DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

Contents
Topic Page No.
Digestive System 02 - 02
Alimentary Canal 02 - 02
Structural of Teeth 02 - 04
Digestive glands 05 - 05
Absorption of Digested Food 06 - 06
Egestion 06 - 06
Disorders of Digestive System 07 - 07

Digestion and Absorption of Food 08 - 08

Syllabus
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Digestive System, Alimentary Canal, Structural of Teeth, Digestive glands, Absorption
of Digested Food, Egestion, Disorders of Digestive System, Digestion and Absorption
of Food

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ZOOLOGY
16 - Digestion and Absorption
CLASS : XI
Digestive system :
 Parts of the body concerned with the uptake and digestion of food and elimination of indigestible [Link]
system of man consists of alimentary canal or gut and some accessory digestive organs.

Oesophagus

Caecum

Digest ive tract of man

Alimentary canal
 The alimentary canal is a coiled, muscular tube extending from the mouth
tothe anus. Mouth has a number of teeth to grasp and hold the food in the
oral cavity. They are modified for chewing the food. With the help of
teeth, tongue and jaw movement, food is chewed and mixed with saliva in
the mouth.
 Humans have two sets of teeth during their lifetime, a condition known as
diphyodont. They are heterodont, which means they have different shapes
and sizes and thecodont, which means they are embedded in the sockets
of the jaw bones.
 The permanent teeth are 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars and 12 molars.
The dental formula (half of the total number of teeth) for human teeth is
2123
.
2123
STRUCTURE OF TEETH Structure of tooth
Teeth are differentiated in three parts.
Crown- It is the outer part of the tooth, exposed outside gums.
Neck- It is the internal part of the tooth which is embeded inside the gums.
Root- It is the part of tooth that is inserted inside the socket of jaw bone. (Alveoli)
* The crown part of the tooth is made up of a very hard substance called the Enamel. It is the hardest material in all
animal of animal kingdom.
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* Enamel is ectodermal. It is secreted by Ameloblast cells of the ectoderm. It has maximum amount of inorganic salt
(96%) in it. Inorganic salt are mainly found in the form of phosphate and carbonate of Ca, Mg, Na and K. 3% of water
is found in the enamel. Along with it Keratin & ossein protein (1%) are also found in teeth. Ossein is a protein of
bones. Remaining part of teeth develop from mesoderm of embryo.
 TYPE OFTEETH (ON THE BASIS OFAPPEARENCE IN LIFE) :-
1. Monophyodont :- The teeth which appear only once in life. eg. Pre Molars & Last molar of man.
2. Diphyodont :- The teeth which appear twice in life. eg. Incisors, Canines, Molars.
3. Polyphyodont :- The teeth which appear more than twice in life. eg. Fish, Amphibians.
 ON THE BASIS OF POISTION FROM JAW
1. Thecodont :- The teeth which are present in bony socket of Jaw. eg. Man & Crocodile.
2. Pleurodont :- The teeth which are present on the lateral side of Jaw bone. eg. Reptiles.
3. Acrodont :- The teeth which are present on the terminal part of Jaw bone. eg. Fish, Amphibian
 ON THE BASIS OFSTRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
1. Heterodont :- When the teeth are of different type in mammals on the basis of structure and function. eg.
Mammal.
2. Homodont :- Whether all teeth are of similar type in animal on the basis of structure and function. eg. Fish,
Amphibians.
 Tongue : Also known as Linguae. It is a muscular structure present in buccal cavity and attached by a membrane
with the floor of buccal cavity known as Frenulum. Tongue is made up of striped muscles (skeletal muscles).
Muscles of tongue and anterior part of oesophagus are striped muscles and do not connect with bone. Papillae are
present on anterior 2/3 part of tongue. Rest 1/3 part is made up of
lymphoid tissue. At the base of papillae taste buds are present
which receive taste. Number of papillae in Rabbit – 9000.
Types of taste papillae
(1) Filiform : Elongated. More in number. Taste buds are absent.
(2) Fungiform : Taste buds are present.
(3) Foliate : Taste buds are present, smallest papillae. Absent in Man.
(4) Circumvallate : Largest papillae. Less in number. Taste buds present.
Functions of the tongue
(1) It functions as gustatoreceptor.
(2) It helps in the mastication of the food.
(3) It helps in the swallowing of the bolus.
(4) It acts as a brush to clean the teeth.
(5) In human beings, it helps in speech.

