New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 1

Writing Feature Articles Brendan Hennessy Practitioners and researchers must always rely on
their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or
New Subediting experiments described herein. In using such
Apple-Mac, QuarkXpress and AfterThird information or methods they should be mindful of
Edition their own safety and the safety of others, including
F. W. Hodgson parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
First published 1987
Second edition 1993 To the fullest extent of the law, neither the
Third edition 1998 Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage
This edition published 2013 to persons or property as a matter of products
by Focal Press liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
70 Blanchard Road, Suite 402, Burlington, MA or operation of any methods, products, instructions,
Titles in the series 01803 or ideas contained in the material herein.

Series editor: F. W. Hodgson Simultaneously published in the UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
by Focal Press Hodgson, F. W.
Broadcast Journalism Andrew Boyd 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 New Subediting: Apple-Mac, QuarkXpress and
Computerized Newspaper, The Paul Williams 4RN After
Creative Newspaper Design Vic Giles and F. W. 1. Newspaper layout and typography
Hodgson Focal Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis 2. Journalism
Freelance Journalist, The Christopher Dobson Group, an informa business I. Title
Law and the Media Tom Crone 070.4’1’0285
Journalist’s Guide to Sources David Spark © F. W. Hodgson 1987, 1993, 1998
Magazine Journalism Today Anthony Davies ISBN 13: 978-0-240-51534-2 (pbk)
Modern Newspaper Practice F. W. Hodgson All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
Newspaper Language Nicholas Bagnall reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
Picture Editing: An Introduction Tom Ang by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
Practical Newspaper Reporting Geoffrey Harris known or hereafter invented, including
and David Spark photocopying and recording, or in any information
Practical Photojournalism Martin Keene storage or retrieval system, without permission in
Printing: A Guide to Systems and Their Uses W. writing from the publishers.
R. Durrant
New Subediting: Apple-Mac, QuarkXpress and Notices
After F. W. Hodgson

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 2

 The photo briefing Symbols
Choosing pictures Word accuracy
Editing pictures Headline punctuation
CONTENTS
The design function Headline abbreviations
Uses of pictures Content
List of illustrations Graphics Composing a headline
Headline thoughts
Chapter 4 Handling text Things to avoid
Preface The subs’ table
The editing function Chapter 8 Headline typography
Acknowledgements Getting it right Shape
Check sources Arrangement
Introduction: The Quark revolution Making it fit Type style
The arrival of Quark Editing for the page Character counts
‘Subs with Quark experience’ Order and shape Spacing
Sub or page editor? The intro The creative moment
Technology and the sub The delayed drop Alternative words
Story sequence
Chapter 1 What is editorial production? Using quotes Chapter 9 Further techniques in subbing
Creating the news Geography Subeditors and the law
The newsroom Time Legal traps
The copytaster Background Privilege
Measuring the news When to rewrite
News patterns Chapter 5 Fault-finder’s guide to English Revising and editionizing
Production start-up The sentence Caption writing
Paragraphs Writing contents bills
Chapter 2 A sub’s guide to design and Punctuation
typography Chapter 10 Handling a running story
Format Chapter 6 Word traps Dealing with the text
Balance of contents The right word
Who does what Clichés Chapter 11 Features: Planning and design
Designing the pages Vogue words Copy sources
Typography Misused words Planning
Using type House style Features production
Design workshop Journalese Page design
Guiding the reader
Chapter 3 Dealing with pictures Chapter 7 Writing headlines Features workshop
Role of pictures The words
Picture sources

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 3

Chapter 12 Features: Editing and projection utilizes the Quark Publishing System (QPS). Figure 9 Serving the community – this well filled
Accuracy Subeditors are using the zoom facility to work on broadsheet front page from the weekly Cumberland
Language sections of pages. The latest version of this system News uses a stylish lower case type dress and well
Ghost writing extends QPS applications also to the Windows planned highlights to present ten newsy stories, all
Reader participation market for use with PCs equipped with Windows from the circulation area. For good measure it runs
Features and the law 95 and Windows NT an edition blurb with page cross-references.
Projection Figure 4(b) Tracking the material – an information Figure 10 How the tabloid evenings do it – an
Features headlines header for a news story or feature is created on the inside news page from the Birmingham Evening
Quark database server and filled in by users as the Mail and a smart front page from Bristol’s Evening
Appendix Press Complaints Commission Code feature moves through the editorial and production Post. Effective placing of pictures and polished use
of Practice processes of the tabloid style characterize these sans type
Figure 5 Picture editing on screen with Unisys layouts.
Glossary Hermes. Their NewsCrop tool allows cropping, Figure 11 With its full-width masthead, use of
mirroring, zooming, and adjusting tonal curves in blurbs and front page colour (though sometimes
Index mono and colour, enabling quick last minutes oddly printing on pink), the Financial Times has
changes to be made. The system permits the come a long way in the last few years. This page
ILLUSTRATIONS integration of applications such as Adobe one, with its Times Roman lower case format and
PhotoShop if additional image handling is needed. studied elegance of design, shows that a paper with
Figure 6 Halfway house: the cut-and-paste method a mostly business readership does not have to look
Figure 1 The leap into full-screen composition:
of page composition. A compositor attached cut-up dull.
Apple-Mac page-making terminals in use at
the News of the World before the introduction of text and picture bromides to a page grid. The page Figure 12 A Sunday paper in parts: how the logo
their Windows-based Unisys Hermes system. was photographed to create the negative from identifies the Sunday Times sections.
Make-up here is using the QuarkXpress program, which the printing plate was derived. Note the Figure 13(a) How a layout becomes a page: this
but with separate subbing and page-building stick-on tape rules that had to be used. This method example from The Sun in the run-up to full screen
screens. has now mostly given way to screen make-up. make-up still carried written headline, intro and
Figure 2 A page on screen (with zoom section), Figure 7 A cleaner environment: smooth polymer picture instructions for the subeditor.
using the Unisys Hermes pagination module. It plates are used on this modern web-offset press at Figure 13(b) The Sun news page as it appeared
provides for WYSIWYG composition, continuous the News Centre, Portsmouth, where once all was when printed.
object and status monitoring and image cropping on hot metal. The pages are printed by being offset via Figure 14 How a leading provincial morning paper
page. Multi-user access allows several people to a ‘blanket’ which picks up the ink by chemical covers its territory: place names flag the stories in
work on the same page. means and transfers it to the paper. this busy Western Mail news page.
Figure 3 The command desk system of editorial Figure 8 The electronic newsroom shown as the Figure 15 All-serif lower case type, standard
production: it aims at centralizing edition inputs fulcrum of copy flow on a typical national daily. column measure throughout, and thick-and-thin-
and decision-making, with direct back bench Stories are keyed into the system by the writers, cut-off rules, produce elegance and readability in
control of make-up through designated page editors checked by the news editor, sorted by the the Sunday Times’s news pages. Note, in this one,
working with specialist and rewrite subs. copytaster, planned and placed by the back bench the use of a cut-out, which are easier to achieve in
or chief sub, and called up on screen for subbing screen make-up programs.
Figure 4(a) Pages take shape on Apple-Mac
and building into the page.
screens at the Nottingham Evening Post, which
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 4
Figure 16 Examples of different weights in a well column of news brief from the Liverpool Echo. Figure 32 As taken at the ringside: News of the
used stock type. Caslon in four of its variants (top Note the text setting – set left, ragged right. World cameraman Brian Thomas captures the
to bottom): light, regular italic, extra bold, black. Figure 26 The use of white space and bold setting moment of triumph in a big boxing match.
Figure 17 Two variants from the Times New for times and titles is important in giving the reader Figure 33 The picture as it was cropped and used to
Roman range: extra bold and bold italic. easy-to-follow TV programme details. show the two fighters in close-up.
Figure 18 Helvetica (sometimes bit-mapped as Figure 27 A News of the World page on-screen Figure 34 Eight diverse fashion shots are imaged
Geneva) in three of its guises. Top to bottom: light, awaiting two pictures. together into a montage in this women’s page
medium and bold. Figure 28 A photograph that made news: the presentation in London’s Evening Standard.
Figure 19 Taking variants to an extreme: the slab- famous Reuters picture of the frigate HMS Figure 35 Cut-out pictures and bastard setting are
seriffed Rockwell light and its partner, Rockwell Antelope exploding into a fireball after being hit by easily achieved in modern page make-up programs.
extra bold. an Excocet missile in San Carlos Bay in the In this Evening Standard example the setting spills
Figure 20 A line of Bembo lower case showing the Falklands War. round the bent cane in a typical Charlie Chaplin
x-height of the characters in relation to the Figure 29 How the pictures flow: the part played look-back picture.
ascenders and descenders – in this type their length by the electronic picture desk in routing pictures Figure 36 Successful blurbs, especially those at the
results in a type ‘small on its body’. from their source to the page. top of the front page, are best achieved by a
Figure 21 A space problem with Figure 30 Even a mood picture needs a caption, composite of boldly presented pictures, headline
these Times crossword clues has forced the especially where a model has been used in setting it type and cross-references printed in colour. In this
subeditor to squeeze four of the lines to keep them up. The caption on this Birmingham Evening example from The Express, attractive girlie cut-
within the measure. Mail picture of a girl plagued by a stalker makes it outs, one extending into the masthead area, take the
Figure 22 Giving emphasis to lists: black blobs and clear that the person shown is a lookalike. eye. Headings and cross references are here
squares are used to separate as well as emphasize Figure 31 Choosing for the page: what makes a reversed on to red and blue.
these connected items. Bold caps in a roman good picture. Figure 37 Cropping and sizing a picture on the
context have a similar function in the horoscope The Aberdeen Press and Journal photographer back of the print by the diagonal method before
setting, bottom right. went for mood in the shot, opposite, of an shooting it for the page. Nowadays, under full-page
Figure 23 Six-line drop letters give style to American sailor and his Scottish wife at the composition, photographs are cropped in the
the Daily Mail feature, left, as well as acting as eye- lowering of the Stars and Stripes at a Scottish base. scanner at the outset. The crop and size can be
breakers in place of crossheads in a long text. Drop The shot a sports photographer hopes for. The further adjusted on screen, if need be, by the page
letters are used as guides for the reader in editor.
theme is action in the Western Mail’s Allsport
the Western Mail’s question-and-answer medical Figure 38 Jobs that graphics can do:
picture of Juventus scoring a goal against
column, above. Top left: in this working graphic, a Daily Mail artist
Manchester United in the European Champions’
Figure 24 Another device used in place of shows the method by which a man survived in the
League.
crossheads to break up a long text: poignant quotes sea by turning his waders into a lifejacket. Also
Expression is the theme of this well-caught
have been taken from this news feature and used included is the time scale and geography of the
picture in London’s Evening Standard of Prince man’s rescue.
between thick-and-thin rules as breakers. They are
Charles and his son Prince Harry about to fly off on The Guardian’s map pinpoints deep coal mines
located in mid-paragraph to avoid halting the eye
a Royal tour. threatened with closure in an accompanying story
above the rule.
Figure 25 Run-on sideheads in 14pt italic are used about problems in the power industry.
under a stock logo to tabulate the items in this

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 5

Right: Symbol graphics – an example from Figure 49 The agony aunts – mainstay at the These busy, well-filled examples are from
the Western Mail’s horoscopes column. popular end of the market in the national tabloids the Nottingham Evening Post and the Hull Daily
Figure 39 Subbing at an editing screen: the text and in many provincial papers. These examples are Mail.
rearranges itself and gives a line count in response from the Birmingham Evening Mail and The Sun. Figure 56 The front page blurb – and sometimes
to cuts and adjustments made by the cursor. Figure 50 The furniture of the features pages: a the back page – is the shop window for the day’s
Figure 40 Sports production: the copy flow from selection of columnist by-lines and logos for a big feature offering.
reporters and writers is filtered through the sports variety of service columns and special features.
desk to the chief subeditor, specialist subs and page Figure 51 How a big evening paper handles a
editors in a replica of the news and features double-page features spread: a Birmingham
operation. On most papers sports writing and Evening Mail special report on women plagued by
production is independent of the rest of the paper. stalkers.
Figure 41 Column width setting by the inch: a Figure 52 Features display Guardian style: daring
useful guide in text editing for new subeditors. white spaces and the eye-grabbing big picture.
Figure 42 Style and pace in writing: an example Figure 53 The elegance of a Daily Mail books
from the world of golf (courtesy The Times) page: stand-up drop letters, neat picture balance and
Figure 43 Punctuation that a headline can do clean uncluttered setting are the ideal foil against
without: one that appeared. uncluttered advertising.
Figure 44 First inkling of a disaster story – layout 1 Figure 54 A leader page for all tastes: a strongly
Figure 45 The story develops – layout 2 pictured main feature, a perceptive leading article
Figure 46 It takes more of the page – layout 3 and a light-hearted columnist go together well in
Figure 47 and still more – layout 4 this Liverpool Echo design.
Figure 48 The features department: copy flow from Figure 55 Reader participation: letters are rated
writers to features editor and thence to page make- highly in all manner of newspapers, but there can
up. be traps in running a Letters to the Editor column.

PREFACE have come to expect. In New Subediting I have taken advantage of a timely
new edition of my much used textbook on the subject to reassess these
skills in the light of the very latest advances in computerized editorial
So embedded is the computer in today’s newspaper practice that it is hard systems, and to examine what the systems builders have to offer.
to imagine how life was without it. Writers and production journalists alike The chapters that follow spell out in detail what today’s young sub needs
have learnt to love their screens and keyboards. Above all, it has to know across the varied spectrum of computer-led editorial production.
revolutionized the editing process. For the subeditor the computer is the They examine and draw lessons from work in contemporary newspapers in
ultimate tool that gives visual control of the product in a way that was text and presentation. They consider multi-skilling, and define the varied
impossible under old-time printing techniques of copy-tasting, the handling of news and features material,
What it does not do, of course, is to replace the creative skills it takes to
edit the modern newspaper to the standard that its readers – and owners –
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 6
headline writing, and the use of typography and pictures to build attractive Design (Heinemann), produced in the early 1970s, remains a repository of
pages on screen. wisdom and expertise on the craft on newspaper journalism as it stood at
the onset of ‘new technology’.
For permission to reprint material and whole pages as examples, I am
indebted to the editors of The Guardian, the Sunday Times, The Times,
Daily Mail, Financial Times, The Sun, the Bristol Evening Post,
Nor is language neglected. New Subediting takes account of the Birmingham Evening Mail, Western Mail, Liverpool Echo, Cumberland
development of English as a vehicle of mass communication in an News, Hull Daily Mail and the London Evening Standard. I am glad to
important section on word usage, polishing and fault-spotting. have permission from the editor of the Nottingham Evening Post to use the
Finally, it makes the point that previous editions of this book have made – picture of the editorial room at his newspaper on page 7, and from the
that technology, however, advanced, exists to serve the purposes of editors editor of the News of the World and News Group Newspapers Ltd for the
and journalists and that, in whatever language or country, a newspaper is use of pictures on pages 48 and 60.
only as good as the creative skills of those who write, edit and put it Quark Inc, of 1800 Grant Street, Denver, USA and Unisys Italian Spa, of
togehter. Via Benigno Crespi 57, Milan, Italy, have helped with information on their
products and permission to reproduce technical illustrations. For special
F.W. Hodgson help and facilities I am grateful to the Newspaper Society and to Richard
Ninefield, Sussex Beamish and Alan Shanks, and to Portsmouth and Sunderland Newspapers
September 1998 Ltd, and News Group Newspapers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMEMTS

I found the following works useful in my chapters dealing with the knotty
problems of text editing that confront subeditors: Robert Burchfield’s 1997
INTRODUCTION: THE QUARK REVOLUTION
revision of Fowler’s English Usage (Oxford University Press); Sir Ernest
Gower’s The Complete Plain Words (Penguin Books, 1987); Eric A sociologist writing about the press divided newspaper staffs into
Partridge, Usage and Abusage (Penguin Books, 1882), and G. V. gatherers and processors. The gatherers: reporters of all types,
Carey, Mind the Stop (Penguin Books, 1976 – and still the best). I would photographers, feature writers and, of course, news and picture agencies.
be failing in my duty if I did not acknowledge the example of my old The processors: editors of all types including departmental heads, layout
colleague Harold Evans, whose five-volume work, Editing and artists, subeditors and not forgetting the office lawyer by whatever title.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 7

The writer in question noted that the processors marginally exceeded the The arrival of Quark
gatherers in numbers. This was to be expected since, unlike books,
newspapers are complicated things requiring a good deal of planning, The use of the computer in newspaper production which started in
decision taking, sorting and choosing of material and targeting on America in the early 1960s and spread across Europe had, by the mid-
particular readerships, whence stem techniques in text editing, headline 1980s, freed Britain forever from the centuries-old dominance of hot-metal
writing, illustrating and typographical display. These, of course, can vary printing. For the first time, journalists could generate their own type
considerably from paper to paper. Newspapers require editing at its most effortlessly as they sat at their keyboards writing and editing the text that
varied and complex. went into the newspaper. In fact, it was the writers, as they keyboarded
At the heart of the process are the subeditors. The editor of a newspaper – their stories into the office computer for editing, who effectively set the
that is the editor – cannot carry out, and never has carried out, all the newspaper in type.
editing functions, although he (or she) remains responsible, legally and The computer, in this new production mode, allowed pages to be made up
practically, for what appears when the paper is printed. It is the subeditors, photographically, hence the term photoset type. Text and headlines were
varying in numbers depending on the size of the paper, and multi-skilled to typeset and output on bromides; these were cut up by photo-
a greater degree since the demise of old printing, who produce the paper to compositors with scalpels (Figure 6) and attached to a page card in
the editor’s broad policy and plan. accordance with a page layout supplied by the editorial. Pictures were
Editorial production, for that is what this complicated process is called, laser-printed on to bromides and likewise put into the page and trimmed by
calls for a great variety of skills from subeditors. Knowledge of type and scalpel as required. The adverts arrived in the composing room as page-
page design and the use of pictures are needed to produce balanced and ready bromides and were pasted into position. When complete, and after
eye-catching layouts in the style of the paper. Knowledge of page make-up being copied for inspection by the editor and advertising manager, each
is needed to see that everything fits correctly without clash and problems page was photographed and the negative sent to the platemakers to be
and that the finished page is finely honed – these days on screen – ready made into a printing plate. It should be said that this system of page
for the plate-maker. There is no old-fashioned print overseer to see to this production is still in use in some newspaper offices.
aspect.
Editing the text is a fundamental skill in all newspapers, and in all parts of
a newspaper. It requires a sound knowledge of language so as to spot
faults, an unswerving dedication to accuracy, taste and legal fitness, an
ability to collate from various sources a story of required length and style,
to rewrite copy swiftly as and when required, to provide a readable and
meaningful headline that fits, and to do all these things coolly in the face
of deadline pressure.
The fact that, on some papers, making up pages on screen and even
designing them, may fall to the same sub who edits the text is a measure of
the technological change that has come over editorial production.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 8

 presses, with their heavy direct-impression metal plates had gone; the
computer reigned supreme – but there was still a composing room, still
camera operators and a dark room used in page production.
In the early 1990s a number of national papers, both daily and Sunday,
began experimenting with page composition on screen. They used Apple-
Macintosh desktop computers via a page make-up program called
QuarkXpress which could be linked with the office mainframe computer,
in which text was stored, by means of an interface. It was not trouble-free
but it did enable pages to be put together on special make-up screens. Subs
were selected to take charge of this new function, while text editing
continued as before on the older editing screens.
It was then found that Apple-Macs used in clusters and driven by powerful
file servers had the speed and memory required to handle complex layouts
Figure 1 The on screen without reliance on a mainframe database. Moreover, the new
leap into full-screen composition. Apple-Mac page-making terminals in method accepted text and graphics inputs on page more easily and allowed
use at the New of the World before the introduction of their Windows- the subeditor in charge of making up the page, using the Quark program
based Unisys Hermes system. Make-up here is using the QuarkXpress and mouse controls, the flexibility needed to build to any nominated style.
program, but with separate subbing and page-building screens Full electronic pagination had arrived.
Primitive page-making systems offering formula pages had been around
Since type could be set and corrected hundreds of times faster than on hot- for years in some provincial papers, but they lacked the speed and
metal Linotype machines, and the pages put together much quicker than by memory, and also the flexibility, to produce pages of a variety and
the old method with its heavy metal type, the new photoset type and cut- standard acceptable to the bigger national papers. There was a continuing
and-paste makeup gave newspapers instant benefits in speed, safety and problem with graphics generation in the computer. The harnessing of
cost saving. Moreover, through interfacing easily with web-offset presses QuarkXpress and Apple-Mac desktop computers, plus developments in
through the use of transfer-image polymer plates instead of direct- servers, picture scanning and imaging, especially in colour, solved these
impression metal ones, the photo-produced pages enabled colour to be problems.
used for the first time in run of press. By 1995 all the national dailies and Sundays had adopted the Apple Mac-
The change, through the loss of traditional printing jobs, also brought to an QuarkXpress solution, through a variety of configurations, and had moved
end the years of confrontation and bad labour relations that had existed into full screen composition. The composing room was no more. The dark
between managements and the old print unions, and resulted in the move room still played a role in the creating of high resolution page negatives
of long-established newspapers from city centres to purpose-built premises required as an interface between screen and plate, but the arrival of direct-
in suburban locations with rooms full of keyboards and monitors and a to-plate programs began to phase out even this. By 1998, a number of
press hall with banks of new web-offset presses. national newspapers made up on screen were delivering pages straight to
But a revolution in newspaper production as big, or bigger, was round the the platemaker at the stroke of a key.
corner. Hot metal and traditional typesetting had gone; the old rotary

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 9

The incentive towards page-to-plate production in the nationals stemmed
from the move, for distribution purposes, into decentralized printing at
provincial sites since it simplified and speeded up the transmission of
pages straight to the press. At Canary Wharf, in East London, where seven
national papers owned by Mirror Group Newspapers and the Daily
Telegraph, were published there were no presses at all. The papers were
printed in a variety of centres including some abroad.
Meanwhile, in the provinces the move was towards concentration of
printing on fewer sites as companies and papers replanted and merged
their interests, which included contract printing for the nationals. On the
editorial production side, provincial papers were less advanced. While the
bigger ones had introduced the latest screen make-up systems, more than a
quarter of titles were still using cut-and-paste in the middle of 1998.

