Unit 2: Keys and key signatures

While a scale is an ordered series of pitches used in a composition, a key is the system of relationships
among these pitches, centering on the tonic. Because all the notes somehow relate to the tonic, a piece is
named for the tonic; it may be “in C major” or “in C minor” (or any other key). Keys are identified by a
key signature (a collection of sharps or flats at the start of each staff). Key signatures allow composers to
use fewer accidentals when notating music. For example, an A¯ major scale may be written with a flat
symbol before each A¯, B¯, D¯, and E¯:

A piece of music written in A¯ major, however, is likely to include these four flats in a key signature. As a
result, every instance of an A, B, D, or E is flat by default. Note that each flat appears only once in the
key signature, but it applies everywhere, so the final note of this scale is also an A¯:

A key signature may have zero to seven sharps or flats, but not a combination of both sharps and flats.
There are fixed patterns for how sharps or flats appear in a key signature, with each symbol appearing
only once (and never on a ledger line):

Symbols are added from left to right (FCGDAEB for sharps and BEADGCF for flats). The position of
each symbol on the staff never changes, so even if a key signature has only one sharp, it must be placed
on the top line of the treble clef (not the bottom space) and the second-to-top line of the bass clef (not the
space below the staff):

MUSIC 110 – Hamilton College 1

Prof. Ryan Carter
The key signature of every key (and relationships among keys) can be found on the circle of fifths
(shown on the next page). The diagram is laid out like a clock, with twelve positions in a circle. At the top
of the circle (at the “12:00” position) is C major, which has no sharps or flats in its key signature.
Proceeding clockwise, the next key signature (at the “1:00” position) is G major, which has one sharp. C
and G are separated on a piano keyboard by seven half steps:

The reverse pattern applies when moving counterclockwise around the circle; seven half steps below C is
F, the key signature with one flat. This same interval (which we will learn next week is called a “perfect
fifth”) separates any two adjacent key signatures on the circle of fifths. The next key clockwise after G
major is D major (with 2 sharps), followed by A major (with 3 sharps) and so on:

The same pattern exists among key signatures for minor keys. The minor key that has no sharps or flats is
A minor, so this is placed in the same position as C major. The minor key with one sharp is E minor (a
perfect fifth above A), so this is placed in the same position as G major. A pair of major and minor keys
with the same key signature are relative keys. G major is the relative major of E minor; A minor is the
relative minor of C major. A pair of major and minor keys with the same tonic are parallel keys. C
major is the parallel major of C minor; A minor is the parallel minor of A major. Parallel keys are three
positions apart on the circle of fifths, so a parallel minor key has three more flats or three fewer sharps
than its parallel major. At the bottom of the circle of fifths, there are a few keys that are enharmonically
equivalent. For example, B major (with 5 sharps) refers to exactly the same notes as C¯ major (with 7
flats), so C¯ major is the enharmonic equivalent of B major.

MUSIC 110 – Hamilton College 2

Prof. Ryan Carter
CIRCLE OF FIFTHS: major keys are uppercase; minor keys are lowercase

0¯/˜

a
F G

1¯ 1˜

B¯ d e D

2¯ 2˜

E¯ g b
A
3¯ 3˜
c f˜
A¯ E

4¯ 4˜
C˜ / D¯ B / C¯
f c˜
7˜/5¯ 5˜/7¯

a˜ / b¯ g˜ / a¯
F˜ / G¯

6˜/6¯

d˜ / e¯

MUSIC 110 – Hamilton College 3

Prof. Ryan Carter
 Tips for identifying key signatures without the circle of fifths

While the circle of fifths shows every key signature and the relationships among all keys, it can be helpful

to identify the keys that a key signature represents without the circle of fifths. Each key signature can

represent two keys: one major and one minor.

To identify the major key that a sharp key signature represents, find the last sharp (i.e., the sharp that

is the farthest to the right). This note is 7 of the corresponding key; simply go up one half step to find 1.

For example, in the following key signature, the last sharp is D≥. One half step above D≥ is E. This is the

key signature for E major.

To identify the major key that a flat key signature represents, find the second-to-last flat (i.e., the

second from the right). This note is 1 of the corresponding key. For example, the following key signature

represents A¯ major.

MUSIC 110 – Hamilton College 4

Prof. Ryan Carter
To identify minor keys, first identify the major key that this key signature represents, then count three

half steps down to find the relative minor. For example, the key signature with four sharps represents E

major, so the minor key represented by the same key signature is C≥ minor.

While every key signature can represent one major key and one minor key, in practice minor keys

typically include a raised leading tone, which is not included in the key signature and appears as an

accidental.

To identify the raised leading tone that would normally be found in a minor key, first write a natural

minor scale to locate 7, then add the appropriate accidental to raise this note one half step. For example,

while the key signature with four sharps could represent either E major or C≥ minor, the presence of B≥ in

a piece of music could imply this is C≥ minor, not E major.

MUSIC 110 – Hamilton College 5

Prof. Ryan Carter