 The oral cavity leads into a short phanynx which serves as a

common passage for food and air. It leads into opening of
larynx called glottis and opening of oesophagus (or gullet).
A cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents the entry of TUBUL
food into the glottis, during swallowing.
 Waldeyer's Ring
* The lymphatic tissues of the pharynx and oral cavity are
arranged in a ring like manner, which are collectively called
Waldeyer's ring (=Waldeyer's lymphatic ring). The ring mainly
consists of the following:
(i) Nasopharyngeal Tonsil (=Pharyngeal Tonsil) :- Refer to
the nasopharynx. In children nasopharyngeal tonsil may
become enlarged and referred as adenoids. The resulting
swelling may be a cause of obstruction to normal
breathing.
(ii) Tubal Tonsil :- Refer to the nasopharynx. Waldeyer's Ring
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(iii) Palatine Tonsils (=Faucial Tonsils) :- Refer to the oropharynx. The palatine tonsils are often infected (tonsillitis)
leading to sore throat. Such enlarged tonsils may become a focus of infection and their surgical removal
(tonsillectomy) becomes necessary.
(iv) Lingual Tonsil :- They are situated on posterior part of tongue.

 Stomach is thick muscular J-shaped organ which helps in mechanical churning and chemical digestion of food. It
has an acidic environment containing gastric juice with pH 2-3.

Stomach of ruminant

 Small intestine is the largest (6.25 m long), narrow and tubular part of alimentary canal that lies coiled in [Link]
is divided into three parts - proximal duodenum. middle jejunum and distal ileum. Ileum opens into large intestine.
It is divisible into 3 parts -caecum, colon and rectum. Rectum is the thinnest and last part of the alimentary canal
leading to anus.
 Histology of alimentary canal : The wall of alimentary canal is made up of four layers. Serosa is the outer most
layer made up of mesothelium and connective tissue. Muscularis is composed of outer longitudinal and inner
circular muscle fibres. Submucosa conists of loose connective tissue richly supplied with nerves, blood and
lymphatic vessels and in some areas with glands. Mucosa is the innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary
canal. This layer forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like foldings called villi in the small
intestine.

Villi

Lamina Propria
Crypt's of
Lieberkuhn

Paneth cells
Mucosa
Peyer's Patches
Mucosa
muscularis
Brunner's gland
Nerve Fibres
Blood Vessel
Sub. mucosa

Blood vessel
Meissner's
nerveplexus
Oblique
muscles
Auerbach's
Circular nerveplexus
muscles

Longitudinal
muscles
Stomach Duod. Jej. and Ileum.
Oesophagus
Serosa Serosa
T. Adventia Serosa

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Digestive glands
 Salivary glands are three pairs : parotid, sublingual and submaxillary or submandibular. They secrete saliva
containing water, salts, mucin and an enzyme salivary amylase. It pH is nearly neutral being 6.7.
Salivary gland Position Name of duct
Sub-Lingual Below the tongue Duct of Rivinus
Parotid Below the ears Stensen’s duct
Sub-mandibular or Below the joint between upper & lower jaws Wharton’s ducts
Sub-maxillary