‘Subs with Quark experience’Screen page make-up is still new and novel
enough for its effect on editorial production to be over-stated by those in
awe of it. Advertisements for subs request ‘experience of using
QuarkXpress.’ In fact, senior subs, wearing their production hats, have
always been responsible for page make-up, whether the work entailed Figure 2 A page on screen (with zoom section), using the Unisys Hermes
guiding the inky hand of an old-time stone hand or the scalpel of some pagination module. It provides for WYSIWYG composition, continuous
newly trained paste-up compositor. The advantage of screen make-up is object and status monitoring and image cropping on page. Multi-user
that the subeditor – and not an intermediary – now does the moving about access allows several people to work on the same page
of ingredients and the polishing of space. The journalist is in charge of the
product. Sub or page editor?
It is not an arduous job. The page plan, originating as ever as a ‘rough’ What is the effect of this new situation? The speed of technological change
drawn on a sheet of paper by the executive concerned, is blocked out on has produced some weird ideas. Should subs be left to design their own
the screen in the type style of the paper, with the contents indicated. pages (as they have always done on many weekly papers) as well as edit
Stories are called up ready subbed to fit their space. Pictures and graphics and typeset the material? Have subs, as a result of technological change,
are imaged into their boxes from the scanners and adjusted on screen for a mysteriously less subbing to do than they used to have?
fine fit. Adverts are likewise called into their boxes and given a tweak. Should the subs’ table be redesigned as what someone has called the
Mouse and key controls are instantaneous. The work of putting the page ‘command desk system’, with the editor in the middle and executives,
together is easy compared to what it used to be. page builders and the rest of the subs in declining order of importance
ranged around in concentric circles (Figure 3), with a ‘rolling conference’

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 10

going on all the time – a daunting intrusion into the peace needed for
editing?
Should there be ‘page editors’ who each take a page on to their screen and
sub every item, be it a feature or a news item, be it political or be it some
sexy scandal, be it a crusty columnist or a clutch of readers’ letters?
Alternatively, should newspaper editors – as The Independent tried briefly
to do in 1987 – let writers edit and project their own material and get rid of
subs altogether?

Figure 4(a) Pages take shape on Apple-Mac screens at the Nottingham

Figure 3 The command desk system of editorial production: it aims at
Evening Post, which utilizes the Quark Publishing System (QPS).
centralizing edition inputs and decision-making, with direct back bench
Subeditors are using the zoom facility to work on sections of pages. The
control of make-up through designated page editors working with
latest version of this system extends QPS applications also to the Windows
specialist and rewrite subs
market for use with PCs equipped with Windows 95 and Windows
NT. (b) Tracking the material – an information header for a news story or
feature is created on the Quark database server and filled in by users as the
feature moves through the editorial and production processes

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 11

Technology and the sub taken out of the frame to be worked on by an artist and returned page-
ready, while simultaneously a sub might be grappling with a long-running
Developments in technology are pointing the way to the future. The early story as the lead.
Apple Mac-QuarkXpress solutions – which can still widely be found – The page deadline, however, required that one sub – or a production
were hybrids in which problems of interfacing with ageing editing systems editor? – should be responsible for deciding when it was ready and, in this
and databases meant that page building and text editing had to be done on respect, nominated page subs or page editors made sense
different screens.
Improved applications which entailed the use of clusters of Apple-Macs
driven by powerful servers, which did not have to rely on the mainframe,
speeded up both editing and make-up and allowed subs to edit on-page.
Later, integrated Apple Mac-QuarkXpress systems, such as QPS and, more
recently, the Microsoft Windows-based Unisys Hermes system, brought
with them improved on-screen graphics handling and vastly upgraded and
faster database management. These systems integrated make-up and text
editing on every workstation in the editorial department if it were so
required.
Hermes, the first fully-fledged solution not using Apple Mac computers
and QuarkXpress, offered papers, and groups of papers, a powerful
constantly updated text storage and retrieval system delivering through
new-type servers. It had a multimedia archive which claimed Virtually no
Figure 5 Picture
limits on the type of data that can be stored and manipulated’ which was
editing on screen with Unisys Hermes. Their NewsCrop tool allows
aimed at companies moving towards electronic publishing via the Internet.
cropping, mirroring, zooming and adjusting tonal curves in mono and
It also worked on any standard PC running Microsoft Windows 95 by colour, enabling quick last minute changes to be made. The system permits
means of text handling, design and make-up, and image handling modules, the integration of applications such as Adobe PhotoShop if additional
and could be customized to any size of operation, including multi-format image handling is needed
papers on the same site.
While facilities in the new systems introduced might make subbing on a Other changes blurred the old boundaries in editorial production. By 1998
‘whole page’ basis through page editors seem logical, the reasons for some newspapers, despite their scorn of the early modular make-up
doing this were less so. Specialisms for many papers, especially those systems, had begun setting up page ‘modules’ that could be called up and
selling strongly on text as opposed to display, relied on special skills and adapted on screen for fast routine pages, thus reducing the work of layout
experience, on subs who were good at such things as captions or rewrites. artists, whose graphics role had already been reduced by computer-
With the new systems, multiaccess, in fact, allowed any number of subs to generated graphics. More imaginative designs and ‘spreads’ still required
work on the same page – which they could all have on-screen at the same an art desk, especially on the big national papers.
time – so there was no problem. Specialist subs could fit in the bridge In another development some national and provincial papers announced
column or a technology report. Chunks of artwork such as blurbs could be contracts for agreed plate-ready pages of news from PA News’s new page
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 12
production team to supplement their copy input. The attraction for
provincial papers – the Liverpool Post was one – was that they obtained
coverage, set up in their own type format and fitting round the adverts, of
national and international news that was outside their normal staff
deployment. A number of national papers used the arrangement to input
made-up pages of agreed regional content, including some sport, for
edition areas where they were not well represented. While the agency
contracts could be used by some papers for cost-cutting they led, in fact, to
more jobs for subs at PA News who built up their editorial production staff
as business grew.
All these developments were spin-offs of the all-dominant computer which
had moved into the centre of editorial production. Which ideas you used
and how you used them depended on the sort of newspaper you were, and Figure 6 Halfway house: the cut-and-paste method of page composition.
what you were trying to do. A compositor attached cut-up text and picture bromides to a page grid. The
If the editing and presentation of text and pictures and their projection and page was photographed to create the negative from which the printing
targeting on the readers were important, as they surely are on most plate was derived. Note the stick-on tape rules that had to be used. This
newspapers (and if you are not trying to run entirely on a shoestring), you method has now mostly given way to screen make-up
needed specialists with skills in these areas. They are not, for instance,
matters that can be left to reporters or features writers, whose skills and
techniques are for different ends. The working time of those staff is best
spent gathering and writing news and researching and composing features
– things that chair-bound subeditors might not be very good at.
There is no doubt that involvement in page make-up, which is a very
computer-organized and not intrinsically difficult task, has made life more
interesting for subeditors. When, in response to your cursor and mouse
control (if the task falls to you), you see a page taking shape on your
screen in a way that it will appear to the readers, you feel far closer to your
newspaper. Apart from this, however, the techniques of editing and
projecting the contents of your newspaper to the readers have not
mysteriously changed. As subs, you have simply been given better tools
with which to do the job. This should make for better newspapers and
probably more of them if proprietors and editors get the formula right and
are prepared to maintain standards.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 13

 CHAPTER ONE
WHAT IS EDITORIAL PRODUCTION

Editorial production on a daily paper, morning or evening, begins with the

selection of the contents for the day’s issue. This does not mean that the
writing part has finished. News will continue to be gathered and written up
to the last deadline of the last edition, background features will be
prepared and photographs shot, but once decisions begin to be taken about
the placing of stories in the pages, that is editorial production.
Central to this process is the paper’s team of subeditors, by whom the
various tasks of editing are carried out. A prime mover in this early stage
of producing the paper is the senior subeditor who selects and shortlists
from the mass of incoming material the stories most likely to be used.
Since copy is the name for all the material keyboarded in by the writers,
copytasting is the word used for the selecting of this material, and the
person who initiates the process is the copytaster.
News creation is a round-the-clock operation into which a newspaper tunes
Figure during its hours of production. On an evening paper, where work begins
7 A cleaner environment: smooth polymer plates are used on this modern about 8 a.m., the newsroom deals first with overnight stories and follow-
web-offset press at the News Centre, Portsmouth, where once all was hot ups from the previous day’s news. Because of the time difference, foreign
metal. The pages are printed by being offset via a ‘blanket’ which picks up copy will be at first predominantly from America. This is why the early
the ink by chemical means and transfers it to the paper editions of evening papers often carry American-originated material which
is later thrown out as the flow of home and European stories picks up with
It is to these techniques that this book now turns. the start of the day’s activity cycle.
As edition succeeds edition, from about midday there is a strengthening of
the home news-of-the-day content with running stories being updated
between editions into the late afternoon, peak time for the inflow of stories
being around 2 to 3 p.m. Afternoon cricket scores replace morning and
overnight ones; the lateness of racing results is a guide to the press time of
the edition you have bought.
The morning paper cycle begins at about 11 a.m. or midday, with edition
press times from about 7 p.m. depending on the distribution areas and
where the printing presses are that serve them. National papers, printing in

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 14

a variety of centres these days, publish earlier for more distant areas. Staff reporters are the most useful and controllable source of news and the
Provincial morning papers with their closer distribution can afford to work likeliest source of exclusives; all papers like to have something their rivals
until well into the evening before getting their first edition away. haven’t got. Numbers vary from about ten to twenty on a small evening
Morning paper newsrooms first of all mop up the news of the day, looking paper to forty or more on a national daily. They work from the newsroom
for follow-ups where stories have had a good run in the evenings and on or from branch offices and sometimes independently in districts, and they
television, and giving more detailed versions of stories the evenings have are controlled and briefed by the news editor (or the chief reporter on
only nibbled at. They have the benefit of evening events, speeches, smaller papers).
meetings, functions and theatres and have more time for set-piece Jobs can vary from a simple telephone inquiry, or personal call resulting
interviewing. Because of the time difference, morning papers are stronger from a letter or information received, to complicated jobs involving a team
on European news and are first with the day’s events from Australia and of reporters and sometimes several locations. Some stories might have
the Far East. They also have time for polished detailed background both local and national, or even foreign ‘ends’ and last all day or several
features and situationers which give depth and perspective to their days.
coverage. If there is no time to get to the office to keyboard copy into the computer,
By the time the last bit of updating has been done and the last edition (not reporters, using portable workstations, file direct into the system by
normally later than 2 a.m.) has gone to press, the flow of home and telephone modems; otherwise their copy is taken over the telephone
European stories has subsided and the first stories are coming in from by copytakers, who keyboard it in for them. Where there are bigger staffs a
America. The news cycle is ready once more for an 8 a.m. start-up by the newspaper might use a number of reporters as an investigative team on
evenings. long-term news projects under a leader or project editor. This is usually
planned into the paper in advance as a special news feature.
Creating the news
Freelances
News – features are dealt with later in this book – arrives in a newspaper
office from a variety of sources. Common now to all reporters, feature
Freelance reporters are used mainly on specialist assignments or for
writers and agencies is the practice of keyboarding copy straight into the
holiday relief work and are paid for the job or days or weeks worked. They
office computer, from which stories are recalled on to screens for editing
are not tied to a paper except where they have a specific contract covering
into their page slots.
a job or sequence of shifts. Some specialize in investigative writing which
Agency copy is entered likewise and is automatically routed to the desk
they sell to the highest bidder.
whose job it is to read and deal with it. Local references are typecoded to
help local paper subscribers and draw the news editor’s attention. There Local correspondents
are not many jobs these days being carried out by village correspondents
where ballpen, typewriter and telephone are the means of origination.
These are journalists working for a local paper, or as local freelances, who
Staff reporters are accredited by retainer fee or some special arrangement to a bigger
paper to cover stories in the area. They get lineage (a fee per line) for
stories used or ordered. The arrangement usually precludes them working

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 15

for a rival paper. They cover wanted stories where a staff reporter is not They are usually given to reporters to read or to specialists whose field
available. they cover in case they contain something of interest to the readers.
Reading them can be a tedious and even boring job, but it can yield
News agencies important stories over a wide field including, for example, housing
statistics, immigration, race problems, technology breakthroughs, new cars
National and international news agencies work round the clock to provide and copy for consumer columns.
a variety of services for newspapers all over the world, collecting material
from bureaux and correspondents in cities and countries, checking and The newsroom
editing it and distributing it to subscribers.
Though the newsroom is the heart of the gathering side of the business
Most countries have their own national agencies whose services are used
(see Figure 8) it is concerned with production, too, for it is here that
by small and medium-sized papers to fill gaps in coverage, or even provide
decisions are taken that will shape the news content of the paper. And, of
all but local coverage. Agency stories can be used as check sources and
course, the keystrokes made by the writers are the keystrokes, subject to
many agencies provide news pictures. The international ones such as
editing, that set the paper in type.
Reuters, Associated Press, United Press International and Agence France
The news editor, who runs the newsroom, is one of the busiest executives
Press are the prime sources of foreign news for papers who have few, or
on the paper. The assessment of a news situation depends at the outset on
no, foreign corespondents, and also of newsfilm and sound reporting for
the news editor’s judgement: what news is to be covered, in what depth,
television and radio. They feed into national news networks stories
and who is to do the work. Reporters and correspondents are briefed so
affecting a country’s own interests and their nationals abroad. News
that copy is filed on time and important aspects of stories not missed.
agency correspondents are often the first to break important foreign
Stories are commissioned from freelances and outside specialists, agency
stories.
input monitored, work checked to see it is done properly, handouts,
Agencies operate in a similar way to newspapers through staff reporters in
correspondence, expenses, travel arrangements, interviewing for jobs and a
main centres with local correspondents, or stringers, filing in from the
hundred and one other things dealt with. In this work the news editor is
districts. The subediting, which includes headlining, checking and
helped by a deputy, usually a couple of assistants and a secretary.
editionizing for the various services, is carried out at the main offices and
The news editor keeps a check on where the staff are, listens to their calls
serves morning, evening and Sunday papers. Most papers in Britain take
in, decides when to extend coverage of a story, when to ask for more copy
the Press Association (national) and Reuters general services and some
and when to call it a day where a story has ‘fallen down’. The advent of
sport, financial, situationer and other services, depending on their
the electronic newsroom helps. News editors now check reporters’ files on
contracts. A rent is paid for each.
screen, send back stories where coverage is not enough or has failed in
Handouts some way, and route stories to the copy taster and chief sub as they
become ready for the pages. There is sometimes a reverse traffic on screen
of stories sent back by the chief sub who is not happy with them.
Handouts arrive in newspaper offices in great numbers from all sorts of The use of portable workstations by reporters has improved newsroom
organizations, including the Government, and sometimes from celebrities, organization. District offices can be controlled electronically through the
via press officers, whose aim is to reach the public through the newspaper. newsroom’s keyboards, with stories and messages being routed to and fro.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 16

Village and country correspondents of provincial papers now often have by the back bench or chief sub, and called up on screen for subbing and
their own portable terminals: Women’s Institutes and flower show results building into the page.
have entered the computer age. Most offices have a number of such
terminals in use among part-time contributors, while many with their own The copytaster
PCs link up to the office computer by telephone modem to file copy. It all
makes for more effective control of coverage, In theory, the editor reads everything that is likely to get into the paper. In
By the time the editing and making up of the pages begins, a good deal of practice this is seldom possible, although editors are usually given a copy
the decision-making has already taken place. The material has passed of all reporters’ stories, or can call them up on their personal screens.
through the newsroom system. Stories have been checked by the news The editor, through informal discussions with executives during the day
editor and sent to the chief sub. Among them, depending on the facts of a and through the briefings and debate of the daily planning conference, is
story, the amount of space available and the volume of news about, are the familiar with the more important stories that are being covered, and at an
candidates for the day’s pages. early stage has ideas about the thrust and balance of the paper. The
likelihood of some big stories is known in advance and their place in the
paper can be prepared. There are days, however, when because of other
concerns, the editor has little time to focus on the whole news input and
has to leave some decisions to his executives. The role of the copytaster
who, come what may, reads everything that is written and submitted, is
thus an important safeguard.
The copytaster is usually the first production journalist to arrive for duty in
the editorial room. Here, at a desk close to the chief sub (Figure 8) and
usually just in front of the back bench, the process of ‘tasting’ goes on
until the last edition of the day has gone to press. The work is generally
split into two shifts with a deputy taking over later in the day.
This is the journalist figure most maligned by the media sociologists. The
copy taster is the ‘gate-keeper’, the one who lets in or shuts out stories
according to the indoctrination practised by the proprietor/organization;
who assesses news to a set of stereotypes deeply embedded in his
professional soul; who bends circumstances to fit preconceived stereotypes
and pigeon holes; the stopper when anything original or damning appears
at the gate; the one who protects the readers, the people, the organization
from truths that jar…and so on.
The job, in reality, is nowhere near as influential or as sinister. The
copytaster is unfailingly a senior subeditor who understands the paper’s
Figure 8 The electronic newsroom shown as the fulcrum of copy flow on
market and readership, and his (or her) function is to sift through and sort
a typical national daily. Stories are keyed into the system by the writers,
all incoming stories and reject those that are unsuitable or unusable. The
checked by the news editor, sorted by the copytaster, planned and placed
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 17
aim is to shortlist and reduce to manageable proportions what is sometimes can feature strongly in regional papers. This is all quite natural. They are
a mountain of material so that the night editor, chief subeditor, or whoever performing a service for their readers (see Figure 9).
is in charge of page planning, can set to work on the edition without their There is also a difference in weight of coverage between daily and Sunday
time being wasted. papers, and between provincial evening and weekly papers. The once-a-
The job is a ‘hot seat’. The danger facing all copytasters is of ‘spiking’ a week publications devote more space to features giving depth and
story that turns out be one the editor decides should have been carried. background to the news of the week, and to comment and opinion.
This is a special hazard on national papers when the rejected story can turn It will be seen from this brief survey that there can be no universals in
up in a rival paper. The safeguard against this happening is the news assessment. While a copytaster on a national ‘serious’ daily and one
copytaster’s own finely tuned news sense and familiarity with the paper’s on a provincial evening follow the same routine, the yardstick by which
style and content. they measure the copy input is not the same.
This does not mean there can be no definition of news. News remains, in
Measuring the news any circumstances, the first tidings, or knowledge or disclosure of an
event. By the same token, a secret or unknown event remains secret and
A quick examination of newspapers on the same day will reveal that while unknown until, upon its disclosure, it becomes news. For example, the
some stories are common to many, there is a variety of opinion among marriage in secret of a celebrity might take ten years to be revealed to the
them as to what news to carry. There is a difference in coverage in the public. Then it becomes news. Thus we can say that, in terms of a
daily press between newspapers that circulate nationally and regional and newspaper’s content, it is not the event itself that is news but its disclosure.
local ones. Within these bands are further differences in market and
content.
Some papers exist to propagate the views of political parties or churches or
minority groups or interests. Some national papers – in Britain, for
instance, The Times, The Guardian and the Daily Telegraph – have an up-
market readership interested in cultural things and world news, and in
technology and education. Some are highly specialized, such as
the Financial Times with its business news (and absence of sport). At the
same time, many tabloid, or half-size, papers – which have a bolder
display – such as The Sun and The Mirror, sell to a popular readership and
are strong on pictures, human interest news and stories about TV
personalities, showbusiness, sport and the Royal family.
Town evening papers reflect the life and activity in the circulation area and
carry only the more important national stories and very little foreign news.
Some county papers are full of news about the farming community, village
activities, local wedding and social gossip of the area. News about
dominant industries such as steel or textiles, in which many readers work,
Figure 9 Serving the community
– this well filled broadsheet front page from the weekly Cumberland
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 18
News uses a stylish lower case type dress and well-planned highlights to 3 It does not extend any further material that already appeared in the
present ten newsy stories, all from the circulation area. For good measure papers.
it runs an edition blurb with page cross-references 4 It appears to be merely seeking publicity for someone and has otherwise
little reader interest.
Once a news situation has been disclosed and made public it ceases to be 5 It is legally unsafe (unless it is worth making safe), in bad taste, racist,
news. A notable news story that appears in a paper one day will be referred clearly inaccurate, silly, or based on rumour.
to the following day only in the light of some new aspect that has cropped 6 It is simply not good enough, or interesting enough, on a day when there
up. This is called a follow-up. is a great deal of news about.
Yet it is not sufficient for an event to be news within this narrow definition The last point demonstrates why absolutes are not possible in measuring
for it to be worth printing. It must also be of likely interest to the news value. Even if a story fulfils most of the normal criteria, the decision
readership which, as we have seen, varies from paper to paper. There is on whether it is used and, if used, how much space it will get, can depend
little point, for instance, in a country weekly on the Welsh border, filling on the number of good stories demanding to be used, the existence of other
its pages with news about Brazil or China, or the Financial similar stories, and the space available on the day. It is not generally
Times concerning itself with the result of the three-legged race in a school realized that the amount of space for editorial use in a newspaper rises and
sports in Cumbria. The journalists know their paper’s market – they have falls in response to the percentage flow of advertising and not to the
to know it to do their job properly – and they select the sort of news that is volume of news available.
right for it. Even so, copytasters will find that among the copy that flows The consequence of this that a story that might justify being given a good
into their electronic baskets each day is a percentage that does not fit the space one day might warrant less on another. The best day for a good show
pattern. The first job is to weed this out. to a story is when the copy flow is known to be slack – on the Sunday shift
Another consideration in news assessment is the sheer volume of the working for a Monday morning paper, for example.
commodity available on the day. A newsroom or agency does not stop The alternative on such days might seem to be to leave blank spaces in the
filing when it has reached a given number of stories; it goes on covering pages, but this would look silly and also would not be liked by the reader.
the news wherever it breaks. The gatherers accept that it is the job of the What happens is that certain exclusive stories are held back (or planned
editor and the editorial staff to decide how much of it will be used and at forward) for publication on slack days, a greater number of foreign stories
what length. While the factors governing this measuring of news become used and more space given to features, or picture display. It has to be said
instinctive in an experienced copy taster, it is worth noting down what they that however uneven the flow of news, there are very few days in the year
are. Also, it should be repeated that it is not the copytaster’s job to select when the editor is at his (or her) wit’s end what to put into the paper, but
what goes into the paper but rather to exclude what, for various reasons, is the phenomenon just described does account for the good and bad days
unsuitable, shortlisting the remainder into a manageable amount. that newspapers have, which are sometimes noticed by readers.
A story is rejected if:
News patterns
1 It is geographically outside the paper’s market, unless it is of special
importance (depending on whether it is a national, regional or local paper). The four pages reproduced in this chapter, three provincial and one
2 It is outside the readers’ range of interests (whether quality, upmarket, national, demonstrate the working of the news selection patterns we have
popular or specialist). just described.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 19

The Cumberland News page one (Figure 9) provides model coverage for a
weekly serving communities in a far-flung area. The ten stories range from
drug abuse in a hospital and a woman meeting her mother for the first time
in 54 years, to a hunt supporters’ demonstration, a competition for a new
Millennium bridge at Carlisle, and a man of 88 found hanged. Even the
fillers tell about a local lad who was the boyfriend of Louise Woodward,
the au pair accused of killing a baby in the US, and about more local jobs
expected following a Marks & Spencer’s expansion. Inside there is hardly
an area of activity from market and stock prices to Women’s Institutes that
does not get its space.
The two evenings from Birmingham and Bristol (Figure 10) cannot
compete with this on scale but, in tabloid fashion, they provide a powerful
display for stories of strong local interest in eye-catching layouts. Both are
good-looking easy-to-read papers for busy city dwellers looking for a
quick round-up of the day’s news as it affects them.
The Financial Times (Figure 11) shows how a specialist broadsheet can
pack in the news while still achieving quiet, readable elegance. The four
main stories are given a good space. The air crash picture, by the standards
of any daily, is an eye-catcher, and there are still to come a column of 17
briefs on companies and economies around the world, a currency chart, a
contents list, and three colour blurbs about items in the inside pages.

