials comprise a bundle of correspondence and the candidate is placed
in the role of somebody, generally, who assumed a new position or replaced
their predecessor at short notice and have been asked to deal with their
accumulated correspondence. Generally the only evidence that the assessors
have to work with are the annotations which the candidates have made on the
articles of mail.
c) Interview Simulations / Role Plays: In these exercises candidates meet
individually with a role player or resource person. Their brief is either to gather
information to form a view and make a decision, or alternatively, to engage in
discussion with the resource person to come to a resolution on an aspect or issue
of dispute. Typically, candidates will be allowed 15 -30 minutes to prepare for
such a meeting and will be given a short, general brief on the objective for the
meeting. Although the assessment is made mainly on the conduct of the meeting
itself, consideration are also be given to preparatory notes.
d) Case Studies / Analysis Exercises: In this type of exercise the candidate is
presented with the task of making a decision about a particular business case.
They are provided with a large amount of factual information which is generally
43
Approaches to ambiguous and, in some cases, contradictory. Candidates generally work
Analysing Job independently on such an exercise.

2. Critical Incidents Technique

It is difficult to define critical incident except to say that it can contribute to the
growth and decay of a system. Perhaps one way to understand the concept would be
to examine what it does. Despite numerous variations in procedures for gathering and
analysing critical incidents researchers and practitioners agree the critical incidents
technique can be described as a set of procedures for systematically identifying
behaviours that contribute to success or failure of individuals or organisations in
specific situations.
In real world of task performance, users are perhaps in the best position to recognise
critical incidents caused by usability problems and design flaws in the user interface.
Critical incident identification is arguably the single most important kind of
information associated with task performance in usability -oriented context.
Following are the criteria for a successful use of critical incident technique.
a. Data are centred around real critical incidents that occur during a task
performance;
b. Tasks are performed by real users;
c. Users are located in their normal working environment;
d. Data are captured in normal task situations, not contrived laboratory settings;
e. Users self report their own critical incidents after they have happened;
f. No direct interaction takes place between user and evaluator during the
description of the incident(s);
g. Quality data can be captured at low cost to the user.
Critical Incidents Technique is useful for obtaining in-depth data about a particular
role or set of tasks. It is extremely useful to obtain detailed feedback on a design
option. It involves the following three steps.
Step 1:Gathering facts: The methodology usually employed is an open-ended
questionnaire, gathering retrospective data. The events should have happened fairly
recently: the longer the time period between the events and their gathering, the
greater the danger that the users may reply with imagined stereotypical responses.
Interviews can also be used, but these must be handled with extreme care not to bias
the user. There are two kinds of approaches to gather information:
a) Unstructured approach where the individual is asked to write down two good
things and two bad things that happened when one was carrying out an activity.
b) Moderate structured approach where the individual is asked to respond to
following questions relating to what happened when s/he was carrying out an
activity.
1. What lead up to the situation?
2. What was done that was especially effective or non- effective?
3. What was the result (outcome)?
Step 2: Content analysis: Subsequent steps in the CIT consist of identifying the
content or themes represented by clusters of incidents and conducting “retranslation”
exercises during which the analyst or other respondents sort the incidents into content
dimensions or categories. These steps help to identify incidents that are judged to
represent dimensions of the behaviour being considered. This can be done using a
simple spreadsheet. Every item is entered as a separate incident to start with, and then
44
each of the incidents is compiled into categories. Category membership is marked as Competency Approaches
identical, quite similar and could be similar. This continues until each item is to Job Analysis
assigned to a category on at least a “quite similar” basis. Each category is then given
a name and the number of the responses in the category are counted. These are in turn
converted into percentages (of total number of responses) and a report is formulated.
Step 3:Creating feedback: It is important to consider that both positive and negative
feedback be provided. The poor features should be arranged in order of frequency,
using the number of responses per category. Same should be done with the good
features. At this point it is necessary to go back to the software and examine the
circumstances that led up to each category of critical incident. Identify what aspect of
the interface was responsible for the incident. Sometimes one finds that there is not
one, but several aspects of an interaction that lead to a critical incident; it is their
conjunction together that makes it critical and it would be an error to focus on one
salient aspect .
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of critical incident technique are presented
below:

Advantages
1. Some of the human errors that are unconsciously committed can be traced and
rectified by this method. For example, a case study on pilots obtained detailed
factual information about pilot error experiences in reading and interpreting
aircraft instruments from people not trained in the critical incident technique
(i.e., eyewitness or the pilot who made the error).
2. Users with no background in software engineering or human computer interac-
tion, and with the barest minimum of training in critical incident identification,
can identify, report, and rate the severity level of their own critical incidents.
This result is important because successful use of the use reported critical
incident method depends on the ability of typical users to recognise and report
critical incidents effectively.

Disadvantages
1. It focuses on critical incidents therefore routine incidents will not be reported. It
is therefore poor as a tool for routine task analysis.
2. Respondents may still reply with stereotypes, not actual events. Using more
structure in the form improves this but not always.
3. Success of the user reported critical incident method depends on the ability of
typical end users to recognise and report critical incidents effectively, but there
is no reason to believe that all users have this ability naturally.