 Gastric glands, are simple, branched and tubular. Types of cells present in the epithelium of the gastric glands are:
– Peptic cells (= Chief or Zymogenic or Zymogen cells) are usually basal in location and secrete gastric
digestive enzymes as proenzymes; pepsionogen and prorennin. They also produce small amount of gastric
amylase and gastric lipase. Prorennin is secreted in yound mammals. It is not secreted in adult mammals.
– Oxyntic cells (= Parietal cells) are the most numerous cells on the side walls of the gastric glands. They are
called parietal cells as they lie against the basement membrane. They secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
Castle’s intrinsic factor.
– Mocous cells (= Goblet cells) are present between other types of cells and secrete mucus. Mucus is a
glycoprotein and helps to neutralize the acid in stomach and protects stomach wall against HCl action and
protein digestive enzymes.
 The gastric glands also have two less common types of cells :
– Argentaffin cells that are generally located at the base of the glands and secrete serotonin, a potent
vasoconstrictor.
– Gastrin cells which occur in the pyloric antrum and produce gastrin. The latter stimulates gastric glands to
release the gastric juice.
 Liver is the largest gland in the body. The liver consists of two lobes : left lobe and right lobe. The structural and
functional units of liver are the hepatic lobules containing hepatic cells. Each lobule is covered by a thin connective
tissue sheath called the Glisson’s capsule. The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes trhough the hepatic ducts
and is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder. The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along with the hepatic
duct from the liver forms the common bile duct. T bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the
duodenum as the common hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by a sphincter called the sphincter of Oddi.
 Bile contains bile salts, bile pigments (mainly bilirubin, essentially the non-rion part of the haemoglobin), cholesterol
and phospholipids. Bile salts (Sodium bicarbonate, sodium glycocholate, and sodium taurocholate) help in the
digestion of fats in the small intestine by bringing about their emulsification (conversion of large fat droplets into
small ones) and the rest are just being excreted. Bile salts are absorbed in the ileum.
 Functions of liver
(1) It forms bile juice. The bile juice is synthesized in the liver cells constantly & drops into the bile canaliculi. The
bile canaliculi unite to form cystic ducts which finally open into the gall bladder.
(2) The liver store vitamins A, D & B12 etc.
(3) It forms blood clotting factors.
(4) During embryonic stage, it acts as haemopoeitic organ.
(5) It stores extra food in the form of glycogen.
(6) It performs detoxification of many toxins.
(7) It synthesizes many proteins like albumin, fibrinogen, globulin etc.
(8) It synthesizes urea by ornithine cycle.
(9) It is the site for glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, deamination, lipogenesis etc.
(10) It synthesizes heparin which is an anti-coagulant.
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 The pancreas is a heterocrine gland, partly exocrine and partly endocrine. The exocrine part of the pancreas
consists of rounded lobules (acini) that secrete an alkaline pancreatic juice with pH 8.4 pancreatic juice is poured
into the duodenum. The pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate, three proenzymes; trypsinogen (activated
to trypsin by enterokinase), chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase and some enzymes such as pancreatic
amylase, DNase, RNase and pancreatic lipase. The pancreatic juice helps in the digestion of starch, proteins,
nucleic acids and fats, therefore pancreatic juice is also called complete digestive juice.
 The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of groups of islets of Langerhans. Each of consists of there types of
cells: alpha cells (secrete hormone glucagon) beta cells (secrete hormone insulin) and delta cells (secrete hormone
somatostain)
 Intestinal glands lie in the wall of small intestine. They are of 2 types:
(i) The crypts of Lieberkuhn are simple tubular glands and occur throughout the small intestine between the villi.
They secrete enzymes and mucus. They have two types of cells:
– Paneth cells are found in the bottom and are rich in zinc. They secrete lysozyme (antibacterial substance).
– Argentaffin cells, also known as enterochromaffin cells are located among epithelial cells. They produce
serotonin which plays a role in stimulating peristaltic activity of the intestine.
(ii) The Brunner's glands are branched tubular glands and are confined to the duodenum. They secrete alkaline
watery fluid, a little enzyme and mucus. They open into the crypts of Lieberkuhn. The mixture of secretions of
intestinal glands is called intestinal juice, or succus entericus (pH 7-8)
 Intestinal juice contains many enzymes, e.g., amino-peptidases, dipeptidases, intestinal amylase, maltase, isomaltase,
limit dextrinase, sucrase, lactase, intestinal lipase, nucleotidases or nucleophosphatases, nucleosidases, and
enteropeptidase (enterokinase). These enzymes act on all types of food.
Digestion and Absorption
 A table with summarised process of digestion and absorption is given on the next page.
Assimilation of food
 The blood transports absorbed food materials to different body cells where food materials become integral
component of the living protoplasm and are used for energy, growth and repair.
Maximum digestion of food – Duodenum.
While digestion of food complete in – Jejunum.
Maximum absorption of food in – Jejunum.
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD
The process through which the food stuff diffuses through the intestinal mucous membrane and reaches the blood,
is termed as absorption. The process of absorption in different parts of the alimentary canal takes place in the
following manner.
Absorption in Buccal- Cavity :-