Figure 10 How the tabloid evenings do it – an inside news page from

the Birmingham Evening Mail and a smart front page from
Bristol’s Evening Post. Effective placing of pictures and polished use of
the tabloid style characterize these sans type layouts

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 20

 In today’s computerized environment it is the tools rather than the
principles that have changed but, if you can imagine an electronic pile of
text, pictures and advertisements on the one hand and the printed paper
coming off the press on the other, then editorial production is what
happens in between. We will now look at how this process begins.
We will take, as our example, a small tabloid evening paper running a new
page-to-plate make-up system based on Apple-Mac PCs and the latest
version of QuarkXpress. It is operated by a small team of subs who, if you
like, are page editors, each of whom sub the items for their page and make
up the pages on screen, complete with pictures and advertisements, to
plate-ready state. It is a system that suits a paper with modest staffing, few
executives and no art desk.
The back bench, or control desk (in Figure 8), consists of the deputy editor
(who would be the night editor on a national morning paper), and the chief
subeditor and his deputy, who doubles as copytaster. The editor
occasionally drops by and sits in when not tied to his (or her) office on
other duties; it is a paper where the deputy editor has the role of production
supremo.
Suppose you are the copytaster. Your ‘in’ queue of stories from the
newsroom has already begun to mount by the time you report for duty and
your first task is to check your directories or folders and ‘read in’. You
make a few notes on a pad (no office is entirely paperless!). The deputy
editor and chief sub, who have called up particular stories on their screens,
are roughing out early pages on half-size layout sheets which they will
hand to the page subs who are beginning to arrive.
While you are reading in, the deputy editor and the chief sub confer with
the editor about the general balance and expected main contents of the
Figure 11 With its full-width masthead, use of blurbs and front page day’s paper in the light of what is known. They tell you what important
colour (though sometimes oddly printing on pink), the Financial Times has items are expected and any particular things to look out for.
come a long way in the last few years. This page one, with its Times Your job is now to read and draw the important stories – especially any
Roman lower case format and studied elegance of design, shows that a unexpected ones – to the attention of the night editor or chief sub and put
paper with a mostly business readership does not have to look dull them into their queues; to put the clearly ‘dead’ ones into an electronic
‘spike’, and to put doubtful or possible stories into pending queues to be
Production start-up called up as needed. You look out for stories with edition area interest and

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 21

bring them forward at the right time, and route to the picture desk any
stories needing pictures in case this has not already been done.
CHAPTER TWO
You might feed a flow of useful shorter material into a special queue to the
chief sub to be used as fillers at the bottoms of pages. The number of ‘out’ A SUB’S GUIDE TO DESIGN AND TYPOGRAPHY
queues you operate depends on the amount of copy and the degree of pre-
sorting needed to suit the number of pages. The plan of a newspaper – what it contains and the order in which it is
Reading all copy before it is subbed is useful. It enables you to spot any presented – is decided by the editor in consultation with senior executives.
errors or failings in stories and to send them back in good time to the An outline plan is initiated at an editor’s conference, held early in the day
newsroom for more work or inquiries. If you have a separate agency input on a morning or evening paper or midweek on a Sunday or weekly, and
it enables you to suggest to the newsroom ideas for local ‘ends’ to agency thereafter adjusted, through informal discussions with executives, in the
stories where these have not already been put in hand. light of copy and picture input.
Copytasting on screen makes life easier. You can call up the complete Editorial space which, as we saw, can vary day to day in response to the
directory of stories held in a given queue (i.e. newsroom, agency, sport, amount of advertising, is shown at the start of each day or week in
etc.) and get the source, name, catchline and first few lines of any story, a dummy of the paper prepared for the editor by the advertising
and also its length. Stories can be sorted into subject and priority queues department. This is put out on screen these days, and it shows the number
within the computer so that the right material is drawn to the chief sub’s of pages (pagination) agreed and the placings and sizes of advertisements
attention at the right time. You can queue related stories together, sold.
including edition area copy. The advertising, over which the editor has no control, provides fixed
points around which the editorial content of each page is planned. This
Some national dailies refine the tasting process by filtering copy through
does not mean that the placing of advertisements is entirely arbitrary.
a rough and fine taster, or through separate home and foreign tasters,
Papers have a general policy of placement; as a rule, the front page is kept
where there is a heavy copy input and a lot of pages to fill. The aim is not
fairly clear, often completely clear, and other key pages, including the
only a fail-safe reading operation but also a continuously creative
back and the main features page are kept ‘light’ to accommodate known
assessment of the copy flow throughout the editions.
editorial needs.
Beyond this, the number and shapes of advertisements, and where they are
booked for, can vary a good deal. Some trading of space might be possible
between editorial and advertising departments but, on the whole,
advertising once placed cannot be shifted. Many positions have been
bought at a premium. Advertising also has to keep its own balance in the
paper to avoid clash of product or having cut-out reply coupons that back
on to each other.

Format

All newspapers cultivate a visual format which is distinctively their own,

and by which they are recognized, and page planning adapts to this. By
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 22
format, in this case, we mean the consistent use of the same typography the sections the broad type style and presentation is in accord with that of
and style of presentation, and the placing of things such as sport, editorial the paper (Figure 12).
opinion, women’s pages, TV programmes and late news in the same part
of the paper in each issue so that the shape is familiar to the readers. This Balance of contents
familiarity is important in page planning.
Within the broad format it is necessary to achieve a balance of subject on
the pages and a visual balance of text, headlines and pictures in relation to
each other. It would be unbalanced, for instance, to run all stories of gloom
and doom, or death and destruction, on one page, to put all human interest
stories on one page, or to fill a page with stories without pictures. Account
is also taken of the advertisements on the page so that the editorial part
does not clash with it either visually or in content.
The editor might occasionally vary the usual balance of space allocated to
news, features and sport to suit special circumstances – an election edition
or a heavy weekend sports programme, for instance.
Each newspaper arrives at a general contents balance to suit its market.
Evening papers give more space to news than Sunday or weekly papers.
This is because they are exposed to the main daily news breaks whereas
Sunday papers, produced on Saturday nights, mop up and explain the
background to the week’s news and run more weekend leisure features.
Figure 12 A Sunday paper in parts: how the logo identifies the Sunday Morning papers, too, tend to have more features than evening papers
Times sections because of their tradition of giving in-depth explanation to the day’s news.
Town evening and county weeklies are careful to gather together pages of
A newspaper’s format is its visual brand image. While it can be modified area news which their readers come to expect.
in various ways, both in content and in typography, it is not usually subject However, newspaper markets are by no means fixed and there can be
to drastic change unless the paper is being relaunched in the face of falling subtle shifts in the balance of contents and news coverage over a period.
circulation, or is seeking for some reason to change its market. No matter how the balance is arrived at it is achieved within a total
In all papers specialist areas such as financial news and sport, and editorial space which remains at about the same percentage of the whole in
sometimes foreign news, have their own part of the paper. The quality relation to the advertisements, whatever the number of pages. Advertising
dailies and Sundays give separate sections to finance, sport and arts and is at its lightest, around 30 per cent or less, in town evening papers which
leisure (in what used to be called the American pattern) with each section have relatively low overheads; around 40 to 45 per cent in national popular
having its own pagination and masthead logo. Some provincial papers dailies, which have high overheads but a high circulation revenue; and 60
bring out separate sections on certain days, and might sectionalize their per cent or more in the quality Sundays, which have high production and
advertising features or holiday or Christmas shopping promotions. In all distribution costs coupled with less circulation revenue.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 23

You can say, then, that the essential points in planning an issue of a and even that of sport, although sports production on most papers is
newspaper are: carried out separately under the sports editor (see Figure 40 on page 71).
Whatever the scale, the role of the chief sub is the fulcrum of the
1 Balance of editorial items in relation to each other – i.e. news, sport and operation. Into his (or her) electronic basket land the copy, pictures and
features. ideas that have been ordered and discussed, and they leave it, checked,
2 Balance of subject content, including pictures and advertisements, edited and corrected, to take their place in the pages being made up on
within each page. screen. Through the long production shift this important executive, aided
3 Preservation of the general ‘shape’ of the paper’s format. by a deputy and supported by the copy taster, works through the material
of the day, page by page, edition by edition, roughing out pages, briefing
Who does what subs on the handling of stories, accepting or rejecting headlines, solving
problems that arise, checking the finished work until the last edition has
Editorial manning varies according a paper’s size. Big national dailies gone to press.
have a battery of executives, some with precise editorial functions, some The deputy chief sub, or an assistant, might take over the revise function,
with managerial, administrative or liaison roles, some with general an important role in computerized systems where there are no longer proof
overlord responsibilities for areas. While there is usually only one deputy readers to check for mistakes missed – or created – by busy subs, and to
editor who actually deputizes in the editor’s absence, there can be a see that house style is adhered to.
number of assistant editors with titles such as assistant editor (news), You could say that the job of the chief sub combines a piece-by-piece
assistant editor (features), assistant editor (special projects). At planning operation with quality control of the material being processed. It
departmental level (akin to middle management) there are more defined is an arduous and unrelenting task. On a small paper it might include the
roles. The titles of news editor, features editor and sports editor mean that planning and scheming of most of the pages and a major share in decisions
they are head of these respective departments, each with a deputy. about the balance of the paper. In a big national paper with the back-bench
Producing a big daily or Sunday paper is the responsibility of the night system this part of the work is covered by the night editor and assistants,
editor, who is the senior production executive, usually equal in status, and leaving the chief sub to give more time to polishing the material and
sometimes senior, to the assistant editors. To the night editor is delegated controlling the pages being put together.
the physical editing functions of the editor once the departmental heads
have gathered the material and the production cycle begins. From the night Designing the pages
editor flow the delegated roles of the chief subeditor, picture editor and art
editor, and thence the subeditors and page editors who carry out the actual Once the overall plan of the paper is agreed, the presentation of the
editing and make-up (Figure 8 on page 16). contents becomes an exercise in design. Now takes place the scheming of
On smaller papers some of these roles are merged. On weeklies and on the pages, of which the end product is the page design or layout.
some evenings the deputy editor, and even the editor, take a more active On a big morning paper the night editor and assistant night editor roughly
role in page planning. On such papers there is seldom an art desk, the chief scheme the main news and features pages, with the chief sub and features
sub and senior subs originating the page schemes. Subs might scan in and chief sub, if there is one, usually scheming the others. (On small papers, as
correct pictures as well as edit text and make up the pages (Chapter 3). we have seen, the chief sub plays a bigger part, with some pages being
Similarly, the subs’ table might combine the news and features functions given to senior subs to scheme.) Layout artists under the direction of an art

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 24

editor draw the schemed pages in detail directly on to screen, call down Focal points
any computer graphics needed, and prepare artwork such as blurbs,
headline-picture composites (compos), and logos called for in the design. The examples referred to show how newspaper design is harnessed to do a
The layouts, with artwork, page and advert boxes and story boxes job. What works for a popular tabloid paper (Figure 13) would be as
precisely shown, then go on screen to the chief sub who puts them out with unsatisfactory for a county weekly paper with many area editions (Figure
type instructions to the sub or page editor chosen to handle the page. 9) as it would be for the Sunday Times (Figure 15), while for the Financial
According to the production method used, the stories are then subbed to Times (Figure 11) to be projected as self-consciously artistic as a quality
length, the headlines written and pictures (see Chapter 3) and adverts Sunday paper would mystify the readers accustomed to its simple
called down into their boxes. The page editor adjusts the items to fit until authority. Each approach has to be judged by how far it achieves what it
the page is judged to be ready. After being cleared by editor and lawyer, it sets out to do.
is sent electronically to the darkroom where it is turned into a high
If you draw boxes to represent the areas to which the eye is first drawn on
resolution negative from which the printing plate is derived. Under the
each of the pages referred to, you will see that they ail have one thing in
latest page-to-plate systems, as we have seen, it can be sent at a keystroke
common. They form asymmetrical patterns in which the pictures and main
direct to the platemaker thus dispensing with the darkroom.
headlines are the focal points.
Important note: the chief sub, or the production supremo by whatever
designation, must not neglect an important task where a tabloid-sized These focal points, by their location, first demand the reader’s attention for
newspaper is being produced. Since the pairing of pages at printing means the page as a whole. Then, as they guide the eye round the page, they lead
that each page goes on the press with its printing pair (i.e. in a 36-page from larger focal points to smaller, alighting on the things that first
paper page 36 pairs with page 1, page 35 with page 2 and so on) the attracted the eye and, once attention is secured, taking in the lesser items.
making up on screen of double-page spreads must be carefully checked so The design has succeeded in claiming the reader.
that text levels, and headlines and print borders crossing the page, match The location of the focal points around which the page design is
their partner page accurately. constructed depends upon the material chosen and the position and content
of the advertising. The shape of the editorial space being worked on will
It is possible to formulate some general principles about page design
determine whether the pictures need to be horizontal or vertical, the stories
without contradicting what has been said about format or stultifying the
short or long. What the advertising consists of – illustrations or mainly
use of new ideas. But first it should be said that to succeed, the design
type – has to be taken into account. A picture should be kept clear of
must project successfully the sort of content in which the paper specializes
pictures in an adjoining advertisement, while headline type should not be
to the sort of market that it seeks, In other words, content governs
alongside advertising type of a similar size. The page examples show how
projection. Design, therefore, must look to content and readership market
these problems have been tackled.
for its inspiration.
It is because of this combination of circumstances under which pages are
The pages reproduced in this and the previous chapter (Figures schemed that layouts vary so much in design (though remaining within the
9, 10, 11, 13, 14 and 15) demonstrate the sort of content and projection to type format) in any one paper. In describing newspaper page designs as
be found in a varied selection of British newspapers, each depending on its asymmetrical it should be said that a symmetrical layout is impossible on
market. pages with adverts because of the varieties of editorial shape left by the
advertising space. Symmetry also tends towards visual monotony and is
seldom tried even on the occasional page without advertising.
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 25
Figure 13(a) How a layout becomes a page: this example from The Sun in
the run-up to full screen make-up still carried written headline, intro and
picture instructions for the subeditor, (b) The Sun news page as it
appeared.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 26

Figure 14 How a leading provincial morning paper covers its territory:
place names flag the stories in this busy Western Mail news page

Figure 15 All-serif lower case type, standard column measure throughout,

and thick-and-thin-cut-off rules, produce elegance and readability in
the Sunday Times’s news pages. Note, in this one, the use of a cut-out,
which are easier to achieve in screen make-up programs

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 27

It can be argued that the focal points in the examples given above are Type character
bolder in the tabloid pages, both national (Figure 13) and town evening
(Figure 10) than in, say, the Financial Times example (Figure 11). This is Looking at successive issues of a newspaper you will become aware that
an indication of differences of approach to the readership market rather there is a consistent use in the pages of one or two stock types with
than of fundamental difference in design philosophy. News is more judiciously placed variants. It would be easy to work right through the
pictorial in a popular tabloid, while boldness in picture and headline is less book choosing typefaces, since most modern systems offer a wide range of
required in a paper such as the Financial Times and in some of the quality types, but this does not happen. If it did it would produce a hotchpotch
broadsheets. Yet the purpose and function of the visual pattern is the same, effect on the eye and make pleasing design hard to achieve.
each in its market.
Yet the consistency, which is common to all newspapers, is not just a
question of arriving at a design. It is a way of giving a newspaper its visual
Order
character. It is a major item in its format by which it is differentiated from
other newspapers. This is demonstrated in the examples in this chapter.
The order in which headlines appear on a page, and their size, signify the Summing up in this section, we can say that there are three purposes in
relative importance of the text they cover in relation to the other items. In newspaper design:
all pages there is the main or lead story, which has the biggest headline
and sometimes, though not necessarily, the longest text. The second most 1 To draw the reader’s eye to a page by creating an attractive visual
important story is the half lead, with the second biggest headline. Then pattern.
there are the intermediate tops (the term which used to signify top of the 2 To signpost the items and signal, by placings and typesizes, their
page is now applied to stories of intermediate length in any part), and a relative importance.
number of one or two-paragraph stories, usually down page. These are 3 To give the newspaper a recognizable visual character by the consistent
called fillers. Sometimes they are schemed into the page; other times they use of chosen types.
are kept handy to fill spaces when bigger stories fall short. In some papers
they are gathered into a column of news in brief, or nibs (see Figure 25 on Typography
page 46).
The reader, drawn to a page by a picture or bold headline, might have time It will be seen that page design is made up of four elements:
only to scan the main items, but if the reader has more time the initial
impact might draw the eye into reading the whole page. A picture with its Text headlines pictures advertisements
caption, for instance, can act as a taster, persuading the reader to run
through the story that accompanies it. Since the content and positions of advertisements are decided before the
A way of looking at modern newspaper design is as a form of packaging editorial material is placed, the designer – the person who schemes the
by which the contents are commended to the reader. In this sense it page – can only note them. The emphasis on design is therefore on text,
signifies a breakaway from earlier days when newspapers had columns of headlines and pictures. In dealing with the first two a knowledge of
unrelieved small type with little or no illustration before display was typography is needed.
discovered as a means of targeting readership.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 28

By typography we mean the arrangement and appearance of printed matter
and, for this, some awareness of the uses and purposes of types chosen is
fundamental.
There are two main type families by which the Western, or Roman
alphabet is rendered in print: the serif and the sanserif (or sans). The serif,
of which are examples in Figures 16, 17, and 19, is characterized by letters
in which the strokes are of varying thickness with the ends finished off
with a decorative flourish or tail which is called the serif. This style dates
back to early Latin inscriptions and from it has sprung many designs of
which a number are still widely used today.
The sans family has letters of mostly even strokes without the decorative
flourishes or serifs, hence the name sanserif. Sans types, of which there is
a vast and ever increasing number, appeared in modern times in response
to the demand from advertising and newspapers for types with boldness
rather than elegance. Figure 18 gives a popular one currently used in
newspapers.
In referring to type, the word face is used to mean the appearance of the
type as it prints, while font (formerly fount) means all the characters – i.e.
letters, figure, punctuations marks etc. – of any given type face in any one
size.
Many of the thousands of types in the two main families are used only for
advertising and publicity purposes. Newspapers adopt a conservative
approach, choosing one or two readable stock types which they use in
various sizes and weights through the paper, with perhaps another quite
different face to give variety or special emphasis on occasions, or for use
on the features pages.

There is also a variation of the serif family referred to as slab serif in

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 29

which the serifs or tails are squared off, giving a characteristic chunky out a simple test by printing out this paragraph first in lower case and then
look. An example is the Rockwell range, used in the Daily Mail features in capitals.
pages and in many American newspapers (Figure 19). Yet some tabloids using sans type have many of their main headlines in
capitals (Figures 10 and 13(b)) on the ground that the boldness of sans
Under bit-mapping conversion into computer faces many of the traditional caps has the sort of impact they seek. Titling Gothic, used for some of the
newspaper types, including some of the above, where very minor changes biggest headlines, is an example of a type that exists only in caps.
of shape have been made, are presented under new names. Some types offer italic (the slope being top right to bottom left) for use
It is usual for a newspaper to opt either for a serif or a sans type style and along with the roman or upright face. Most italics in newspapers are in the
stick to it. Sans is more popular with tabloids, especially national dailies sans ranges, although italic type generally is becoming less favoured.
such as The Sun (Figure 13(b)) and The Mirror and many town evenings There also exist variants based on the thickness of the letter strokes. The
(Figure 10), while a mainly serif style is used in the more traditional standard roman letter is accompanied by a thicker bold version and
broadsheet papers such as The Times and the Daily Telegraph and in some sometimes by a light and an extra bold (see Figures 16, 17, 18 and 19).
provincial morning papers. Century is an example of a type that exists in all thickness variants. Other
variants within ranges are based on the width of the letter. Gothic has
variants ranging from extra condensed and medium
condensed to bold and square, while many types are designed with
an expanded version.
Condensed faces are useful in the narrower columns of tabloid pages, with
lower case the more favoured, especially in single column, for better
readability and easier eye traverse down the lines. A condensed face
enables a bigger type to be used without limiting too much the number of
characters (i.e. letters and figure) on a line. Condensed faces are not much
used across wider measures where they are less readable, especially in
caps. Expanded faces are noticeable in the more horizontal pages of the
Using type quality press. See Figure 15, top headline.
An oddity about type faces is that the ascenders and descenders – the bits
Page design has to take account of the stock types in use in a newspaper. that stick above and below the body, or x-height, of lower case letters b, d,
Fortunately, within these there exists plenty of scope for variety and a type f, g, h, j, k, l, p, q, t – can very in length from type to type (see Figure 20).
style can be evolved by using the variants within a type range. This produces the phenomenon of types that are ‘big on their body’ or
For example, types exist in capital letters (caps) and in lower case (l.c.), ‘small on their body’(as the typeface Bembo in Figure 20).
and a noticeable modern trend is for newspapers using stock serif faces
such as Times Roman, Century bold or Bodoni, to have all headlines in
lower case (see Figures 9, 11, 14 and 15). It is generally agreed by type
experts that lower case type with its more flowing contour and variety of
stroke is easier to read than capitals. To judge for yourself you can carry

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 30

In computerized setting the characters in any type can be stretched or
squeezed to produce condensed or expanded forms at the stroke of a key,
or even tilted to give italic. Yet the need for precise control over the
typography of a page has resulted in newspapers programming their
typesetting with shapes that correspond with fonts as designed by the Figure 21 A space problem with these Times crossword clues has forced
typefounder which they use rather than risk a hotchpotch of variations. the subeditor to squeeze four of the lines to keep them within the measure.
Only with awkward text problems as in the crossword clues (Figure 21) is
the squeeze facility used. Another attribute of the computer is that it will
In introducing a different typeface into the pages for special effect,
deliver headline type tinted with a screen tint or reversed as white on black
(or on colour). choose one opposed in shape and character – i.e. a light sans against a bold
serif or a light serif against a bold sans. Two sort of sans or two sort of
Points to watch serif used together invariably clash.