3. Structured Interview Techniques

In this kind of interview what is to be asked is already structured and hence they are
called structured or Patterned Interview. Data considered essential for the job are
listed in a comprehensive and orderly fashion. Often the questions and the order in
which they would be asked is also predetermined. The structured interview process
can be described to have several characteristics.
a) It is based exclusively on job duties and requirements that are critical to job
performance.
b) In some ways it is like a selection test because the responses can be oral,
written, or physical.
c) Questions are predetermined and responses are rated on a point scale defined
explicitly in advance. 45
Approaches to d) Ensures objectivity by having more than one interviewer or multiple raters, who
Analysing Job in case of wide variations in ratings should discuss them before they are
finalised.
e) The consistency is important. For all applicants, it should be the same
committee, same set and order of questions. The consistency is important to
ensure that each applicant gets the same chances.
f) Since questions and responses are identical, inter- applicant comparisons are
easy to make. It also provides a basis for defending selection decision in case
some frustrated applicant decides to go to the court.
g) The patterned interview provides systematic and chronological information,
which makes it easy to apply certain sophisticated statistical tests. The statistical
tests help in taking into account the finer shades of variations before final
decisions are taken.
Successful evaluation of certain factors leads to accurate predictions about the
applicant’s suitability for a job. Three such factors— basic character traits,
motivation and emotional maturity, have been identified. The focus of the patterened
interview is usually on these factors.
In addition, a large number of methods have been developed to measure and map
competencies. Most of them are of recent origin and are designed to identify those
skills, attitudes and knowledge that suits them most for specific jobs. Some of these
techniques are briefly presented below:
1. Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ) examines some of the competencies to
work performance. It has five sections:
(1) Background,
(2) Contacts with People,
(3) Decision Making,
(4) Physical and Mechanical Activities, and
(5) Work Setting.
The background section asks 41 general questions about work requirements such as
travel, seasonality, and license requirements. The Contacts with People section asks
62 questions targeting level of supervision, degree of internal and external contacts,
and meeting requirements. The 80 Decision Making items in the CMQ focus on
relevant occupational knowledge and skill, language and sensory requirements, and
managerial and business decision making. The Physical and Mechanical Activities
section contains 53 items about physical activities and equipment, machinery, and
tools. Work Setting contains 47 items that focus on environmental conditions and
other job characteristics. The CMQ is a relatively new instrument. It has been field
tested on 4,552 positions representing over 900 occupations in the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles (DOT), and yielded reasonably high reliabilities.
2. Functional Job Analysis- The most recent version of FJA uses seven scales to
describe what workers do in jobs:
(1) Things,
(2) Data,
(3) People,
(4) Worker Instructions,
(5) Reasoning,
(6) Maths, and
46 (7) Language.
Each scale has several levels that are anchored with specific behavioural statements Competency Approaches
and illustrative tasks and are used to collect job information. to Job Analysis

3. Multipurpose Occupational System Analysis Inventory (MOSAIC) – In this method

each job analysis inventory collects data from the office of personnel management
system through a variety of descriptors. Two major descriptors in each questionnaire
are tasks and competencies. Tasks are rated on importance and competencies are
rated on several scales including importance and requirements for performing the
task. This is mostly used for US government jobs.
4. Occupational Analysis Inventory- It contains 617 “work elements.” designed to
yield more specific job information while still capturing work requirements for
virtually all occupations. The major categories of items are five-fold:
1) Information Received,
2) Mental Activities,
3) Work Behaviour,
4) Work Goals, and
5) Work Context. Respondents rate each job element on one of four rating scales:
part-of-job, extent, applicability, or a special scale designed for the element.
Afterwards , the matching is done between competencies and work require-
ments.
5. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a structured job analysis instrument to
measure job characteristics and relate them to human characteristics. It consists of
195 job elements that represent in a comprehensive manner the domain of human
behaviour involved in work activities. These items fall into following five
categories:
a. Information input (where and how the worker gets information),
b. Mental processes (reasoning and other processes that workers use),
c. Work output (physical activities and tools used on the job),
d. Relationships with other persons, and
e. Job context (the physical and social contexts of work).
6. Work Profiling System(WPS) is designed to help employers accomplish human
resource functions. The competency approach is designed to yield reports targeted
toward various human resource functions such as individual development planning,
employee selection, and job description. There are three versions of the WPS tied to
types of occupations: managerial, service, and technical occupations. It contains a
structured questionnaire which measures ability and personality attributes .

9.7 SUMMARY
The individual’s level of competency in each skill is measured against a performance
standard established by the organisation. A skill is a task or activity required for
competency on the job. Competency in a skill requires knowledge, experience,
attitude and feedback. Competency approach to job analysis depends on competency
mapping. Competency mapping is a process to identify key competencies for an
organisation. There are different methods and approaches to competency mapping,
these methods have helped managers to a large extent, to identify and reinforce and
develop these competencies both for the growth of the individual and the growth of
the organisation.

47
Approaches to
Analysing Job 9.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the concept of competency and competency approach to job analysis.
2. Describe the various methods of the competency mapping.
3. Explain the major benefits of competency approach to job analysis.

9.9 FURTHER READINGS

Saiyadain, M.S.(2003). Human Resource Management. New Delhi: Tata McGraw
Hill.
Sanghi, S.(2004). The Handbook of Competency Mapping. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.

48