No absorption of food takes place in the oral and the oesopharyngeal cavity. Only some chemicals/medicines and
alcohol are absorbed in oro pharyngeal cavity.
Absorption in stomach :-
In the stomach, absorption of water, some salts, alcohol, glucose and few drugs like Aspirin takes place, complete
absorption of alcohol takes place in the stomach.
Absorption in duodenum – Iron & calcium ion are absorbed in the duodenum.
Absorption in jejunum – Maximum absorption take place in jejunum.
* Millions of microscopic folds or finger like projections are present in the lumen of gut which are called villi, villus is
unit of absorption.
* These villi are supplied with a network of blood capillaries and Lymphatic capillaries. Largest of which is central
Lacteal. The cells that line the surface of villi numerous microscopic bristle like projections are called micro villi or
brush border. These further increase the surface area for the absorption of the nutrients/digested food.
* On the surface of the mucous epithelium are billions of single cell (Unicellular) mucous glands called mucous or goblet
cells. These cells mainly secrete mucus that acts as a lubricant and protects the epithelial surface from damage and
digestion.
The lining cells of the villi are columnar epithelial cells called enterocytes. On the surface of enterocytes,
numerous microvilli are found, they increase the surface area of mucous membrane.
Egestion
 It is elimination of the indigestible remains of the food from the alimentary canal, also known as defaecation or
evacuation. The waste matter discharged from the alimentary canal is called faeces, or stool.
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Regulation of activities of GI tract
 The activities of GI tract are under neural and hormonal control. Muscular acivities of different parts of alimentary
canal can be moderated by neural mechanisms, both local and through CNS. Hormonal control is carried out by
hormones such as gastrin (stimulates release of gastric juice), enterogasterone (inhibits release of gastric juice),
cholecystokinin (contracts gall bladder), secretin (increases bile secretion), etc.
Disorders of digestive system
 Jaundice is caused by excessive presence of bilirubin in blood and its deposition in skin, mucous membranes and
sclera.
 Vomiting is forcible expulsion of the contents of stomach through the mouth.
 Diarrhoea is excessive frequency and liquidity of faecal discharges.
 Constipation is infrequent irregular passage of dry hardened faeces.
 Indigestion is caused by intolerance to an ingredient of food, defect in stomach (e.g., hyperchlorohydria) or
intestine (inadequate enzyme secretion), food poisoning, over eating and consumption of spicy food.
 Kwashiorkor : Retarded growth of body and brain, loss of appetite, anaemia, protruding eyes and belly, diarrhoea,
oedema, slender legs and wasted muscles.
 Marasmus : Caused due to the deficiency of protein and total food calories, characterised by emaciation, thin
limbs, prominent ribs, dry, thin, wrinkled skin, diarrhoea, loss of weight, impaired growth and mental development.
Vitamin Function Deficiency Source
A (Retinol) Antixerophthalmic, synthesis of Xerophthalmia, night blindness, Carotene in vegetables,
Yellow viscous oil retinal pigments, maintenance of keratomalacia (dermatosis, mango, orange and as such
epithelia (prevention of toadskin), stunted growth. in milk, butter, ghee, egg
keratinisation), anti-infective. yolk, liver oil.
Vit. D (Sterol-calciferol), Antirachitic, absorption and Rickets in children, Sunshine
Ten types, common D2 retention of Ca and P. Osteomalacia in adults.
and D3
Vit. E (Tocopherol), Antisterility factor, antioxidative for Erythrocyte breakdown (anaemia), Green vegetables, oils, milk,
colourless oil,  and  membrane lipids, skin and hair. muscular dystrophy (cramps), cheese, butter, egg.
miscarriage and reduced fertility.
K (Phylloquinone) Antihaemorrhagic factor, synthesis Prolonged bleeding (bleeding Green vegetables. Tomato,
Yellow oil and fat, K1 and K2 of prothrombin (hence essential for disease) or haemorrhages, liver colon bacteria.
blood coagulation), electron carrier, malfunctioning.
liver functioning.
Thiamine (B1), vitamin G Antineuritis, Antiberiberi, Anorexia, muscular atrophy, Beri- Yeast, whole grains, egg
component of TPP, Functioning of beri in humans and polyneuritis in yolk, liver.
muscles and nerves. animals.
Riboflavin (B2) Maintenance of skin and oral Cheilosis, glossitis, intolerance to Yeast, green vegetables,
mucosa, component of PMN and light. milk, curd, cheese, egg.
FAD. Antimigraine.
Pantothenic acid (B3, also Formation of CoA, required in cell Gastro-intestinal disorders, graying Yeast, milk, wheat bran,
B5) respiration, functioning of skin and of hair in animals, burning feet pulses, liver colon bacteria.
nerves. syndrome.
Nicotinamide (Niacin, Antipellagra, component of NAD+, Pellagra Yeast, pulses, green
Nicotinic acid) N6, also B5, NADP+, energy transfer and vegetables, cereals, milk, egg
B7 vitamin P-P (pellagra nervous system. yolk, liver.
preventive)
Pyridoxine (B6) Component of coenzyme pyridoxal Anaemia, neuritic pain, Yeast, green vegetables, egg,
phosphate convulsions, skin lesions. yolk, wheat germ, liver.
Biotin (B4) vitamin H Prosthetic group of some enzymes in Dermatitis, anorexia, muscular Yeast, vegetables, fruits, egg
energy liberation and fat synthesis. pain, rise in blood cholesterol. yolk, colon bacteria.
Avidin of raw egg white prevents
biotin absorption.
Folic acid vitamin M Required in erythrocyte maturation, Megaloblastic anaemia, Leafy vegetables, egg yolk,
DNA and RNA synthesis, transfer gastrointestinal disorders, glossitis. colon bacteria, liver.
of methyl groups. Cell division
Cobalamine (B12) Required for erythrocyte maturation, Pernicious anaemia, glossitis, Milk, egg, liver, fish, colon
DNA synthesis, myelin formation. loss of peripheral sensation. bacteria.
Vit. C (Ascorbic acid), Absorption of iron, formation of Scurvy, stiff sore joints, fragile Citrus fruits, Guava, Tomato,
Heat Labile dentine, collagen and bone matrix, blood vessels and bones, delayed Amla, Mango
amino acid oxidation. wound healing.