In designing pages, give the greatest number of headlines to the stock Typesizes
type in appropriate sizes. Too many variants can confuse the eye just as
much as too many different types. The main variation in type use is by size. Type which, as we have seen,
can vary greatly in width, is measured for size by its height, using a 250-
year-old system of points of which, as a guide, there are approximately 72
to the inch and 28 to the centimetre.
To simplify typesetting, typefounders in western and most other countries
from the early 18th century designed type to a series of set point sizes
which have long been accepted as the basis of print design. These
traditionally had names such as minion (7pt), brevier (8pt), long primer
(10pt) and pica (12 pt). Today they are simply referred to by their point
sizes. The series runs: 5½, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 60, 72,
84, 96, 120, 144

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 31

Sizes up to 14pt are used for reading text (see Figure 41 on page 76). ‘en each side’, or more commonly ‘nut each side’ or ‘nut front’, all of
Standard reading text, or body type, in most newspapers is in 7pt or 8pt, which setting is programmed on to keys
with the opening paragraphs set lOpt orl2pt or even 14pt in the case of the Newspapers usually have a standard number of columns. Most broadsheet
page one lead or splash story. While body type of up to 14pt is available in pages have columns 9 or 9½ ems wide, and tabloid pages 8 or 8½ ems,
serif and sans ranges, serif is more commonly used on the well tested although these can be varied, especially for features display. In scheming
theory that, as with lower case headlines, it is easier to read as the eye pages the column measure of text and headlines is nominated as well as
travels across the contours of the letters. the type size. In the case of standard single-column, two-column or three-
From 14pt upwards are the headline sizes. Papers of more traditional column measures it is only necessary to nominate the measure in columns,
appearance seldom go beyond 72pt for their splash story. Headlines of up which is programmed setting in the computer.
to 120pt and more can be found on the front and back pages of the popular Any setting less or greater than single-column or its multiples is
tabloids. called bastard measure. A variety of bastard setting, such as around cut-
Choosing the right type sizes is important not only to give certain items out shapes (Figure 35 on page 65), can be easily achieved in modern
prominence but, as we have seen, to give visual balance to the page. It is systems by mouse controls. These days there are more and more automatic
for this reason that the computer, although it can vary sizes by intervals of setting formats for given story boxes on pages so that the sub can
a quarter point right through the range, is programmed through command concentrate on editing to fit rather than on arranging the setting.
keys to deliver type in traditional print sizes. A facility remains to override
the programmed size to get a wanted headline to fit but, to protect type Design workshop
balance, it is used sparingly to vary sizes by seldom more than 5 per cent.
Within the established format of a newspaper there exists a selection of
Setting widths typographical devices that can be used to give variety and emphasis to a
page. Subs and page editors, as well as page designers, should familiarize
themselves with them because of their use in the editing and page building
As with the points system of typesizing, so with setting widths (measure)
stage.
have old printing terms been retained in computerized systems. Page
widths and column widths are calculated in Britain in ems, an em being the Most papers give the first one or two words in capitals to signal the start of
width of a standard roman 12pt lower case letter m, which is as wide as it a story. Some, more particularly on features pages, make the first letter of
is deep. An em is equivalent to a pica, which is the old name for type of the intro a 24pt or 30pt drop letter as a form of decoration. This can be set
12pt size. In US practice, ems, in fact, are called picas. An 84-em page into the first paragraph, or it can line up on the first line and stand clear,
would be an 84-pica page, and a 9-em column a 9-pica column. In making a stand-up drop. Where used, two-line or three-line drop letters are
typesetting systems of American origin measures are commanded in picas programmed on to a key as a setting format but drop letters of up to six
and this is now the normal practice in this area in all systems. Since an em lines are used (see Figure 22).
equals 12 points it is useful to remember that 6 ems equals approximately A subeditor might use selected bold or italic paragraphs (never both)
an inch (25 mm). within a story to give an eye-break or to highlight a point; they should be
used sparingly (if allowed by style) to avoid bittiness.
Ens, based on the width of the standard 12pt roman lower case n, are half
the width of an em. They are used particularly to denote measures that are
Breakers
indented to give white space either in front or on both sides – i.e., indent

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 32

Crossheads, usually single lines of 12pt or 14pt to style, are used to help in Chapters 11 and 12) with attendant white space. These can sometimes
the eye cope with long texts and also prevent greyness in display. If set fall badly, or result in repeated use of the same letter. One way to locate
flush left they are called sideheads (or shoulders on some papers). In eye-breaks tidily in a long features spread is to use quotes from the text in,
features display, crossheads can be more ornamental, often deriving from say, three lines of 12pt, and locate them around the spread where they can
the main headline type being used. See Figures 23, 24 and 25. usefully act as tasters to the story as in Figure 24.

Figure 22 Giving emphasis to lists: black blobs and squares are used to
separate as well as emphasize these connected items. Bold caps in a roman
context have similar function in the horoscope setting, bottom right

While crossheads are principally eye-breaks in the text, they should occur
in natural breaks in the story and not interrupt the sequence. Full lines
should be avoided since they cut off text from text and halt the eye. They
should have at least 4pts of space above and below.
In some features display, and in magazines, words are dispensed with and
breaks achieved by using a piece of ornamental print rule, or by dividing
off sections by the use of selected stand-up drops (see examples

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 33

 Headlines

Headlines can be delivered to the page as white on black, or type on tint or

colour – a much used device on the popular tabloids when a page is thin on
pictures and the display demands bold highlights. Underscores can give
headlines extra boldness but are less used these days. They should break
around the descenders on lower case headlines to avoid excessive white
between underscore and type.

Special setting

While pages, particularly news, are generally schemed within their

columnar format, setting widths can be varied for design purposes. A
rectangular space clear of adverts can be divided into equal widths of
bastard measure, as in Figure 51 on pages 198–9. ‘Colour’ can be give by
setting a whole story in bold, sometimes inside a ruled panel to provide the
page with a kicker. The computer enables time to be saved by being
programmed to deliver setting formatted into panels of nominated size to
fit page slots.

Indicators

Initial words in bold caps are a useful way of introducing ‘news in brief
paragraphs or items in commodity reports or market prices. These can be
preceded by a black blob or open square, often included as standard
‘furniture’ in a type range (see examples in Figure 22). Stars, black or
open, are useful on short showbiz items – but beware of using too many of
these things on the same page.
Figures in lists can be set bold up a size – or even as drop figures – or
reversed as white on black. By-lines and sign-offs can be give a special
style, perhaps a simple lOpt Metro line on news stories and something
more decorative (reflecting the writer’s eminence) on the features pages
(see Chapter 11 and 12).
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 34
Fine rules normally divide item from item, but 2pt or 3pt rules can be used Editing begins at the art desk, or at the scanning studio. Here, pictures are
to enclose a spread of pictures or related items. Some papers have cropped, sized and retouched in the scanner, colour corrected where
abolished dividing rules and rely on white space, a popular ploy in The necessary, and imaged onwards into their page boxes (Figure 27). On
Guardian (Figure 52 on page 201). White space remains an important screen they are further adjusted in shape and size by the sub, using mouse
element on features pages and, if used properly, can give designs of great controls, until they best fit the space and ideas of the page design.
elegance (see Chapters 11 and 12).
Special setting for such things as television programmes, race cards and
football and election results needs devising and putting into the system
with great care so that it is instantly readable despite the weight of
information it has to carry (Figure 26). Abbreviations and the use of bold
and roman, caps and lower case should be consistent and meaningful, and
several dummy runs should be tried before settling for a style that is
informative and at the same time easy on the eye and not too space-taking.
An advantage for the subeditor is that such setting can be formatted on to
keys, thus cutting out laborious and time-consuming keying at the subbing
stage. Agencies provide ready-formatted material of this sort for direct
input into the system if called for.

Figure 27 A New of the world page on-screen awaiting two pictures

There can be variations of this routine. Where pages are being built on
master screens, the art desk might carry out the picture function, not only
CHAPTER THREE scanning, colour correcting and delivering pictures and graphics to the
page but adjusting them to fit, while the subs deal separately with text
editing. The art desk, working with the back bench, remains responsible
DEALING WITH PICTURES
for page design on bigger papers, preparing detailed layouts, either directly
on screen or from paper to screen, and passing them down to the editing
Dealing with the illustrations, as with text and headlines, is a crucial part
screens for the pages to be made up by subs or page editors, where so
of page planning and editing. Photographs of the right subject, size, shape
designated.
and quality have to be selected and presented to the reader; where
Smaller papers make greater use of multi-skilling. A sub might be given
appropriate, graphics and diagrams have to be provided.
responsibility for choosing the pictures, cropping, sizing and scanning
Subeditors working on pages cannot detach themselves these days from
them, designing the page and subbing the contents. There are miniaturized
the picture content. Selection and quality assessment might begin at the
scanners for worktop use by subs for this purpose. On such papers multi-
picture desk but, having been chosen, a picture is still subject to editing.
skilling in editorial production has always been accepted. The computer

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 35

and the make-up screen and modern scanners have merely made it easier With the digital ‘correction’ of tone and colour in pictures by which the
and faster. pixels representing the screened dots of the image can be moved about in
Whichever the route – and systems are constantly being updated – pictures the scanner, the danger of misrepresentation in picture content is much
and the captioning of them (see pages 171–4) are very much the concern greater. The growing number of complaints to the Press Complaints
of the subeditor. Committee about image manipulation and some celebrated recent cases
have demonstrated this. The Commission’s Code of Practice for the Press
Role of pictures does not specifically mention image manipulation but it does say:
‘Newspapers and periodicals must take care not to publish inaccurate,
The notion that a good news picture is worth a column of words does not misleading or distorted material including pictures.’
altogether hold true. There are few pictures that can stand without text Yet notwithstanding the possibility of misuse, a newspaper would be less
whereas the text regularly stands without pictures, although there are informative, less complete and less attractive without pictures. They not
occasions when it badly needs them. Famous news pictures such as St only supplement the text; they enhance and extend it by highlighting and
Paul’s Cathedral against a wartime background of flames, the shooting of pressing upon the reader important parts of it; they make it easier for the
President Kennedy, and the frigate Antelope in the midst of a fireball in the reader to build up a picture of what is being read.
Falklands War (Figure 28), remain in the mind long after the words have
faded. This is what really tells the story, the picture enthusiast will say. But
on their own such pictures cannot, and do not. They have to rely on the
context of words, on explanation, in the same way as tele-film relies on the
commentary and the presenter’s guidance.
The better and more dramatic the picture the greater is the danger of
readers (or viewers) being misled by their own heightened reaction. Shorn
of its context of words and explanation a picture can, in a real sense, lie or
at least fail to deliver the truth.
A national paper reporting some years ago on the horrors of the Biafran
war in Nigeria carried a picture of an emaciated pot-bellied child as a
pictorial indictment of the perpetrators of the fighting. The child was not
identified but it transpired that the picture was from another African
country. It achieved its objective in bringing home its message to the
reader, one might say. Figure 28 A photograph that made news: the famous Reuters picture of
This is true but the picture was nevertheless lying. Placed as it was, it the frigate HMS Antelope exploding into a fireball after being hit by an
misled the reader into thinking it arose directly out of the war, for it did not Excocet missile in San Carlos Bay in the Falklands War
have the necessary explanation of its origin, If, because the intention
seems to be worthy, this sort of practice is condoned, where does one draw News pictures in a newspaper have a permanency and graphic effect
the line in planting pictures to condition reader response? denied to television film, which has a fragile grip on the senses and a low
level of recall. Colour is now widely used, and mostly very effectively, but

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 36

being in black and white can often increase the drama and tension in news
pictures. It has to do with the basic unreality of the colour range that
systems give compared with the nuances of tone and texture in real life.
Black and white plays upon the imagination and reconstructs reality in the
mind whereas colour can be bland, although it can have visual impact
when used for the right pictures.
Pictures also serve another function. They form distinctive eye-catching
elements that trap the readers’ attention. The position of pictures in
relation to the contents of a page is thus part of the balanced visual pattern
by which the newspaper content is projected. We can say, in short, that a
picture performs two functions:

1 It illustrates the text.

2 It forms an element in the page design. Figure 29 How the pictures flow: the part played by the electronic picture
desk in routing pictures from their source to the page
Picture sources
In handling stories that have pictures, whether colour or mono, you should
Taking, collecting and providing pictures is organized on similar lines to make clear their relevance to the text in a caption if the reader is to be
the newsroom operation. It revolves around the picture desk, which works correctly informed. No picture should be left without explanation or clear
closely with the newsroom and the picture library. Directing this task is the identification. Even a specially taken ‘mood’ shot accompanying a feature
picture editor or (on small papers) the chief photographer (see Figure 29). can raise doubts or misconceptions in the reader’s mind if it is uncaptioned
The picture editor keeps a schedule of pictures that are wanted or expected (see Figure 30).
and briefs photographers about the paper’s requirements and deadlines.
The photographers might work alongside reporters on a job or act Staff photographers
independently, depending on time and the sort of job. If a staff
photographer is not available the picture editor has to look to other picture
sources. Staff photographers working from head office or branch offices, or
sometimes operating independently in a district, are the main sources of
exclusive pictures and can be more easily deployed alongside reporters on
jobs where on-the-spot pictures are wanted. They are journalists by
training and definition and their approach and job briefing are in line with
that for reporters. They share the same deadlines. Their numbers might
vary from four or five on a small paper to perhaps twenty or more on a big
national daily.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 37

This is an area in which technology has brought about huge changes both Figure 30 Even a mood picture needs a caption, especially where a model
in cameras and picture transmission. Says Martin Keene in his has been used in setting it up. The caption on this Birmingham Evening
book Practical Photojournalism (Focal Press): Print transmitters have Mail picture of a girl plagued by a stalker makes it clear that the person
been replaced with negative scanners and laptop computers. It is possible shown is a lookalike
to transmit pictures from almost anywhere in the world into the network of
computers used to make up a newspaper. Some newspapers no longer have Freelance photographers
darkrooms; once the picture has been selected [from a transmitted set] the
negative is scanned into a computer and the first time it is seen as a print is
Freelances provide some picture input but, except for high-fee exclusive
when the newspaper comes off the presses.’(See Photo briefing, page 55.)
work for which they hold copyright – such as the much criticized
Staff pictures become the newspaper’s copyright and syndication or paparazzi who snatch pictures of the famous or specialist areas such as
reproduction fees are earned if they are used in other papers. glamour – their contribution is usually by daily, weekly or holiday relief
Photographers, even when working with reporters, are responsible for their arrangements, or for one-off jobs. In provincial areas local newspaper
own caption information and fact and name checking. photographers might work as regular accredited freelances for bigger
papers, being paid an annual retainer fee and a fee for each picture used.
In the more specialist areas of glamour, sport, animal and technical
photography there is a good income to be earned by freelances who
become known and to whom newspapers, and more especially magazines,
turn to at times of need.

Picture agencies

Picture agencies provide a great range of photographs for use and stock,
especially from overseas, on a contractual basis to subscribing newspapers.
Such ‘service’ pictures, though lacking exclusiveness, usefully fill gaps in
coverage. Agencies, specializing in such areas as sport, political or
celebrity portraiture, usually charge a fee for each occasion of use.
Occasionally they will part with British or other reproduction rights for a
higher fee.

Rota pictures

Agencies are sometimes relied upon where only limited picture coverage
of an event is allowed. Royal or certain political occasions, or even
celebrity photo-calls where a large influx of press photographers is not

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 38

convenient, are sometimes on rota. The arranging is by a committee drawn The picture editor knows from the daily news schedule and the editor’s
from picture editors of the various newspapers and agencies who subscribe conference the nature of each picture job and whether there is a need for a
to the rota, and it has a permanent secretary who keeps a list of those specific shape or sort of picture, or the inclusion of certain wanted detail.
entitled to camera facilities. From this list newspapers and agencies take it Technology has leapt ahead in press photography and has helped to make
in turn to cover rota jobs, on which anything from one to maybe seven some formerly difficult assignments easier. Long, heavy telephoto lenses
photographers are allowed. The resulting pictures are made available for for which the help of an assistant was needed are a thing of the past. The
use to the newspapers contributing to the arrangement. use of mirror lenses for press work, by enhancing the image magnification,
has effectively halved the length and weight. They also increase the
Collected pictures amount of light reaching the film, making for a better quality picture, The
focal length of telephoto lenses can be doubled by the attachment of a
In some news and features jobs pictures might be supplied by the subject powerful supplementary lens, while the use of an electronic booster
or organization concerned. Permission is needed to use such material and between the lens and the film, by picking up the light at the red end of the
any possible right investigated. spectrum, makes it possible to take pictures in almost total darkness.
The automatic pocket-size 35-millimetre cameras used for rapid clusters of
Hand-out pictures shots in varying conditions are now being replaced by filmless digital
versions, while the electronic picture desk (EPD) (see Figure 29) has
become the normal interface between incoming pictures and the
A good deal of the material used on TV programme pages and showbiz
newspaper’s production process. With advances in miniaturized
stories is supplied free to newspapers from film-making and programme
transmitters, films can be developed on location and transmitted by
companies. Free pictures often accompany hand-out material where the
telephone line by means of a modem, including in colour, so that they
aim is to seek publicity in a newspaper or magazine.
reach a newspaper’s EPD in minutes. Modern transmitters transmit
directly from the negative, reversing the image so that the picture is
Picture libraries
received in positive. It is possible with another device to take good prints
from video film which make acceptable pictures for newspaper use.
Pictures libraries and archives, now mostly on line, supply pictures for a Today’s trend is for greater use of telephoto lenses of up to 400 mm, and
usage fee, and sometimes also a research fee. The main library source is occasionally up to 1000 mm, in order to concentrate on people and
usually the newspaper’s own indexed picture files of news events or actualities, and there is less scope for the composed mood shots beloved of
people who have been, or are likely to be in the news, going back as many Robert Capa, Henri Cartier-Bresson and, in recent decades, Don McCullin.
as twenty or thirty years. These sources are used where ‘head shots’ or With today’s equipment comes the opportunity of exploring the unusual
recent likenesses are needed with stories, or when an event comes back angle which can enliven the page – what Harold Evans calls ‘the yawn in
into the news, or if ‘flashbacks’ are need of similar events. The office’s the crowded political meeting rather than the candidate in the centre of the
own picture files are also a useful check source for identification and waving crowd.’
personal details. In news pictures it is people and actualities that hold the attention of
readers, with animation and a good likeness rating high. This is nowhere
The photo briefing

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 39

more important than in the scenes and faces photographed for a local paper Content
(see examples on pages 19 and 22).
News pictures are usually of two sorts: Does the picture show the right people and scene? Is it a good likeness?
Does it capture the action, and is the background right? Does it properly
1 The action shot which helps tell the story.
complement the story and extend its content?
2 The picture that shows people, which might simply inform.
Composition
The first is more prized and is harder to catch since there might be only
one chance. The second can be set up simply by the photographer asking
people to take up positions. Here, the danger of a cliché picture arises, Do the grouping and position of the people in relation to the elements of
especially if the photographer is overworked or rushing from job to job. the picture form a pleasing shape? Is it the most eye-catching of the
Yet ingenuity can produce an out-of-the-ordinary composition. pictures that have the required subject content?
In big events such as State funerals, Trooping of the Colour and festivals,
prearranged shooting positions and the lack of mobility make timing of the Balance
essence in getting the wanted picture. In indoor work the effect of the flash
on the subject is the perennial hazard, plus the problem of shadow and Will the content balance visually with the rest of the page, including the
small room perspective. Here a wide-angle lens is useful. advertisements? For instance, ‘head’ shots should not look out of the page
The skill of the picture editor lies in taking account of the various hazards or away from their story. Also, clashes with other picture content should
when briefing for special requirements. It is from the set of contacts be avoided. A picture of an ocean liner will look superfluous against an
produced that the picture editor, looking for sharp detail and good advert also showing a picture of a liner. A picture showing the heads of a
composition, selects the frames for enlargement so that the best pictures man and a woman would lose effect against an advertisement with the
are available from each job for the pages being planned. same sort of picture.
Here again, technology has stepped in by devising programs that digitize
and store incoming pictures on magnetic disks from which they can be Tone
recalled on a monitor screen and examined for choice. A picture chosen
need not even be printed; it can be cropped, sized, colour-corrected,
Has the picture good tonal values? Is there sufficient contrast between dark
electronically retouched and imaged straight on to the make-up screen.
and light tones so that it will reproduce adequately, bearing in mind that
Choosing pictures more parts of newspapers are in black and white than in colour, and
newsprint is nowhere near as kind to detail as glossy bromide or gravure.
Even without stock sources, newspapers get many more pictures each day A lack of dark or light tones can result in a grey effect which blurs detail
than they can use and a selection process takes place similar to copy on printing.
tasting (see Figure 31). This is usually done by the picture editor but it can
fall to the subeditor dealing with the page, particularly on smaller papers. Stock pictures
In such a situation, you should take the following points into account:

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 40

A temptation in using stock pictures is to condition the reader by selecting Cropping can arouse violent disagreement and much pontificating by
one that shows a person in a particular light – the grim face of a strike experts who think it should have been done differently, or not at all. A
leader, the smug or triumphant expressions of politicians, or pictures that good picture, it is said, is its own advocate. This is true if the picture is
send up well-known people by catching them in an unguarded moment. being used for what it is and not for what it is required to do, as for
The choice might seem fitting for the accompanying story, but there is a example in publishing a new royal portrait. Not many pictures fall into this
line beyond which the display of foibles and character can become bad category.
taste or propaganda, or even libel if a person is really made to look stupid, A newspaper is not just a vehicle for the camera. The requirements of
as lawyers are willing to demonstrate. Subeditors selecting pictures from picture display, however attractive to the eye and justified by picture
stock should beware of this. quality, have to be balanced against the demands on space by the news and
features coverage to which the paper is committed by its style and market.
Editing pictures It is in detail of information that a newspaper scores over picture-
dominated television both in editorial content and in advertising.
Few photographs are used in a newspaper exactly as they are taken. A
picture might have detail irrelevant to the story it accompanies. This might
be because of difficulties in taking the picture. Perhaps it includes people
who have nothing to do with the story, or maybe the page visualizer wants
to accentuate part of the picture, or exclude part of it for reasons of news
value or legality. This selecting and excluding parts of a picture in the
course of achieving its required shape in the page is called cropping.
Cropping is an essential part of editing a picture – but first a few words
about this contentious subject.

Figure 31 Choosing for the page: what makes a good picture

The Aberdeen Press and Journal photographer went for mood in the
shot, opposite, of an American sailor and his Scottish wife at the lowering
of the Stars and Stripes at a Scottish base
The shot a sports photographer hopes for. The theme is action in
the Western Mail’s Allsport picture of Juventus scoring a goal against
Manchester United in the European Champions’ League

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 41

 Expression is the theme of this well-caught picture in
London’s Evening Standard of Prince Charles and his son Prince Harry
about to fly off on a Royal tour

An experienced photographer knows when he (or she) has got a good

picture in terms of light, composition and content. The way the picture is
cropped and used on the page and the significance with which it is imbued
has to obey additional parameters such as the words of the text, the space
available and the requirements of page planning.
The aim is to avoid wasted grey areas while at the same time emphasizing
required detail (see the crop in Figures 32 and 33). Thus in a picture
showing a group of houses in which context is of no concern, a house
might be selected because it is the one with which the story is concerned.
A person taken from a group picture might be cropped from the waist
upwards because that is what the visualizer wants. The same agency news
picture might appear in rival papers cropped in different ways because of
different ideas in projecting a story. Figure 33 The picture as it was cropped and used to show the two fighters
in close-up

The editing of pictures to prepare them for the page has been both
simplified and speeded up under modern systems. There are four stages in
the process, although on smaller papers some might be merged:

1 Assessment for quality and suitability.

2 Cropping and sizing for shape.
3 Retouching.
4 Fitting into the page.

Here is what happens on a typical well-staffed national paper.

Figure 32 As taken at the ringside: News of the World cameraman Brian
Thomas captures the moment of triumph in a big boxing match Assessment

The picture editor – with the benefit of an electronic picture desk (EPD)
these days – examines on a monitor screen the contacts transmitted
digitally from the photographer or from other on-line sources, and
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 42
shortlists a selection of the input for the back bench or other executives. 3 When lines and perspective are thrown out by ‘tilting’ in an effort to get
The picture editor does this by reference to the quality and composition of a wanted shape.
the pictures and their suitability for the requirements of the pages. A final
choice is made, either from the material showing on screen or from Retouching
printouts of it, after discussion involving the picture editor and those
responsible for the various parts of the paper. Inevitably there are problem pictures. A picture of inferior, or even poor,
quality might be used because it is the only one available and is vital to the
Cropping and sizing story. Another example is where, despite cropping, a picture has unwanted
detail such as someone’s head which has nothing to do with the story, or
This is usually done either by the art desk or the executive in charge of the heavy tones of wallpaper which clash with a person’s features.
page. The picture, having been chosen, is called up from the picture desk This used to be the area where a retouching artist with an airbrush was
computer and is cropped and sized at the same time on the scanner screen called on to ‘improve’ the picture, occasionally with indifferent results.
to give the required image. The wanted part is enlarged or reduced so that Today, programs such as Adobe PhotoShop are achieving, with electronic
the size and shape of image produced fits exactly its pre-selected box on retouching in the scanner, effects far better than the best possible results
the page. Where the task is left to a scanner operator, the cropped area and produced by the old retouching artists. The method, however, entails
size required are usually marked for the operator on a printout of the changing the ‘pixel’ structure of the picture’s image, which can lead to
picture or of the contacts. ‘image manipulation’ and even invention of detail. This has led to tighter
Cropping and scaling was formerly (and still is under paste-up) done editorial control over retouching to avert lawsuits that can follow
manually on the back of the print by the diagonal method as shown tampering with pictures.
in Figure 37 on page 66. In some cases a picture might be reversed (i.e. printed from the negative
The shape resulting from cropping (anything other than a rectangle is not back to front), so that people are not looking out of the page or the story.
normally feasible; even a cut-out or oval would be developed from a basic This is a dangerous practice unless the detail is carefully studied. Readers
rectangle) is governed partly by the composition, partly by the intentions are good at spotting coats buttoned the wrong way, wedding rings on the
of the visualizer and partly by the space available. Composition wrong hand, or hair parted on different sides in different papers. More
predominates; it is not usual to force a picture of naturally horizontal shape bizarre results are right-hand drive cars turned into left-hand drive and
into a vertical. In such a case it is either the wrong picture or it is on the number plates reading back to front.
wrong page.
Cropping should be creative. It is a method of editing a picture for Fitting in to the page
emphasis. Bad cropping occurs:
In full screen make-up it falls to the sub in charge of making up the page to
1 When the position or attitude of the subject person becomes distorted or check and adjust, and even if need be to enlarge or reduce the image, after
meaningless because of the exclusion of detail. the picture has been imaged into its box from the art desk or scanning
2 When the cropped area is too small, causing a dispersal of detail on studio. By mouse controls the box size, and therefore the picture size, can
enlargement and printing. be varied on screen, and even tilted, if layout changes demand it at make-

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 43

up stage. The reaction to the mouse click is instantaneous, and the speed if pushed too far. A balance should be struck between pictures and text so
and degree of control give the page sub great flexibility at edition changes, that the functions of illustration and visual balance performed by pictures
or if the layout or space has to change during page make-up. are utilized and a newspaper, while making itself attractive, does not
The pace and ease of page building with mouse controls has widened the become a slave to its design and short-change its buyers of reading matter.
role of subs on smaller papers. On tight staffs, and with formula-based
pages it is common, as we have seen, for a sub looking after a page to Uses of pictures
design it, choose, crop and scan the pictures required, sub all the stories,
and build the page on screen up to plate-making readiness. On the bigger Where a certain type or shape of picture is expected to be used it is usual
national papers the greater specialization practised in editing precludes the for the picture editor to brief a photographer with such advice as ‘a strong
use of this degree of multi-skilling. double of this,’ or ‘go for a wide shot – it’s the heads that matter.’ The
worldly camera-person, who is planning a cluster of shots using a digital
The design function automatic, will probably go for a variety of shapes and angles for good
measure so that there is a choice should the advertising department leave
The needs of page planning can influence the choice of a picture and its the editorial an awkward space to fill, or a story and its picture be moved
shape and size. Since pictures, as we have said, form part of the visual to a different page.
pattern of the page, it is usually desirable to have one main illustration Nevertheless, the picture finally chosen will determine by its composition,
with perhaps a number of small ones, or maybe no others at all. The choice and what is required to show, the shape it takes in the page. In fact a
of the main one has to be made at the start for it governs the design. picture that is considered to be worth a good space, whatever pre-
The best available picture for visual effect may not go with the main story. conceived ideas might have been held, will be given a page where this is
It might be with one of the minor items or be covered by a self-contained possible. Its shape and size will govern the disposition of stories and
caption, and be chosen in the absence of any usable picture with the main headlines around it. It will become a fixed point in the design to which the
items. The visual balance of the page thus becomes a factor in picture other elements adapt, although it still has to fulfil its function of informing
choice. The main picture is a focal point in this balance, its position being the reader since it is part of the day’s input of news.
influenced by the relative visual mass of advertisements, main headlines If a number of pictures are used together on a news page,
and text. Newspaper pages reproduced in chapters one, two, eleven and a sequence (Figure 15 on page 34) is better than a montage, the coupling
twelve of this book show this factor at work. of pictures into a display pattern, with complicated cutting in (Figure 34)
Taking our explanation further we can say that the inclusion of a story on a since it is less troublesome and time-taking. It also looks less contrived.
page can be because it provides a picture which helps give visual balance Screen make-up – and even paste-up – has made a great variety of display
as well as illustrating the story. It is not usual to have two stories with ideas possible but for news there is nothing faster or more urgent than a
good picture coverage, leaving none for another page. An exception would well-cropped, good-sized, perfectly toned rectangle.
be a page of news-in-pictures. Only where the editorial space left by the Found more often on features pages is the cut-out in which part of the
advertisements is very small would the page executive not bother with picture is highlighted by being cut away from its background to reveal the
illustration. outline of a head or building or other salient feature (see Figure 35 and
Visual effect can become an obsession with tabloid newspapers, including examples on pages 198–9). Display advertisements often make good use
some provincial ones, where display can starve the pages of reading matter

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 44

of cut-outs, with bastard measure text spilling round strange outlines, an
effect produced effortlessly with mouse-controlled computer setting.
Pictures are also used as parts of a compo (or composite illustration) along
with headline type, sometimes reversed on to colour, and occasionally line
graphics. This is a fussy, though eye-catching, device much favoured
for blurbs (examples on pages 62 and 212) used in features pages and
often in colour on page one to signal inside page contents.
On news and features pages a simple but significant picture subject might
be used as a small bleach-out, in which the image is over-exposed in the
processor until it loses intermediate tones and takes on the hard black and
white of a line illustration. The technique is used where a motif, or series
of repeating motifs (examples on page 196) is wanted to flag a long-
running or special story. Examples might be the outline of a jet fighter in
an air war story, Big Ben on a parliamentary column, or a winning post in
a classic race report. Bleach-outs, if chosen wisely from a sharp but simple
original, can have a drama a drawn motif lacks.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 45

Figure 36 Successful blurbs, especially those at the top of the front page,
are best achieved by a composite of boldly presented pictures, headline
type and cross-references printed in colour. In this example from The
Express, attractive girlie cut-outs, one extending into the masthead area,
take the eye. Headings and cross-references are here reversed on to red and
blue

Top left: In this working graphic, a Daily Mail artist shows the method by
which a man survived in the sea by turning his waders into a lifejacket.
Also included is the time scale and geography of the man’s rescue The
Guardian’s map pinpoints deep coal mines threatened with closure in an
accompanying story about problems in the power industry
Right Symbol graphics – an example from the Western Mail’s horoscopes
column

Reproduction of photographs by the half-tone process, in which the tones

are rendered by means of tiny printed dots of varying density, still applies
in web-offset printing used with computerized systems both in colour and
black and white. Pictures are printed, in effect, through a fine screen (as
they were in the hot metal process), though with the use of smooth

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 46

polymer printing plates on web-offset presses an even finer screen is computer as stock for use as needed and will be more exclusive to a
possible, giving greater clarity of reproduction in the modern newspaper. publication.

Graphics

Graphics, in newspaper and magazine parlance, means any drawn visual

aids as opposed to photographs. It was originally limited to the use of
design symbols to explain statistical material – little people and half
people signifying voting intentions, petrol consumption, Budget benefits,
etc. – and examples of stylized ‘idiot’graphics have been available for
years in Letraset and other stick-on types.
The greater use of trained layout artists in recent years on the bigger
newspapers as well as on magazines has led to a boom in in-house
graphics as illustration, especially on the quality Sunday papers. There are
occasions when a drawing can get closer to a story’s actuality than a
photograph. Tabbed diagrams can show methods used by an escaping
convict, the infiltration of terrorists, or the opium trail from Thailand, in a CHAPTER FOUR
way denied to the camera. Family trees can come alive out of the routine
searches of geneaologists, the range of capacity of inter-Continental HANDLING TEXT
missiles and battle layouts demonstrated, and football moves and golf
strokes shown in detail. Subeditors edit all the text that goes into a newspaper, the broad areas of
Graphics can combine with half-tones by juxtaposing tabbed identification news and features and sectional specialisms such as sport and financial.
panels alongside a picture, demonstrating with arrowed lines the path of a
Advances in technology have broadened the subs’ role. We have seen
bullet or the route of a careering vehicle, thus extending the text.
how, from the start, the computer allowed them to turn their material into
These examples are what might be termed working graphics (see example
type for the page, thus cutting out the old-style composing room, and
in Figure 38). Symbol graphics still have their place. Drawn or bleached-
finally how to control the whole edited product by making up the pages on
out motifs are used to label a column or flag a long-running story such as
screen.
an election or a big strike. They abound on holiday supplements, the logos
It is easy to exaggerate the effect of all this on text editing. The computer
of well-known columnists, TV programmes and racing cards – a silhouette
has proved a marvellous tool, leading to cost-saving and greater speed and
here, a pair of sunglasses there, the scales of justice, and so on. They give
efficiency, to say nothing of better looking pages, but one needs to
easy recognition to regular features and looked-for parts of the paper. They
remember that in its editorial guise it is still a tool. Traditional skills in the
are part of the paper’s visual character, part of its familiarity
handling of text, and its projection in the page and targeting on the reader,
The computer has greatly increased the use of symbol graphics (see
have never been more necessary. It is to these skills that we now turn.
also Figure 38), although graphics drawn in-house can be entered into the
The subs’ table

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 47

Subs vary in number from three of four on a small weekly to maybe a 8 Write any captions needed to go with the story and the accompanying
dozen on a town evening paper and perhaps twenty or thirty on a national pictures.
daily. Because of shift systems and holidays not all work at once. 9 Revise the story in length and context for later editions in the light of
The ubiquitous keyboard and screen have greatly altered the layout of the new copy or a change in position in page or paper.
old subs’ table. There is a growing stress on multi-skilling with subs on 10 Ensure that these procedures are carried out to meet page and edition
some papers being designated as page editors, handling stories and deadlines.
pictures for a given page and seeing it through from screen to plate, with
other subs carrying out specialist editing, rewrite or revise functions. On Features subediting is described in Chapters 11 and 12.
small papers, page design and picture editing can be included in the subs’
or page editors’ brief. Getting it right
Subs’ table layouts thus vary from office to office. There remains a good
deal of compartmenting in the bigger quality papers, with enclaves of subs The amount of news and the sheer accumulation of facts in a newspaper,
and a designer working on specialist parts of the paper. Home or foreign, coupled with the speed of production, make inaccuracy a daily hazard.
sport or general, the subs’ job in terms of handling text is the same, People are quick to condemn when a newspaper gets things wrong and the
however, although the more mechanical aspects of typesetting and casting graver errors can get an editor into serious trouble.
off to a length have been simplified by the computer. This chapter will
look at the techniques involved by examining the role of the general news
subeditor.

The editing function

Your job as a news sub, in terms of text editing, is to:

1 Check the names, addresses, figures and other facts of the story for
accuracy.
2 Check and put right any errors in grammar, spelling and structure.
3 Check for legality, if necessary referring queries to the office lawyer.
4 Edit the story to the length needed for its page slot, if necessary cutting
and amending it, or collating copy from a number of sources into one
story.
5 Rewrite any part, or all, of the story if need be to bring it to the length
and standard required.
6 Prepare the story for its page slot by setting it in the required type and
measure.
7 Write a headline to the chosen type and measure.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 48

 sum of money that seems disproportionate to the facts, should alert a sub
to possible transmission errors.
‘Attractive blonde model Jenny Jones, aged 43…’ would write in angrily if
she were only 23.
A man fined fifty pounds for a minor theft would regard it as damaging if
the newspaper added a nought to the fine by mistake.
Misreadings can lead to mistakes when you rewrite reporters’ copy. Check
all rewrites against the original story (usually kept in the system),
especially names and addresses, ages, dates, figures and quotations. It is
annoying if the reporter gets the facts right and they turn up wrong in the
paper.
‘Quoted speech’, where meanings have been changed or frustrated through
vital words or sentences being left out in the editing, is a particular source
of complaint to the Press Complaints Commission. The reporter’s note or
tape is no protection if the quotation has been altered by the subeditor in
shortening a story so that the speaker is held up to ridicule or appears to
A vital part of your job as a subeditor is to check, check, check everything have said something he or she did not say. This does not mean that quoted
that is checkable. In the days of hot metal production the system of speech cannot be edited or shortened, only that it should be done with care,
proofreaders often helped in correcting editorial errors. It is now down to especially in sensitive circumstances.
the journalist. If avoidable mistakes get into the paper, it is the subeditor A common danger is the paraphrasing of quotes in the opening, or intro,
who edited the story who is deemed to be at fault, and who needs almost a to a story where the sub, in an attempt to grab the readers’ attention,
sixth sense to detect hidden traps. pushes the meaning of a quotation beyond its limit. If a councillor tells a
reporter, ‘It is likely that the Council will consider demolishing three
Error can arise in many ways. No two eyewitnesses see things in the same blocks of substandard flats,’ and the first sentence of the edited report says,
light so discrepancies can occur in different reports of the same incident. ‘Bromley Council is to consider demolishing three blocks of substandard
Reporters have to be relied upon to cross-check information on the job. flats’, the subeditor has gone too far. Sources of information to a
There is not much you can do about this aspect except to check back with newspaper can dry up if they get this sort of treatment.
the reporter any fact or figure that is suspect. In the offices of competitive papers, a high degree of polishing and
Checking with the reporter should be a regular practice where there is the rewriting and striving for effect goes on the subs’ table in the battle to
slightest doubt about anything. Even if the original source of information outdo rival papers. The subeditor who combs his or her brains for the
cannot be contacted, your query might reveal an error in telephoning or telling phrase, the eyecatching introduction and words of the right length
keyboarding. A for a difficult headline count can be in as great a danger of doing damage
nought might have been added to a figure, or left out, or a sentence to the facts as the reporter rushing to get the story into the paper by the
misheard. An unlikely age, an unusual spelling of a name, or a figure or deadline.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 49

Cases of mistaken identity are another cause for complaint. In captioning Check sources
stock pictures to go with a story you must make certain that the person is
identified beyond all doubt. There was a well-known case in a British There are a number of routines which should be followed by subeditors to
newspaper where a perfectly law-abiding citizen opened his paper at ensure accuracy. You should check all stories against files in the cuttings
breakfast time to find himself staring out of a gallery of hoodlums at the library, electronic or otherwise, even though the reporter might be
top of the page presumed to have done this. This will show what publicity the person or
just because he happened to share the same name as someone. Mistakes subject has had and may supply useful background detail. It will also tell
like this can be expensive. you if the story is, in fact, new or has already been published. The cuttings
Picture files, even electronic ones, can finish up containing more than one might contain names of people who can be used as check sources and can
person of the same name. It is no defence for you to say the picture came give biographical facts to flesh out sketchy details supplied by the reporter,
from the file. If there is the slightest doubt about it being the right person or to correct actual errors.
you should not risk attaching a caption to identify to it until it has been It is always worth checking the names, titles and other references to people
checked. in the public eye. Peers, judges and lieutenant-generals can be touchy
Likewise, with pictures of groups, it is not enough for the cameraman to about their description, particularly the next time you want to talk to them.
say that he thinks the fourth person from the left is so-and-so. It is down to And beware about their marital state. Be up to date (through cuttings) on
the sub handling the story, by whatever means, to identify the right person. divorces and remarriages and whether people really are married or are only
When you are building a page on screen – for example, if you are the page thought to be married. The real wife can be annoyed to find a mistress
editor – you must ensure the right captions get on the right picture. masquerading in her place in print.
The News of the World once had the President of the Board of Trade Fortunately, in this area, checking is not difficult. Titles, heirs, family
playing in midfield for Chelsea. arrangements and even hobbies of the famous can be found in Who’s
Picture captions and mistaken identities are two of the biggest traps a Who’, while ‘Debrett’ and ‘Burke’s Peerage’ can keep subs up to date
subeditor has to deal with (see previous chapter, pages 49 and 57). There is with peers, knights and baronets. It is the nature of the titles minefield that
no calculating what damage might be being caused to someone’s Lords Astor, Douglas, Russell, Cohen, Lloyd and Balfour (to name but a
reputation or business by a simple mistake. Even where, through no fault few) seem to come in pairs and even threes, and the right one must be
of the paper, a person is mistaken for someone else through having the identified.
same name and similar address or description as the person in the page, Sorting out the Revs, Right Revs, Vens, priests, pastors, rectors, abbots,
editors will publish a short disclaimer, if asked, if they think damage might archdeacons, canons and rabbis becomes possible in individual cases by
be caused. Mistakes which cause annoyance and irritation to a person or reference to such works as Crockford’s Clerical Directory, The Catholic
organization, rather than actual damage, can be put right by agreement Directory, Free Church Directory, Baptist Handbook, Jewish Year
with the editor, by a simple correction in a later edition. More serious Book and others. The word priest is particularly misused in stories about
mistakes can lead to an action for damages or, more frequently, the paying religion.
of an agreed sum out of court and the publication of an apology. Whether or not a school is a public school can be gleaned from the Public
Needless to say, editors do not like having their mistakes aired in public and Preparatory Schools Year Book, and the names of MPs, their titles,
and look to their subeditors to protect them from trouble. and qualifications, from Dod’s Parliamentary Companion and Vacher’s
Parliamentary Companion.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 50

For military people and military matters there are: Despite all these prestigious and accessible volumes there are four
reference works that are inseparable from any subs’ table: Whitaker’s
The Air Force List Almanack, which has the most comprehensive information about
The Army List governments at home and abroad, trade unions, economies and
The Navy List geographies; Bartholomew’s Gazetteer of Great Britain, which can settle
Jane’s Fighting Ships every dispute about the spelling and location of towns and villages; a
Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft modern dictionary and a full set of telephone directories. Add to these a
good international gazetteer and a selection of national year books and you
For the Arts there are: are factually set up.