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Digestion and absorption of food
Food stuff Enzyme(s) Site of action Path of absorption
Strach and other polysaccharides • Glucose and galactose are absorbed via
Salivary amylase Mouth cotransport with sodium ions.
Carbohydrate digestion

Pancreatic Small • Fructose passes via facilitated diffusion.

Oligosaccharides amylase Intestine
and disaccharides • All monosaccharides leave the epithelial cells
via facilitated diffusion, enter the capillary
Lactose Maltose Sucrose Small blood in the villi, and are transported to the
Dextrinase, lactase, Intestine liver via the hepatic portal vein.
maltase and sucrase
Galactose Glucose Fructose
Proteins
Pepsin (stomach • Amino acids are absorbed via cotransport with
glands) in presence of Stomach sodium ions.
Large polypeptides HCl
Protein digestion

• Some dipeptides and tripeptides are absorbed

Pancreatic enzymes Small via cotransport with H+ and hydrolyzed to
Small polypeptides, (trypsin, chymotrpsin, Intestine amino acids within the cells.
small peptides carboxypeptidase)
• Amino acids leave the epithelial cells by
Aminopeptidase Small facilitated diffusion, enter the capillary blood
Amino acids and dipeptidase Intestine in the villi, and are transported to the liver via
(some dipeptides and the hepatic portal vein.
tripeptides)
Umemulsified triglycerides • Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the
intestinal cells via diffusion.

Gastric lipase Stomach • Fatty acids and monoglycerides are recombined

to form triglycerides and then combined with
other lipids and proteins within the cells. The
resulting chylomicrons are extruded by
Fat digestion

exocytosis.
Emulsification by Small
the detergent Intestine • The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of the villi
action of bile and are transported to the systemic cirulation
salt via the lymph in the thoracic duct.
• Some short-chain fatty acids are absorbed,
Pancreatic Small move into the capillary blood in the villi by
lipases Intestine diffusion, and are transported to the liver via
Monoglycerides (or diglycerides the hepatic portal vein.
with gastric lipase) and fatty acids
Nucleic acids Pancreatic ribonuclease Small • Units enter intestinal cells by active transport
Nucleic acid digestion

and deoxyribonuclease Intestine via membrane carriers.

• Units are absorbed into capillary blood in the

Nucleotidases, Small villi and transported to the liver via the hepatic
Pentose, sugars, nucleosidases, and Intestine portal vein.
N-containing bases, phosphatases
phosphate ions
Summary of digestion and absorption
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