BBC Year Book Making it fit

Oxford Companion to Literature
Oxford Companion to Music Casting off is an old printers’ term for setting a piece of copy or headline
Oxford Companion to Art in type to fit its space. It is still used in subbing for editing a story to the
Radio and TV Who’s Who length required. To cast off a story, the subeditor must know first how
Who’s Who in Music many words it contains. This is now easy for a word count comes up on
Who’s Who in the Theatre screen when copy is entered.
The sub must then know how many words in body setting can be
In business, Government and other areas at home and abroad there are: contained in a given space on the page. Here a knowledge of the
newspaper quickly provides the answer since setting of whatever size
Civil Service List works out at a given number of words per column inch. A new subeditor
The Directory of Directors will find it useful to stick examples from the paper across single column
Foreign Office List and double column on a card until familiar with the requirements of
International Who’s Who various column depths. Figure 41 shows some examples of column width
The Stock Exchange Year Book setting by the inch.
Who’s Who in America At its simplest, cutting an over-long text to fit a given space is achieved by
two means:
Quotations from the literary greats can upset readers, especially of
upmarket papers, when rendered wrongly. Is it ‘all that glitters is not 1 Leaving out unnecessary facts.
gold’? or ‘all that glisters is not gold’? Which homely English poet 2 Leaving out unnecessary words.
described tea as ‘the cup that cheers but not inebriates’? Is ‘Get thee to a
nunnery’ from Hamlet or King John? And was it Sir Toby Belch who said:
‘Dost thou think because thou art virtuous there shall be no more cakes
and ale?’ Memory plays false and the safest thing is to resort to the Oxford
Dictionary of Quotations or to its Everyman’s or Penguin equivalent.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 51

 reporter beforehand, whereas the reporter is more concerned with the two
hard days spent on gathering a story than with questions of balance on the
page, and often has had little or no subbing experience.
It is not always possible to give reporters a precise length to which to write
because the factors governing space – the number of pages and the volume
and quality of news stories available for them – is not known in time.
Some story lengths can be decided in advance come what may. Some
favoured news stories, however, might in the end get less space than
expected, or be dropped altogether, because of some unexpected
development. Space on pages can be lost as a result of late changes in
picture and advert sizes.
Stories can grow. Extra copy might come in from other sources or a story
might become important because of unforeseen happenings. Thus the
length and shape might be decided hours after the reporter has finished
Figure 41 Column width setting by the inch: a useful guide in text editing writing it, by which time he or she has gone home or is on another job.
for new subeditors
Editing for the page
Keep in the facts and details needed for intro and main sequence and
delete the rest as necessary, beginning with the ones of least importance to The editing process begins (unless you are working for a paper that still
the story. Then work through the copy, carefully paring down the text, uses cut-and-paste – see pages 4 and 10) when the sub or page editor
rooting out repetition, ambiguity and redundant words, shortening wordy receives on screen the schemed page and, as they become available, the
phrases, checking the grammar as you go, so that every word that is left stories required. Each slot will indicate the story catchline and the body
does a job. type and headline setting. The chief subeditor will brief you on the
There is a good deal more to good subbing, however, than cutting a story handling of any special aspects of a story and you will then commence
to fit, as will be explained in the rest of this chapter, but the problem of shaping it to its place in the page.
long texts is one that frequently has to be faced. We have seen from the A quick reading of the text will reveal by how much it needs cutting, if at
way news is selected and from the variables at work in news origination all. Some stories can be placed at almost their original length. Others
that a great deal more copy enters a newspaper than can be used. Even might be the work of several reporters with important aspects embedded in
after copytasting, much remains to be done to reduce the amount to the accompanying agency copy or with the promise of ‘more to follow’ from
size and shape needed to project in the pages. You as the subeditor are the the reporter still covering the job.
catalyst for this. Some running stories may continue right through a day’s editions
The main task of subbing, after checking for accuracy, is the cutting and with ‘add copy’ and pictures arriving from various sources and several
collating of copy so that a story is given an orderly shape within the space revisions for the page necessary (see Chapter 10). Throughout this job of
chosen for it. There can be hard feelings between reporters and subs over checking, cutting and revising, not only of one story but of several during
this. Here you invariably have the advantage of having worked as a

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 52

the shift, your job is to assess and update the material for the reader in the true that the least read paragraph in a news story is the last one so that a
light of the latest information and the space available. pearl of information could be wasted.
The editing process ends, when, having got the story to the right length Attempts have been made to impose a neat formula on news subbing but
and the facts in the required order, you type it up with its headline into the none is watertight. There are always stories that require a different
page slot, these days using coded setting formats. You might need to trim approach, and some of these approaches will be examined later. Perhaps
it on screen if it is still slightly over. If it is only a line short it is possible, the most useful way to look at story structure is to say that a well-subbed
using a command key, to level up the text by distributing the line space – news story should have:
eight points, say – evenly through the text.
1 A statement
Order and shape 2 Explanation
3 Corroboration
In text editing, your assessment of the story, upon which you base its order 4 Qualification
and shape, comes from a close reading of the copy and an informed
judgement about what it is ‘saying’. Newspapers are often accused of These categories, as will be seen, apply only in the most general way as do
formularizing news into stereotypes. Some criminal court cases, marriage- most teaching slogans. It is perhaps easier just to say that the story should
and-divorce situations and show-biz stories seem to come typecast with the have a logical sequence in which the facts drawn to the reader’s attention
order of events and even the things people say, being recognizably similar. in the intro are explained in the body of the text so that the story is as clear,
Such stock situation stories are not common enough to make life easy for complete and as up to date as the subeditor can make it in the space and
the subeditor. Sometimes the crux of a story in terms of news has to be time available.
pulled out of the middle of a long account, or it comes to light from a Let us now examine the various stages.
query raised or an idea from a senior executive. The simplicity and
directness of the final version can conceal a lot of work. The intro
Order and shape are needed in editing a news story to get the maximum
benefit from the space it occupies. The essence of what the story is about Your opening paragraph must catch the eye at first reading if the brain is to
has to be identified and made into an attractively-worded introduction, be persuaded to read on. This introduction, or intro as it is called, is a
or intro, so that the reader’s attention is aroused. Thereafter the facts must contrived device in which attention is gained not by starting at the
be unfolded so that the intro is justified and the story fleshed out. It has beginning of a sequence of events, as in the first chapter of a novel, but by
failed if the supporting facts fail to justify the intro, or if they leave the giving first the highlight or most important or most interesting part of the
reader asking questions. story.
The facts should be presented in order of importance, those most Fashioning a good intro is a skill you must learn since it is the cornerstone
connected with the intro being given first, irrelevant ones removed and the of the method by which news stories are presented and edited. Experienced
least important left to the end. The notion that a reporter should include a reporters are made aware of this requirement in their training and in an
potent end paragraph is an attractive one but in the heat of late copy and ideal world they will produce copy that requires little editing. There are
quick edition changes the story might have to be cut from the end. It is also always reasons, however, why a new intro is required. The vital news fact,
despite the reporter’s efforts, might be stuck somewhere down the story.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 53

Later information or the arrival of copy from other sources, or the more Teenage runaway Kirsty McFadden has revealed how she earned an
experienced judgement of a night editor or chief subeditor, can result in astonishing £600 a week begging on the streets of Bristol to feed her
the story being treated in a different way. The arrival of news pictures to heroine habit.
go with it can require a shift of emphasis.
Whatever the state or the amount of copy, an experienced subeditor will Again, 25 words encapsulate the vital fact of the story – how a girl of 16
know what the intro should say after a first reading, and most certainly made the money she needed to stay on hard drugs while living rough for a
after a second. With a running story, or with several copy sources, or with year. The fact that she has kicked drugs and is back with her family is
changing news angles for different editions, some preliminary tasting and covered with a heartwarming picture alongside, but the subs’ headline,
editing is usually necessary. With a big running story – say an air crash or £600-A-WEEK BEGGAR, confirms that the intro point is correctly
an election – the intro is sometimes the last paragraph to be written since it chosen.
has to contain the most up-to-date facts. In such cases stories are edited
and given their typesetting, and maybe a standby intro, or a space is left in This demonstrates another useful rule about an intro:
the on-screen page to await the intro.
Guidelines to help a young sub to master the art of intro writing are best It should seek out the point that makes the story special.
demonstrated by examining examples. Let us see how a big provincial
evening paper, the Bristol Evening Post writes its intros: Here is an intro from another paper which is less effective:

Four families with brain-damaged toddlers were taking court action in A total of three hundred and five thousand children will have their
London today over an inquiry into a heart surgery unit at Bristol Royal education disrupted next week when the National Union of Teachers
Infirmary. stages the fourth in its weekly three-day selective strikes in support of the
teachers’ pay claim.
It is a simple sentence but it gets straight to the point. The fact, referred to
in the next but one paragraph, that two heart surgeons are facing a This is not a bad intro because it gets to the heart of what is to happen but
disciplinary hearing by the General Medical Council, is already known; it uses too many words. It would be better to say ‘…stages a fourth three-
the new fact is that the families are pursuing civil claims against the local day selective strike over pay.’ That would have used nine words instead of
Healthcare Trust. Therein lies the intro. sixteen for that part of the sentence, and would have avoided using the
The story is, in fact, a follow-up and it demonstrates two rules about an word ‘teacher’ twice. The rest could be explained in the second and third
intro: paragraphs. This brings us to another rule about an intro:

It should highlight the salient and most newsworthy point in the story. Every word should count in making the intro readable. There is no
It should not try to say too much within its space. room for passengers.

And another punchy example from the Evening Post: Now look at the facts in the following story:

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 54

In Salford yesterday afternoon a five-year-old boy, Kevin Jones, was Fourth, when she managed to get to her pub, the Rose and Crown, in time
knocked down by a reversing lorry outside his home and died later in for the birthday drink she’ d promised herself she found them fighting a
hospital. fire in the bar.

Here is an example of the right information in the wrong order, with the Fifth, when she returned home for lunch, fed up to the back teeth, she
result that the effect is weakened. The intro should relegate the time and found a letter on the mat saying she’ d won £50,000 on the pools.
place to the end of the sentence and get straight down to the news fact:
Vera, of Culrose Street, Bolton said last night…etc.
Five-year-old Kevin Jones died in hospital after being knocked down by a
reversing lorry outside his home in Salford yesterday. Delayed drop intros are effective on the right sort of story, but like many
special devices they become tiresome with over-use. The story structure
The intro rule: must be contrived with great skill – a job that usually falls to the subeditor
It should not begin with the place and time. – so that the reader is ‘hooked’, and the denouement must make the slow-
burning effect to have been worthwhile. On no account should this
The delayed drop treatment be used on hard news, nor should more than one delayed drop
story appear on the same page. It has to be kept for a special sort of
One type of intro that does not follow the above rules is the delayed drop. material.
Here the substance of the story is deliberately kept from the reader to
create a feeling of suspense. It can work well in offbeat humorous or Story sequence
human interest stories or in atmosphere stories in which the effect depends
upon how the facts are presented rather than upon their intrinsic Once you have settled the intro you are ready to tackle the main body of
importance. For example: the text, which means presenting the facts in sequence so that the story has
shape and pace as the reader moves through it.
Yesterday was Vera Jones’s 46th birthday. It was a day she is not going to The first point to remember is that your intro must not be left unsupported.
forget for five good reasons. The paragraphs immediately following it must explain any incomplete
references it contains, even if this means changing the order in the
First, she slipped getting out of bed and emptied her Teasmaid cuppa all reporter’s copy. If it describes a boy of seven, then you must quickly give
over the carpet. his name and details, if known. If it contains a general reference to a group
or organization then you must identify it fully as soon as possible so that
Second, the cat, not used to such behaviour, took flight and jumped out of the reader is not left guessing. Any device or generalization used to make
the first floor window. an intro short and pithy – references to leader, boss, court, team, minister
etc. – requires a fuller description in the next two or three paragraphs.
Third, when Vera struggled down to the kitchen to make another cup of tea If, for example, a story says, ‘A Labour councillor told a delegation of
she found it was flooded. She’ d left the tap on. young mothers at the Town Hall today that the party supported their

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 55

demand for more crèches…’ the councillor and the composition of the Many accidents are caused by night snowfalls followed by high daytime
delegation should be quickly identified. temperatures, says the Swiss Mountaineering Association.
Having supported the intro, you should unfold the remaining facts in order
of importance. Facts touched upon in the intro should not be repeated as if Notice that the intro is correctly focused on the amazing survival of the
they were new facts but should be referred to and amplified as they occur one mountaineer rather than the death of the other two, however tragic.
in natural sequence. Quotes should be introduced and attributed in Here are some special points about story sequence:
corroboration of what the story is saying.
If the story has several ‘ends’ (information from different locations, or Using quotes
writers, or enlargements of specific aspects of the story) you should
connect the segments by linking phrases so that the reader knows that the In stories based upon eyewitness interviews short telling quotes can
narrative has diverted from the main story, even though the material still energize the text. For instance a story of a train being struck by lightning
relates to the facts in the intro. might begin:
The skilful unfolding of a news story in this way should have a natural
rhythm of its own whether it consists of three paragraphs or twenty-seven A hundred people were injured when an express train ran off the lines
paragraphs. Here from The Express is a six-paragraph story that vividly north of Watford after being struck by what a witness called ‘a ball of
demonstrates the sequence of intro, explanation, fire.’
corroboration and qualification:
It is does not matter if the quotes do not all entirely agree. After the main
A British climber was recovering yesterday after he was swept 2000 feet facts given in the first couple of paragraphs the above story might go on:
down a mountain by a rockslide.
Jane Watkins, of North Road, Rickmansworth, who was in the third coach,
His two companions died in the fall from the East Wall of the Matterhorn. said: There was a great flash as we passed over a bridge and everyone
screamed.’
Martin Hood, who was dragged after them on the same rope, suffered only
fractures and was later rescued after other climbers raised the alarm. Her friend June Smith, of Long Lane, Welwyn, Herts, said: The fireball –
it was more than just a flash – seemed to land right in front of the train.’
Six other climbers have died on the mountain in the past week, and 56
since the climbing season started in June. Mr Hood, who works in A word of warning: a story based on a contentious statement someone has
made is incomplete and could lead to trouble if the person’s quoted views
Zurich, was with an American woman and another man. Police said, ‘He are not included as they were said. If a story starts, ‘Boomtown’s Labour
was well kitted out. It was just another tragic accident.’ mayor said the Tory Opposition group on the council were “preying” on
people’s misfortunes to make political capital…’, then it should have a
Across the central Alps, another seven mountaineers fell or were crushed qualifying paragraph such as, ‘The Mayor, Coun. Thomas Jones, declared:
to death in snow avalanches, bringing the number of deaths in the region to “The Opposition on this council are like vultures…etc.”’.
more than 150 since June.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 56

In introducing quoted statements beware of misrepresenting what a person Here, from the Western Mail, is a report of a political speech in which
is saying by using in intros and headlines words such as ‘criticized’, quoted and paraphrased statements are interspersed to keep the report to a
Insisted’ or ‘demanded’. Such verbs require strong views to sustain them. length while still giving the salient points:
If a local councillor said, ‘I think housing tenders should be advertised
over a wider area to try to bring in cheaper quotations,’ he could be The welfare state will be modernized to support work and not dependency,
aggrieved to find on opening his local newspaper that he had ‘denounced’ Social Security Secretary Harriet Harman declared yesterday.
his council’s house-building programme.
Some adjectives and verbs describing what people say have a loaded or The new welfare state would be based on work, savings and honesty, she
emotive effect which goes beyond the objectivity required by a good news told the Labour conference in Brighton.
writing. There is nothing wrong with the neutral ‘said’ or lold’ or ‘added.’
Let the person’s words speak for them. ‘We will modernize the welfare state so that all the children in Britain
grow up with a decent standard of living, so that it helps people into work
Mixing quotes rather than leaves them on benefit, modernize it to give our pensioners the
dignity they deserve,’ she said.
Some subeditors, in an attempt to get everything of interest near the top of Ms Harman said one of the Government’s test projects to get lone mothers
the story, break up interview quotes used by the reporter, using first those back to work had proved an early success.
of one person, then another, and even a third, in the first few paragraphs.
This might seem a good idea for the order of facts the sub has in mind but ‘In one of our pilots, as many as one in every three lone mothers has got a
it can confuse the reader. job – sometimes after years on benefit – after their very first interview.
In reporting discussion – at a meeting, say – mixing of quotes and speakers
might seem justified but in the run of the story it is better to deal one at a ‘This is what we mean by reforming the welfare state. Tough decisions on
time with the things people say rather than break up and shuffle their benefits, yes, but always determined to help those on benefits get into
words. If comments are detached and used in the same part of a story as work and become better off.’
other people’s words, not only the context but the meaning of each
speaker’s words can be lost. Ms Harman said the Government’s New Deal for the long-term sick and
Other points in quoting speech: disabled would tackle discrimination and put people into work.

Where a person is quoted as criticizing someone, the other person The Government had put £200m into the New Deal. ‘Now I can announce
should be allowed an opportunity to give their view. If the reporter has I’ ll be inviting employers, disability groups and voluntary organizations to
failed to do this, the sub should go back and ask for it to be done. Even if bid for funds from our New Deal to give real job opportunities to people
the person criticized tells the reporter, I have no comment,’ it is worth with disabilities,’ she said. ‘The point is not the amount we spend but how
using this to show the newspaper is trying to be fair. we spend it.’
Whether quoted or paraphrased, statements in a story must be properly
attributed. The juxtaposing of paraphrase and quoted speech presents a rapid
unfolding pattern of the substance of the speech where quotes alone would
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 57
have slowed it down. Political speeches do not normally present their most A person’s career or achievements can often be filled out usefully in the
potent points in the first few minutes. editing, but if a person appointed to public office has been found in
cuttings to have been put on probation for theft when a teenager many
Geography years ago, this could be actionable if used, even though true. It could be
construed as malicious (see Chapter 9).
The local connection of a story is important in a paper serving a local or Any background material worked in should be relevant to the story and not
regional area and is a valid ingredient in the intro and even the headline. In be used to support a point of view.
a national paper, geography is less important and is often relegated to the
third or fourth paragraph or even later. Readers can become annoyed,
however, if the location of a happening is kept almost to the end when they
find to their disgust that what they are reading about happened not in some
nearby town or even in England but in Ulan Bator, Outer Mongolia.
Even in national papers, geography in a national sense matters, and foreign
stories are often used because of their British connection. A person
involved in a story in Saudi Arabia would be a Briton in paragraph one,
while he would be from Halifax or wherever in paragraph six or seven. In
Halifax his local connection would merit the first paragraph.

Time
CHAPTER FIVE.
The yesterday or today should be made clear in the intro and followed FAULT-FINDER’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH
through in the story. Any changes in time sequence should be introduced
by a linking phrase (sometimes in italic) such as ‘earlier in the day’ or In editing text you need to be able to spot a variety of errors and misuses
‘speaking last night.’ Once the sequence has changed the story should not that can crop up in copy. Some of these faults are grammatical – even the
revert to the original time or the reader will become confused. Other ‘ends’ best writers go through life with blind spots from when young – and others
to the story should be introduced after the main explanatory text by a are to do with the use and meaning of words.
similar device such as ‘a spokesman at the town hall said later,’ or ‘Mr X’s Newspapers respond to new usages that are part of a growing world use of
former wife told reporters by telephone from New York last night.’ English. These usages reflect popular expressions and vogue words and
the subtle shifts of meanings that stem from the spoken language and the
Background influence of commerce and technology. To pick a way through this
minefield and decide when a new usage of phrase or word is acceptable is
In giving background material, especially from press cuttings, records and more difficult for the grammarian than for the journalist since the
reference books, subs should beware not to use it to slant a story or grammarian acts as the custodian of the language. The journalist is merely
influence the reader’s reaction. using it to an end.
Even so there has to be consistency and acceptability in the way language
is used if the journalist is to communicate properly with the reader. This is
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 58
important where copy, even though well written, has to be condensed The use of an implied subject is a device that can give pace to a narrative
without loss of meaning, words and phrases substituted to save space, provided it is clear who or what is the subject. It is best used to produce a
ambiguity excised and order imposed on stories that might have a variety special effect. If over-used, or used without justification in place of
of copy sources and a changing slot-length in a page. conventional structure, it becomes a tiresome mannerism.
This selection and condensation can lead the unwary sub into error when Where a verb is inactive (where it expresses a state of being or feeling) it
time is short. Stories cannot be left with difficult sentences, misleading takes a complement in place of an object. For example:
punctuation or words that do not make clear the writer’s intentions. The
subeditor must ensure not only that the text gets through to the reader in a Subject Verb Complement
readable form, but that the best use is made of the space given to it. The
following guidance on language is given with this purpose in mind.
The girl felt happy.
The sentence

Good sentence structure is the key to good writing. All sentences must It is important to know which is the subject of a sentence because the verb
have a subject and a verb. The verb, if need be, can be qualified by must agree with it in person and number. In person the verb changes only
an adverb: in the third person singular:
Subject Verb Adverb
I move He, she or it moves They move

Agreement in number, however, can cause problems. Where a sentence

The policeman walked quickly. has a double subject the verb must be plural, as in:

Oil and water do not mix.

The sentence can also have an object:
Where words are joined to the subject by a preposition the subject remains
The policeman walked quickly towards the boy (object). singular as in:

Newspapers, and some fiction writers, allow the subject to be implied in Iron, with copper, is the most important metal.
certain cases, and sometimes even the verb. This can work provided the
sense makes the subject clear to the reader: In neither-nor or either-or sentences the verb agrees in number with the
subject nearest to it as in:
The policeman walked quickly. Too quickly (he walked).
They did everything to give him a day full of activity. How full a day (they Neither John nor his brother is a member.
gave him). Neither Helen nor her sisters are going.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 59

Beware of pitfalls with numbers and quantities. Use fewer than for Words like politics, mumps, graphics and acrobatics should be treated as
numbers as in: singular despite ending in an s.

There were fewer than fifty copies left. Participles

Use less than for amounts or quantities.

Participles such as having, going, running, turning etc. are said to be left
dangling in sentences in which the writer has failed to identify the subject.
There was less than a quorum so the meeting was abandoned.
For example:
Generally numbers used as terms of measurement are singular:
Having addressed the meeting for two hours, an interval was then agreed.
There was ten pence in the hat,
The subject is the person addressing the meeting, but who was it that
agreed the interval?
but:
Passing quickly through the agenda it was then the turn of the treasurer to
there were ten pennies.
give his report.
None as a subject generally means not one and should be treated as
Was it the treasurer who passed quickly through the agenda?
singular.
A dangling participle is a certain cause of confusion to the reader and a
Thirty years ago there were many fishing families in the village. Now fault that crops up in the copy of inexperienced writers.
there is none.
Pronouns
Agreement in person and number with the subject is most difficult in the
case of collective nouns, the term given to collections of things such as a
herd, a class, a bevy, a gathering etc. Grammatically, they should be The main fault in the use of pronouns occurs in constructions in which the
treated as singular. writer has failed to relate them properly to their antecedents. For example:
The class was too lively for the new maths teacher.
Helen cooked for her sister her favourite meal.
The Government has decided to scrap its proposed wealth tax.
This is a useful rule on the whole, but sticking to it pedantically can lead to Whose favourite meal?
stilted structure, and some newspapers allow collective nouns such as the
Cabinet or football and cricket teams to be treated as plural subjects to The general looked at his aide grimly. His eyes were half closed.
make for ease of reading. In such cases consistency should be the rule. It
would be wrong for a subeditor to allow this sentence through: Whose eyes?
The Government has decided to scrap their proposed wealth tax.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 60

If there is any doubt about the identity of possessive pronouns (his, Strunk and White, in The Elements of Style, say boldly: ‘The use of he as a
her or its), or personal pronouns (me, you, him, her), reshape the sentence pronoun for nouns embracing both genders is a simple, practical
or split it in two. convention rooted in the beginning of the English language. He has lost all
Confusion of me and I is a pitfall. Broadly the rules are these: where the suggestions of maleness in these circumstances.’ They go on: ‘The furore
first person pronoun is the subject of the sentence it should be I. Where it recently raised about he would be more impressive if there were a handy
is the object of the sentence it should be me. Thus ‘It affects you and me,’ substitute for the word. Unfortunately there isn’ t.’
is correct; but you would say ‘You and I are good friends’ Quite. Meanwhile this writer and others do all they can to recast sentences
because you and I become a double subject – you are a good friend and so as to ward off the dreaded choice.
lama good friend. I should be used and not me following a conjunction, as The personal pronoun one can also be a problem. One should follow
in: through, once having started, though one can quickly
find oneself wishing one had used a different pronoun, however much one
‘He is as baffled as I (am),’ not ‘as baffled as me.’ feels that one should stick to one’s guns.
‘He is younger than I (am)’ not ‘younger than me.’ Which or that – an old bogey in sentence construction. A general guide is
that which must be used in a commenting clause. Example: This should go
Confusion between who and whom is more deeply ingrained. As a very to the news desk, which deals with these matters.’ In a defining
loose guide, one says to whom, from whom, by whom, of whom and than clause which or that is correct as in, ‘The committee that/which dealt with
whom, using who in most other cases. Thus whom is used in a sentence the matter has been disbanded.’(See under Punctuation, pages 100–6.)
when it is preceded by a preposition. A trick is to ‘The man that deals with the matter’ and ‘the man who deals with the
substitute he for who and him for whom in your mind and see how the matter’ are equally correct in a defining clause.
sentence works out. I did not know he was the one’ would indicate that I Sir Ernest Gowers favours the use of that where the choice is justified in
did not know whom was the one’ could not possibly be correct. And so on. making for a smoother sentence. He also says that either should be
A difficulty with pronouns is highlighted by the following passage: ‘When dropped in sentences that sound right without, the ear being the guide. This
a young journalist starts his or her first job it is necessary that he or she is useful advice. Thus you could trim the sentence, I think that the record
should learn to take a competent note. If any problem crops up, especially which he wants is the one that is in that box,’ to say, I think the record he
over court hearings, he or she will be asked to substantiate…etc’ wants is the one in that box.’
The glaring fact shown here is that the English language lacks a singular The above sentence reminds us of the awkward fact that the word that,
pronoun of common sex for use where the references are to either sex. unlike which, can serve as a conjunction, a relative pronoun and an
Otto Jesperson, in Growth and Structure of the English Language, refers to adjective.
the three available makeshift alternatives – using he or she, they, or just
the universal he in general references. Sir Ernest Gower, in The Complete Tenses
Plain Words, is not happy with they or them. ‘Each insisted on their own
point of view, and hence the marriage came to an end.’ He says this usage
is not defensible, though he concedes that ‘necessity may force it into the The necessary thing is to be consistent in the use of tenses. Beware of
category of accepted idiom.’ captions that are in the present tense. Try to avoid:

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 61

Elizabeth Taylor arrives at London Airport when she came to attend the becomes jargonized. It is up to the grammarians to decide how many of
premiere of…etc’ these creations are accepted into the language, but the subeditor could
strike a blow for sanity by, for instance, substituting moisten for
If an interview is in the present tense, do not allow she says in one part moisturize, complete for finalize and curse for anathematize.
and she said in another. News stories have more pace and immediacy if verbs are used wherever
Do not mix past and perfect tenses in one sentence: possible in the active voice rather than the passive – ‘The policeman saw
the boy,’ not ‘the boy was seen by the policeman. For use of verbs in
‘I went there because I have been thinking that I should like to see her.’ headlines see pages 126–7.
Two constructions seem to give some writers trouble: the use
A muddle of tenses like this is best resolved by recasting the sentence: of shall or will in the future tense of verbs, and the use of lay or lie in the
verb to lie (down).
‘I went there because I thought I should like to see her.’ Shall is normally used in the first person singular and plural as in I shall’
and ‘we shall,’ while the second and third person singular and plural
The verb to be can cause complications in the lesser-used tenses. Note take will, as in ‘he will,’ you will,’ and ‘they will.’ This order can be
that I was and he/she was in the simple past tense becomes (if) I reversed in emphatic statements such as I will go!’ or ‘You shall win
were and (if) he/she were in the past subjunctive. Reserve the were in this through!’
sort of usage for unlikely or conjectural situations, for example: ‘If In the verb to lie (down), say ‘He lay down…’ (intransitive) but ‘He laid
I were the Prime Minister…’ The if is not necessary in a sentence such as, down rules.…’ (transitive). Say ‘You should lie down,’ not ‘You
‘Suppose he were the Prime Minister.’ should lay down,’ unless the use is transitive, as in ‘You should lay down
A good tip is that tenses should relate to the tense of the governing rules.’
(introductory) verb of a news story, which is usually in the past tense.
Allow for differences in tense in quoted speech but, at the end of the Split infinitives
quoted passage revert to the governing tense. An exception to this would
be any reference to a permanent truth. For example, ‘He said that the
world is round,’ is preferable to, ‘He said that the world was round.’ The infinitive of a verb is its basic form: to be, to go, to take, etc. Splitting
On the whole, try to keep tenses simple. Recast sentences where there are the infinitive means inserting an adverb between the particle ‘to’ and the
complications. verb, as in to quickly go, to quietly take, to always be. People are no
longer scandalized by the breaking of the old grammatical rule that
Verbs infinitives should not be split in this way as when H. G. Fowler first
suggested it in his Modern English Usage in the 1920s.
Conveying the correct meaning is the important thing, yet this can usually
The worrying thing about verbs is the rate at which new ones are being
be done without splitting the infinitive. ‘To further improve the working of
formed from nouns. A story full of containerize, hospitalize, civilianize,
the engine,’ makes just as much sense and makes for a smoother sentence
servicize, anathematize and peripheralize can mesmerize. Many of
if worded, ‘to improve further the working of the engine.’ If we mean
the ize or ise verbs enable complicated things to be said briefly and should
there is a further intention to improve the working of the engine, then
not be rejected but writers should guard against using so many that the text
‘further’ must go before the infinitive as in ‘further to improve.’
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 62
‘The purpose of a drug is to better deal with hay fever’ would sound and It is in the use of adjectives that newspapers, instead of expanding the
look better by not splitting the infinitive and saying ‘to deal better with hay frontiers of language, seem to be shrinking them. It is a useful exercise for
fever’ or even ‘to deal with hay fever better’. a subeditor, as well as a writer, to cast out all the above listed adjectives
There is also the question of stress and scansion. ‘For man to boldly move and go for some that more precisely qualify the noun or, if nothing comes
towards his future’ has a metrical ring absent from ‘For man to move to mind, go without. Twenty adjectives saved in a column of type will
boldly (or boldly to move) towards his future.’ On these grounds, although make room for a one-paragraph news item. Over the page this amount of
they are unlikely to affect most newspaper writing, the infinitive might word saving could allow in an important extra news story.
reasonably be split. In the vast majority of sentences the separating adverb Here are some usages that could be pensioned off with little loss:
can be placed outside the infinitive, as shown above, with little or no
damage to the sentence or danger of ambiguity. R.W. Burchfield, editor of considerable difficulty serious danger
the third edition of Modern English Usage (Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1996) supports this view when he says, ‘Avoid splitting infinitives
whenever possible, but do not suffer undue remorse if a split infinitive is all-time record grateful thanks
unavoidable for the natural and unambiguous completion of a sentence
already begun.’
cherished belief track record
Qualifiers

These are words that vary or extend the meaning of the noun or verb and psychological moment broad daylight
they are of two sorts: adjectives and adverbs.
Adjectives, which qualify the noun, are frequently the most expendable
words in a text since an excess of them slows down the writing and takes I leave the reader to add to this list, but you see the idea.
up space. Many, such as in luxury flat, stunning blonde, staggering sum, A fault to look for is the tendency of some writers to limit or extend
hush-hush inquiry, vital clues and burly policeman are among the most absolute adjectives. You cannot qualify absolute, basic, essential, final,
tired and overused words to be found in newspapers. Many, as in surprise ideal, unique and ultimate. Almost unique or partly ideal are a nonsense.
swoop, brutal murder and secret hideaway, are tautological as well as You cannot be more basic than basic.
brain-lulling. Adjectives/adverbs such as very, rather and quite can be debilitating to the
Another section of popular and over-used adjectives are those based upon text and read like the extension into writing of verbal props. The high
nouns such as miracle, shock, model, terror, horror and love. The more incidence of quite is (quite) extraordinary.
popular national dailies are awash with miracle babies, mums, dads and Beware of non as a prefix. Non-essential, non-cooperative, non-aligned
granddads; shock reports, disclosures, results and endings; model babies and non-active invariably mean inessential, uncooperative, unaligned and
mums, dads and granddads; terror flights, terror drives, love nests, love inactive, while non-professional usually means amateur. The shorter
children; unquantifiable numbers of people in terror, and horror stories of alternatives also have no intrusive hyphen.
many types. Adverbs qualify the verb and other adjectives by words such as
occasionally, rightly, severely, half-heartedly, simply, implicitly, purely
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 63
and finally. Be certain to put the adverb in its right position. ‘You can
quickly teach dogs to do tricks,’ is not the same as, ‘you can teach dogs containe containeriz containerizatio
quickly to do tricks.’ Be certain of what you are trying to say. r e n

Nouns
hospital hospitalize hospitalization
These offer fewer problems than do other ingredients of a sentence. The
use of collectives nouns is covered above under ‘subject,’ and of
possessives later under ‘punctuation.’ Plural forms of nouns can give moistur
moisturize moisturization
difficulty. The ey endings as in valley and money take an s; y endings e
without a preceding vowel change to ies.
Oes and os endings: the commoner two and three-syllable words such as With casual, casualize and casualization comes a more advanced growth:
tomato, potato and hero take oes. Long words, particularly imported ones de-casualization. We are only one step from de-containerization, de-
such as archipelago and gigolo, and also proper nouns such as Lothario, all hospitalization and de-moisturization. The space saved by using such
take os endings. Words with a vowel before the o such as cameo, intaglio monster words is wasted if the reader is lulled into insensibility before the
and imbroglio take os, as do abbreviated words such as photo. end of the sentence. It is better to take up a bit more space and use a few
Foreign words: many Anglicized ones, among them sanatorium, syllabus, short simple words to explain what you mean and this avoids
terminus and ultimatum, take a simple s or es ending. Some French- and jargonization.
Latin-based ones, however, keep their own plurals. These include:
Prepositions

The rule never to end a sentence with a preposition can be broken without
ill-effect in sentences such as ‘She’s the wife he goes home to,’ or ‘She’s
dating the chap she works with.’ It would sound pedantic to say ‘She’s the
wife to whom he goes home,’ or ‘She’s dating the chap with whom she
works.’
Beware of words such as medium which becomes mediums for A good tip is that if the sentence sounds right and is free of ambiguity then
clairvoyants and media for methods of mass communication; series which the preposition can be left at the end. However, avoid collections of
remains series, fish which can be fish or fishes, and folk which can be folk prepositions at the end such as in the classic This was the book he wanted
or folks. to be read out of from to/
A blight that afflicts current English is the growth of polysyllabic nouns
Most uses of prepositions with nouns and verbs (conform to, connive at,
derived from the new generation of ize verbs, themselves often derived
taste of, taste for, consequent upon, etc.) are idiomatic and have to be
from shorter nouns. Thus we get:
learned.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 64

Other sentence tips
Three shots were fired by police, but no one was hurt. One of the officers,

Sentences can be made nonsensical through a misplaced clause or however, was taken to hospital suffering from shock.
phrase: ‘For the third time a baby was trapped in a washing machine at…’ A police motorcycle was damaged during the skirmish.
Same baby? Or: ‘There was a discussion about rape in the staff room,’ or
‘It carried an important article about adultery by the Archbishop of It happened soon after 9 a.m. in Carlton Square, Stepney. Police later
Canterbury.’ recovered three shotguns from the scene of the shooting.
The non-sequitur can strike: ‘Injured in the fighting in Korea, Joe
Four men were this afternoon being questioned.
Bloggs retired last week.’ The second clause bears no relation to the first.
If correcting the grammar of a sentence makes it sound stiff or pedantic
Note how short words, as well as short sentences and paragraphs, give
it is better to re-write it until it sounds right. pace to the action-filled story. Of 117 words, 74 (or 63 per cent) are words
of one syllable.
Length It would be boring, however, to have nothing but short sentences in news
stories. It can fall to you, as the subeditor, to decide in wordier texts when
Because of narrow newspaper columns, short sentences and paragraphs are longer sentences are justifiable or when – for the reasons just given – a
preferred in order to avoid an unbroken density of type. This does not sentence should be split, with a little recasting, into two or more sentences.
mean that all sentences must be short, just that shortness is an advantage to Here, from The Times (see Figure 42), is a story in which a slower pace is
the scanning eye. Short sentences mean generally less complicated needed and into which longer sentences and paragraphs fit naturally:
sentences with fewer clauses and less punctuation so that meanings can be
got over to the reader more quickly, so there is an advantage in
A puff of wind and the ingenuity of an Australian inventor may have
comprehension, too.
Short sentences are also faster and more graphic for the telling of hard produced the answer for amateur golfers who dream of shaving a few
news stories. Here is an example from the London Evening Standard:
strokes off their handicaps. Roy Halle, a 55-year-old mechanical engineer
from Sydney, claims that the answer to millions of golfing prayers lies in a
POLICE fought a gun battle with an armed gang in an East London square
weighted hat.
today.
It happened as a team of marksmen from the Central Robbery Squad were
keeping watch on four men suspected of plotting an armed raid.
But the gang realized they were trapped and opened fire with shotguns.
The police returned the fire.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 65

 Figure 42 Style and pace in writing: an example from the world of golf
Even better news for those familiar with the disappointment of yet another
see page 97. (Courtesy The Times)
false golfing dawn is that Mr Halle’s Inertia Golf Hat contains no hidden
catches. There is no need for a new grip, deep breathing or positive swing ‘It was blowing a gale and my hat kept flying off,’ he said from his home
thoughts: just pop the hat on and, as Mr Halle promises, the strokes will in Sydney yesterday. ‘So the next day I attached some solder wire to the
follow. brim to weigh it down and keep it on my head. Before I knew it, my game
started to get better by quantum leaps and I realized it could only be my
The idea for the invention came about partly by accident, when Mr Halle
hat.’
was playing golf on a stormy day on a course in New South Wales, one of
the finest in Australia. Flushed with his discovery, Mr Halle, whose handicap has dropped from
14 to 9 in 12 months, took his idea to a patent lawyer. Six months ago,
after carrying out detailed research, he founded the Stability Golf
Company and started selling the hats at A$40 (£15.50) each, etc.
The gentle pace and slow telling is totally acceptable in this type of news
story and allows the writer a touch of self-indulgent humour, while
keeping to the facts.
Where the pace of a story demands shorter sentences, or where the
sentences are just unacceptably long, you should avoid the easy option of
splitting a sentence by turning its clauses into sentences beginning with
an And or a But. Recasting will produce a better flow as well as better
grammar. It is considered acceptable in newspaper journalism to begin
sentences with And or But, but it should be done sparingly to produce a
particular effect of continuity within the context of sentence pauses, rather
than as a device to break up long sentences by replacing commas with full
stops.

Paragraphs

This is a thorny subject in newspapers. H. W. Fowler (of Modern English

Usage) was right when he said: ‘The paragraph is essentially a unit of
thought, not of length; it must be homogeneous in subject matter and
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 66
sequential in treatment.’ But he also said: ‘The purpose of a paragraph is to explanations, can give the descriptive writer the benefit of longer
give the reader a rest.’ With narrow columns to fill, newspaper editors tend paragraphs for a slower telling.
to give more stress to the second function, and paragraphing has come to
be used to break up the text into readable nuggets rather than to mark Punctuation
thought and fact sequences.
With more display in modern newspapers has come a reaction against the Many ambiguities and misunderstood sentences are caused by faults in
style of only a few decades ago of columns of unbroken reading matter punctuation, particularly in the use of commas, either wrongly placed or
with few paragraphs. This has become exaggeratedly so in the popular removed. To say, ‘The people who arrived because of the rain were
tabloids where it is assumed readers are as allergic to long paragraphs as accommodated in tents,’ is not the same, for example, as saying, ‘The
they are to long words. Taken too far on this premise, paragraphing can people who arrived, because of the rain, were accommodated in tents.’ In
finish up identifying with sentences, however short; continuity of thought the first sentence the arrival of the people was brought about by the rain.
and fact are abandoned and the text is read in a series of quick jumps. ‘Because of the rain,’ is a defining clause. In the second sentence, ‘because
Here, the plethora of indented and broken lines becomes as big a handicap of the rain’ is incidental. It is therefore called a commenting clause and is
to the scanning eye as solid text was. bounded by two commas. These commas make all the difference to the
The middle way between the desiderata of Fowler and the projection meaning.
requirements of modern newspapers is to try to relate the visual breaks as Take a sentence that might occur in a murder story; ‘Jones killed his son
closely as possible to breaks in the sense of the text. This is not usually because, he said, there was nothing to live for.’ Then write it without the
difficult in the commas. Immediately the phrase ‘there is nothing to live for’ is transferred
economic style of newswriting common to most newspapers, though bad from Jones to his son. The meaning has totally changed.
breaks will still occur if excessively long paragraphs are to be avoided. Punctuation in newspaper texts is more concerned with clarifying
Worse than breaking a paragraph in mid-thought is connecting two ill- meanings and avoiding ambiguities than in providing natural pauses,
matched thoughts or sentences into one paragraph, or ending a quotation although the two purposes can coincide in longer sentences.
and starting a description or a new quotation in the same paragraph. This The old rule that commas should not precede the
can happen during page make-up when the page editor might run two conjunctions and and but is generally worth keeping but the subeditor
paragraphs together so that a story carried in a number of legs across the should be on guard for cases where the sense of a sentence requires a
page can show a full line at the top of each leg and not a ‘widow’ or jack- comma. In some cases but introduces new information or a new thought
line. and a comma pause can mark this helpfully as in,
The idea is to give a neat printed effect so that the eye does not turn to the ‘Yes, I think I ought to go, but I must be certain to get permission first.’
top of a leg on to a broken line. Yet the yoking together of two A comma is not needed in these sentences: ‘It was not only the colour but
unsequential paragraphs for this purpose frustrates the intention of the the texture that turned her against it.’ ‘He reached the top of the steps and
writer and can damage the sense of the text. turned to the left.’
As in the examples quoted, the length of paragraphs can be varied to suit Yet here is a case where the meaning hinges on the placing of a comma:
the text. Action-based stories can be given pace through short paragraphs ‘They gave the prize to Jones, and his wife and the family were delighted.’
as well as short sentences, while more leisurely stories such as accounts of
ceremonials, royal occasions, functions etc., or those requiring

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 67

Without the comma the reader would be at a loss to know whether Jones or It denotes a pause longer than a comma but not as long as a full stop. In
Jones and his wife had won the prize. books and in feature writing there is still room for the semi-colon by
Commas can be used to give stress to words and adverbial phrases. ‘This stylists who know how to use it and have scope for polishing a sentence,
was, evidently, the truth,’ gives more stress to an important adverb than but in news writing there is not a lot of call for it. It is sometimes used
‘This was evidently the truth.’ They are also used to separate items in a when a comma or a full stop would have been adequate and its presence
list, but their use to separate strings of adjectives is becoming less common can be sign that a sentence is getting too long.
and is not essential. A semi-colon serves a useful purpose in subdividing lists as in ‘…east
The best attitude towards commas is to use them only if, without them, the wing: three bedrooms, two with bathrooms; three dressing rooms, one with
meaning is in doubt. This will avoid a tedious excess of them. If a sentence balcony; two staircases, one at either end, and a staff rest room
has many commas marking out many clauses it is a potential source of
misunderstanding. By splitting it you will help the reader. Colon
If a sentence contains an ambiguity because of the bad use of commas (or
for any other reason) that cannot be resolved by reference to the context, This is a necessary but not often used punctuation mark in newspapers.
for your own good you should refer back to the writer. A guess could land Use it to introduce lists of names, objects, qualities etc., and in front of a
you in trouble. quotation or explanation. It is pointless to have a colon followed by a dash
There is no need of a comma between a house number and a street. Thus: for this purpose. Its use in a sentence to indicate a pause longer than a
14 Coronation Street. semi-colon but shorter than a full stop is now so rare, even outside
newspapers, as to be almost extinct.
Full stop
Dashes and brackets
Its use to indicate abbreviations as in Feb. and the Rev. is generally
accepted but not in abbreviations where the first and last letters of the full Dashes are much overused and misused in newspapers on the assumption
word appear, as in Cpl, Mr, Dr etc. (For abbreviations see under ‘house that they jolly up the text, and their rise in favour is in contrast to the
style.’) decline in the amount of punctuation used generally. Here are some actual
A full stop is not used at the end of captions or in headlines (except in rare examples in newspapers of how dashes were employed:
cases where a long quotation becomes a headline).
‘A bungling bandit robbed a bank – and left his chequebook behind.’
Semi-colon
‘Across the country heavy rain washed out the end of the Bank Holiday –
and downpours were blamed for a series of crashes. Twenty-nine day-
trippers were hurt – one seriously – when their coach hit a truck in
Leicestershire.’

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 68

 Using dashes for commas is not only grammatically wrong, it is confusing
‘When you crash-diet, your body reacts as it would do in an emergency –
to the eye, space-taking and it devalues the dash as a significant text mark.
it burns muscle for energy and starts storing fat for long-term energy use. It has resulted in the use of dashes being banned by some editors.
You can reasonably use dashes to enclose a parenthesis, though they are
In this way, a person can lose almost half a stone in one week – but it’s the
more space-taking than brackets. Grammarians are divided as to whether
wrong sort of weight you are losing.’ dashes or brackets signify the greater interruption. Whichever method is
used, the words contained in the parentheses should be a comment or fact
outside the flow of the sentence, but which the reader needs in order to
‘Three more were arrested at Blackpool – one of the seaside towns named
digest its full import. Office style should insist that you stick consistently
in the IRA ‘hit list’. The new arrests – they bring the total now detained to either to dashes or brackets for parentheses (some newspapers, in fact, shy
off brackets, although they are shorter). In any case it is best to use
16 – came after a police swoop at a house in James Gray Street, Glasgow – parentheses sparingly. They impede the flow of the text and often indicate
less than a mile from the tenement raided at the weekend.’ that writers have not got their thoughts properly together.

The first example shows the dash being used to draw attention to the Ellipsis
telling part of the sentence. This is the most justifiable in these quoted. In
the second example the three dashes should clearly have been commas. This much misused punctuation mark is supposed to show that letters or
The third example appears at first sight to have a 28-word parenthesis words are missing. Missing letters: ‘According to the gamekeeper the man
taking up more than half the paragraph. Not so. Using a colon instead of shouted,’ You f…pig,’ and vanished.’ Missing words: ‘There could have
the first dash would have made it clearer that an explanation was been a different ending had Helen only…but that is another story.’
following. This then liberates It might be deduced from these examples that there is little use for ellipses
the second dash in the paragraph to draw attention to the concluding point in newspapers, yet they have become as pervasive as dashes. Here are
being made. some that appeared:
The worst misuse of dashes appears in the fourth example. Here the
punctuation in two consecutive sentences consists of two full stops, a set ‘A pony runs free through a meadow…dramatically reprieved from death
of inverted commas, one comma and four dashes. The result is almost at the eleventh hour.’
unreadable. The first dash should have been a comma. The second pair
encloses an unnecessary parenthesis. The words could have read ‘…
arrests, which bring the total now detained to 16, came…’ without taking ‘“Oh Gawd…” said Geldof when I cornered him.’
up any more words. The final dash in this sentence comes so quickly that
the reader is in doubt as to which dash ends the parenthesis. Here a comma The first example seems to show an ellipsis being used in place of a dash
would have been sufficient, although of the four dashes used it is the one to point a sentence since there are clearly neither letters nor words missing.
most justified by the sense. The second seems to be in place of an exclamation mark.
Some newspapers even use ellipses to enclose a parenthesis instead of
dashes or brackets. There are four points to be made here:

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1 It is inconsistent to use a dash and an ellipsis to point sentences in
different parts of the same newspaper. Francis’ s Lagos’ s
2 An ellipsis is not suitable for this purpose in any case since it is
supposed to denote missing letters or words.
3 Ellipses print badly on long print runs and sometimes the dots disappear Note that the plural form of James and Jones and similar proper names
from the page leaving mysterious blanks. adds es as in Jameses and Joneses.
4 An ellipsis is the most space-taking of all punctuation marks and should Some well-known place names containing possessives drop the
be avoided for this reason unless needed for its correct purpose. apostrophe, for example St Albans and Earls Court. A gazetteer should be
consulted for these.
Exclamation mark The apostrophe’s original purpose of denoting missing letters is shown in
use in don’ t, won’ t, can’t and it’s (it is). In the case of possessive
Sometimes called a screamer, the exclamation mark used to be a favourite pronouns it has fallen out of use in his, hers, yours, theirs and ours, but is
of tabloid headline hacks and blurb writers who treated it as the magic retained in one’ s.
cypher readers wouldn’t be able to resist. Overuse has debased it. A recent There is no justification for using an apostrophe in plurals such as MP’ s,
edition of The Sun had only two headline screamers and the Daily Mail on all the three’ s, or in expressions such as ten years’ imprisonment or three
the same day none. weeks’ leave, which are best regarded as adjectival phrases. If there is
There is a simple rule about an exclamation mark which should save a lot doubt as to whether an apostrophe is needed, be guided by the sense. If the
of trouble: it should be used only after an exclamation. It is unlikely that a meaning is intact without it, leave it out.
phrase more than four or five words long could qualify as an exclamation
by reason of the simple mechanics of delivery. Generally it is couched as Quotation marks
warning, a demand, a brief instruction or an ejaculation.
Inverted commas enclosing quotations can be single or double according
Apostrophe to style. Most newspapers use double, although allowing single in
headlines. The usual style in text is to have double inverted commas for
These should be used before the s in singular possessives and after the s in main quotes, single ones for quotes within quotes, and double again for
plural possessives ending in s: quotes within quotes within quotes (an extremity to avoid).
boy’ s boys’ Check quotation marks carefully in copy to see that statements are
properly attributed and so the reader knows where a quotation begins and
A common mistake is to fail to add an s after the apostrophe in proper ends. This is especially important in quotes within quotes where sloppy
noun possessives of names ending in s: editing can leave bugs. Use a colon to introduce main quotations. For short
ones in the run of a sentence or paragraph a comma is sufficient at the
James’ s Peebles’ s beginning and end. For example: The constable said he heard a voice say,
‘Come quickly,’ as he walked past the building.

Question mark
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 70
A fault to look for is a misplaced question mark in a sentence containing a
quoted passage. If the quotation itself is a question, the question mark must
CHAPTER SIX
come inside the closing inverted commas. If the question lies in the main
sentence, then the question mark must come outside the inverted commas WORD TRAPS
as in: ‘Do you think it wrong to say, “No children will be admitted”?’ The
correct position can make a difference to the sense. Your subs’ table has a well-used English dictionary and a gazetteer of
place names because of the need to get words and locations right. Only the
Hyphens foolhardy, however splendid their vocabulary, would do without a
dictionary since it gives not only spellings but also meanings. It should be
the most up to date containing the very latest shifts and nuances in
This maligned punctuation mark should be used sparingly but is meaning or, better still, there should be two dictionaries in order to
sometimes crucial to the sense. In line with the move towards less compare definitions even though your computer has a spell-check. The
punctuation newspapers have discarded it in familiar compounded words gazetteer, provided it has the latest boundary changes, is the ultimate
such as lowline, overuse, boyfriend, checklist, wartime, gasfilled, nosebag arbiter where there is doubt or argument over geography. Armed with
and handbag, but have kept it for co-operative, co-pilot, co-ordinate, ill- these authorities you are ready to deal with the words.
used and other words where its absence might confuse.
Use hyphens: The right word

To avoid ambiguity in some adjectival phrases, as between ‘a model- The demands on space, especially in daily papers, mean that there is no
manufacturing technique’ and ‘a model manufacturing technique’, and ‘a room in news stories for a long word where a shorter one can do the job as
lost-business file’ and ‘a lost business file.’ well. Ten long words excised in a story three column inches long can make
To indicate a compounded adjective as in ‘an up-to-date-method’ or ‘an room for an extra sentence, which might allow you to bring in another
away-from-it-all holiday,’ but not in ‘the method was up to date.’ useful fact (see headline words in Chapter 8).
To distinguish different meanings of words as in re-formed and Yet where you substitute words take care to ensure the writer’s meaning
reformed, and re-creation and recreation. has not been changed. The right word is the one that is likely to be
instantly known to the reader and that makes the writer’s meaning clear
Hyphens, as with other punctuation marks, are discouraged in headlines to beyond all doubt while at the same time being no longer than it has to be.
preserve visual neatness, but have an important use in typesetting systems A general guide is that foreign words should be avoided where there is an
to break words at the end of lines when justifying setting widths. It is not adequate English equivalent. It will be found that English words of Anglo-
typographical style (or easy to read) to break a word in mid-syllable to Saxon origin such as house, bite, grip, flight, bold, sharp, bright and evil
justify a line, or to break proper nouns if avoidable. are shorter than their imported equivalent. Excise words that have more
than one meaning with the same spelling, along with abstruse or academic
words, circumlocutions and officialese of all types.

Technical words

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Finance, computers, space, weaponry, sociology – these are just some of close), ad infinitum (indefinitely) and per annum (yearly). The following
the areas of science and commerce that have developed their own words of foreign origin are more generally acceptable on the ground that
vocabularies. Many words from these areas that are accepted in specialist they are not easy to substitute:
publications would mean little to the general newspaper reader.
Technical words should be introduced sparingly on the news pages and ad lib cortège fiancé
only in contexts where their meanings are clear. Yet in each of the special
areas just listed, and in other similar ones, there are words that have begun
infiltrating the aide coupé fiancée
general vocabulary to win growing acceptance among readers. The space
programme has provided lift-off, splashdown and hardware (a new use for
an old word now meaning the machines and equipment). Economics has aperitif crime passionel negligée
provided upturn, downturn and throughput; industry, blueprint, bottleneck
and spin-off; the Forces bombshell, blockbuster and broadside. The
examples could be multiplied: image, model, reading, programme, attaché debut nuance
strategy, ceiling and target have all taken on new meanings through their
use in technical fields.
Should such new words and new uses for old words be accepted? blasé de facto premiere
Certainly, if the context makes their use clear and they extend the meaning
of the text for the reader better than any other word. Bottleneck, blueprint,
blockbuster and spin-off, for instance, are colourful, metaphorical and bourgeois de jure protegé
almost ‘visual’ words that project an immediate mental image; but guard
against applying them to situations where they are not justified. Is a plan
really detailed and precise enough to be called a blueprint? Is a new book brochure elite regime
or film really a blockbuster in the effect it will have on the public; are such
words becoming stereotypes to be reached for from the shelf out of
laziness? Are they in danger of and sinking into clichés? carafe entrée repertoire
Beware also of using too many at once. A piece of writing peppered with
downturns, upturns, spin-offs, lift-offs and ‘go’ situations has descended
into jargon. cliché exposé status quo
Foreign words
clientele facade sub judice
There is little point in using foreign words that have obvious English
equivalents such as: rendezvous (arranged meeting), carte blanche (blank
cheque, free hand), melee (mix-up, skirmish), cul-de-sac (blind alley,
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corsage fait accompli venue currently now

Circumlocutions at this moment now, today

Journalists with any experience are not given to using long-winded

phrases. Many circumlocutions (strictly bundles of words) that grammars as to whether whether
warn against are speech props such as ‘as I stand here before you today’ or
‘in this day and age’ or ‘to all intents and purposes’, or are examples of
officialese. A subeditor, while ever vigilant, would not normally expect to he is a man who he
encounter such phrases in written copy, although some might enter via
quotations, particularly from tape-recorded material. Some quaintness of
phrase is reasonable in quoted speech to preserve the flavour of the in order to to
speaker’s words, but take out the really space-wasting ones. Their loss will
not damage the meaning.
Nevertheless, because of their lulling familiarity, some circumlocutions tighten up tighten
can tempt even subeditors into a trap. Here are some examples, with the
recommended usage on the right:
adjacent to near fill up fill

prior to before in the first instance first

as yet yet owing to the fact that because

as a result of because sound out sound

in consequence of because check out check

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rest up rest at the back of behind

try out try in front of before

start up start at the side of beside

meet up with meet join together join

meet with meet in terms of as

consult with consult acid test test

inside of inside each and every each

he himself he extra special special

personally, I I face up to face

all of all horns of a dilemma dilemma

end result end or result out and about out or about

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 considered that’, ‘at the end of the day’ and ‘somewhere down the line.’
true facts facts Everyday conversation has its own matching verbal props: ‘as I was
saying,’ ‘if you see what I mean,’t mean to say,’ and so on.
The danger of contamination from these sources is instilled into young
absolute truth, lies etc. truth, lies, etc. journalists at the start. What is sometimes not instilled is the danger from
journalism’s own shifting world of clichés. Keith Waterhouse, in his
book Daily Mirror Style, pointed out the changing fashion in newspaper
Synonyms clichés, some of them drawn from popular lore, others entirely invented by
subeditors.
To avoid long words or repetition of words within a sentence or paragraph, In the 1950s and 1960s the favourites (some still with us) were:
or when seeking words for a headline with a limited type count, the
subeditor searches for the alternative or shorter word that means the same. burning issue dropped a clanger
Beware here of the word that means almost the same but not quite. The
main danger of this lies in headline writing (see Chapter 8) but meanings
are at risk in the text too. cheer to the echo and that’s official
To say that a man claimed or that he asserted is not the same as saying
he said. A change of verb for the way in which things are said can give
undesirable colour or emotion to a speaker’s words. To call a discussion or clutches of the law the absolute gen
an exchange of words a row invests it with a suggestion of violence.
An alibi is not the same as an excuse.
Study not only the spelling and number of letters in the synonym you crying need speculation was rife
choose but its precise meaning.

Clichés fast and loose monotonous regularity

The term cliché is given to a wide range of hackneyed expressions, over-
used phrases, tired adjectives, worn-out metaphors and current vogue
words. Any word or combination of words if used excessively, is in danger red letter day last but not least
of becoming a cliché.
Under this general umbrella are a lot of words and phrases that are
unlikely come your way since they remain in the limbo of their own just like the blitz out and about
environment. They are part of the jargon of their field and consist of what,
by newspaper standards, are tedious circumlocutions. Commerce has its By the 1980s and 1990s a new raciness had begun to imbue clichés:
own special ones: ‘in this connection’, ‘for your information’, ‘it is

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 Commentators have good chortle when they point these out in writing
alive and well and pinta about press style, yet there is, in my view, a case to be made out for the
cliché in certain controlled circumstances. A journalist writing for a
popular readership can use the newspaper cliché, like its relation the
Billy Bunters cuppa proverb, as a way of addressing the reader in familiar terms, provided:

1 It is not wastefully wordy.

fashion stakes taken to the cleaners 2 It does not gloss or misrepresent the facts.
3 It is not used too frequently.

knickers in a twist fairytale wedding To refer to Billy Bunters in a piece about overweight schoolboys, or to a
love child for a baby born out of wedlock, or to knickers in a twist in a
funny story about charwomen, can strike a rapport with the readers of a
purr-fect (of cats) sweet smell of success popular daily where words like obese, bastard and muddle-headed might
fail.
The term fairytale wedding, provided it does not exaggerate the nuptial
clown prince the end of the road splendour, conjures up an instant picture to the reader which any other two
words would find it hard to equal. ‘The sweet smell of success’ and ‘the
writing on the wall’ can sum up particular human situations evocatively,
writing on the wall sir (of teachers) provided they also sum up what is in the text.
It falls to you, the sub, to decide when a cliché is justified. In fact, there are
clichés and clichés. It is the more specifically subeditors’ gimmicks such
as ‘Don’t all rush’ or ‘Wait for it’, purr-feet (in cat stories), pinta for milk
love child, nest etc. wait for it!
and cuppa for tea that become most tedious by repetition.
The danger with cliché words and phrases in unthinking hands is that they
can blur the facts of a situation by over-simplifying things for the reader,
don’t all rush! to zero in turning stories into stereotypes. They should be used only when they are
apt within in the context of the story and when they can make a point to
the reader better than any other word or combination of words. In short,
tears of joy the name of the game the odd cliché or two is acceptable provided it earns its keep.
In dealing with writers’ favourite metaphors, beware of mixed ones, as in
‘She was an angel of mercy pouring oil on troubled waters,’ or ‘He
using your loaf what it’s all about preferred to paddle his own canoe and cock a snook at authority.’
Over-used adjectives are particularly objectionable in a language as rich as
English. Stunning, staggering, sexy, super, sizzling, terrific, luscious and

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amazing should be consigned unmourned to the waste bin along with
superstar, megastar, zap! and phew! Aggravate Has subtly added to its meaning to annoy or cause
Phew! trouble as well as to make worse. The usage dates back
to its vogue in the abbreviated form aggro during the
Vogue words Teddy boy period in the 1950s and 1960s – hard to
reverse a trend like this; best left to quoted speech.
Writers on the use of English generally devote some space to what they
scornfully call vogue words. These are words or new uses for words which
have taken the fancy of speakers and writers and are being used a lot. It is Ambience Once an encompassing circle or sphere, now an aura or
difficult to generalize about them. Some,
atmosphere. Useful for descriptive writers but not a
like parameters and arguably have a lulling polysyllabic charm for
speakers with academic pretensions. Others, like clinical, good word in a hard news story.
interface and syndrome have a scientific ring about them which makes the
speaker or user feel up to date. Some are useful and new ways of saying
things without the need for lots of words, and appeal to the busy. Some Arguably ‘Capable of being argued as’ but mostly wrongly used
seem to have no justification at all. as ‘more likely to be’ or ‘almost certain to be.’ A
What should you do when encountering such words? The best advice is to perfectly good word that has become astonishingly
accept them and use them where they help clarify a meaning and popular in its wrong use. It deserves a rest.
communicate a point of view to the reader, but (unless they are claimed as
sacrosanct by a prestigious by-liner) do not allow them where a simpler or
more direct, or more accurate, word would be better. Axiomatic Used to be used only in scientific proofs; now in vogue
You should look for the nuances of meaning that new words bring, as conferring certainty on a statement or conclusion on
accepting them as a broadening of the language rather than a restricting of
it. You should be certain, however, about what they mean. If there is any the lines of ‘it goes without saying.’ A silly misuse.
doubt or ambiguity about their use, leave them alone until the grammarians
have sorted them out. And pounce on them if the context shows they have
been wrongly used. Basically A tiresome prop with which to begin an explanation,
Here are some examples of current vogue words, one or two of which will often used by the less-than-articulate. Very expendable.
be found usefully deployed in the text of this book. They should be treated
on their merits. Some could be the Queen’s English of tomorrow.
Charisma Formerly a unique or God-given grace or talent. More
Accord Agreement. Began popular life as a headline variant.
recently a special quality or aura displayed by someone.
Not much justification for it in the text.
An overused word, but there is no other that says

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 precisely this. Strictly it is between two people or sides and is wrongly
but widely used for general discussions, meetings, talks
etc.; could do with being aired less.
Chauvinism Exaggerated and bellicose patriotism; now adapted to
mean glorification of the sex – i.e. male chauvinism –
and seems to have taken root. It is doing no harm used Ecology Has taken over in some quarters from environment,
with the word ‘male’ and describes an attitude that is meaning the natural world in which we live. It is
recognizable. stretched to mean anything which is natural as opposed
to man-made, although originally it meant simply the
branch of biology which dealt with the relationship of
Clinical Pertaining to the sick bed (as of clinics). Has plants and animals to their surroundings. No stopping
mysteriously come to mean coldly and detachedly (as in this one.
action). Best avoided.

Escalation Another bastard from the international political and war

Concept Used a lot where the word idea used to be used. Has scene. Developed in the post-war decades as a back
pseudoscientific ring. Use idea – it is shorter and is formation from escalator, a moving staircase. It means
mostly what the writer means. to increase or develop by successive stages. The
world’s trouble spots are keeping it well employed and
it has carved a patch for itself.
Contact A useful noun-verb when one is not certain of means or
method. Better, if possible, to say meet, telephone,
write or call on. Fruition Plans everywhere are coming to fruition, yet the word
has nothing to do with fruit or bearing fruit but means
the act of enjoyment or pleasurable possession.
Criteria Necessary requirements upon which a judgement or
decision is based. There seems to be a lot of criteria
about these days but the word mostly does a good job. Hopefully It means ‘with hope’ but is now worked to death
meaning ‘it is hoped that’ or I hope so.’ Should be
given a rest along with its soulmate arguably.
Dialogue A vogue word from the international political scene.

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Image Not so much a copy of an original as a special highly Minimize Handy – as with maximize.
glossed version to present to the public; more a facade
than a copy. But everyone who is anyone seems to have
one – or to need one. Mix A useful adman’s word meaning the sum total of all the
various ingredients. An insinuatingly useful word
which has the extreme advantage of brevity.
Interface A surface separating two portions of matter or space.
Became in the 1960s a region or piece of equipment
where interaction occurs between two systems. More Normalize Means to cause to return to normal – akin to regularize.
loosely it has come to mean any form of joining These are handy verbs although too many of them on a
together. Treat with caution. page can cast a blight.

Line A particular type of argument or set of explanations – Ongoing Very popular for continuing or never-ending. It has its
e.g. the Marxist-Leninist line (that was), or whatever uses but is often used unnecessarily like a verbal prop.
line adopted. Argument is more descriptive, and
preferred, despite being longer. Also, line is…well…
Parameters Queen of the vogue words. A scientific expression
discredited.
meaning qualities or factors which has caught on as a
synonym for limits or boundaries. There seems little
Maximize Meaning to work or pursue something to the maximum need for it in the context in which it is usually used.
degree possible or feasible, has come to stay. Although
one of the prolific new ‘ize’ verbs it is pithy and
Prestigious Having or manifesting prestige (it formerly meant
colourful and says it in a word.
practising juggling or cheating). It is now cheerfully
bestowed on people, jobs, property, business and sites.
Meaningful A much used invention of recent decades meaning full If only it were used a little less…though it is clear there
of or replete with meaning. I can’t bring myself to is a lot of prestige about.
condemn it since it does a job – but beware of overuse.
Just a whisker and we’ ll have meaningfulness.
Proliferatio The endless development, formation and spread of

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n things, is a useful word which does a job. One can live Syndrome A set of concurrent things or symptoms, now used for
with its popularity. may conditions of the body, mind and imagination. Has
become generally accepted, and puts things in a
nutshell even if there are more syndromes about than
Scenario A scriptwriter’s word which describes something more we thought possible.
detailed than just a scene. Is sometimes the right word
but is too exotic to stand much use.
Thematic Having, or pertaining, to a theme (of art forms,
philosophies, systems, musical movements, instructions
Situation We are surrounded by situations. Every decision, etc.). A useful descriptive word that earns its keep.
development, spending programme, injection of funds,
order and cancellation depends on a situation. There are
go situations, no-go situations, stop situations, study Thrust As of an argument or explanation. A nice phallic word
situations, new situations, bad situations, ongoing much favoured by aware males. Does a job.
situations – too many situations of every sort. Even
situations vacant are commoner than they were. Blame
the politicians and the economists for a word that’s To host Meaning to preside over, or sponsor, an invited
become a canker. gathering (of friends, visiting heads of state, knitting
association delegates, etc.). An Americanism that has
become acceptable.
Spectrum A pseudo-scientific word for range, which is
preferable.
Traumatic It once meant pertaining to, or caused by, injury or
shock but is often used instead of dramatic. Though it
Symbiosis A withdrawn cult word used a lot by those who think hardly deserves to, it sounds good. It really should
they know what it means. Strictly: living or involved suggest an element of shock, however.
together in mutual support. One for newspapers to
leave alone.
Trendy Used for things that are going to be ‘the thing’ or, these
days, that were recently ‘the thing’. A discredited word.

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Update As a verb or noun is a useful technical addition to the between two people or things.
general vocabulary. It is brief and precise and no other
word seems to mean quite this.
Anticipate Should not be used for expect. It is not the same.

Misused words
Appraise To form a judgement about something. Not to be
A more general danger is a newspaper’s misuse of words because of confused with apprise, to inform.
popular misconceptions about them that have stuck and have evaded the
writer or subeditor. For instance chronic, in the case of illness, means
lingering though not necessarily severe. Buildings that catch fire are Apprise See appraise.
not razed to the ground but simply razed. People are not exonerated from
blame but exonerated; while in spending programmes and
budgets targets are there to be hit and not exceeded, and ceilings are to set Avoid To have nothing to do with. Not be confused
limits and not to be smashed. with avert, to turn away from. You avert trouble
Here is a list of words commonly misused or misunderstood which subs by avoiding its likely cause.
should look out for in editing text:
Alibi Latin for elsewhere. To offer an alibi is to explain that
Beg the Not to evade a straight answer, but to give an answer
one was elsewhere at the time. Not to be used
question based upon an unproved or unacceptable assumption.
for excuse in general.

Between See among.

All right Spell as two words, not alright, except in slang text.

Can Not to be used for may. Can means able to, may means
Alternative Every other. Not to be confused with alternatively –
allowed to or permitted to, or has a chance or a
offering one of two possibilities.
possibility of doing. Differentiate between ‘you can do
it,’ and ‘you may do it.’
Among Used where there are more than two people or things.
Not to be confused with between, which distinguishes

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Claimed Not an accurate substitute for said, stated or declared. general for difficulty of choice, or for weighing up a
It suggests an element of dispute about what is being situation or problem.
said or stated.

Discomfit Means to overwhelm, to defeat, to disconcert. Do not

Compare to To liken one thing to another. confuse with discomfort, lacking comfort.

Compare To note resemblances and differences between two Disintereste Means not tempered by personal interest. Do not
with things. d confuse with uninterested, without interest in.

Consensus Not concensus. Dissociate Preferable to disassociate, not to associate with.

Credence Means belief or trust. Credibility is the quality of Due to Should not be used in the place of because, as in ‘he
being believable. Credulity is readiness to believe. was delayed due to the weather.’ Leave due to to
phrases including ‘the respect due to…’ etc.

Credibility See credence.

Economic Was tight, sparing, careful, but now mostly associated
with the (country’ s) economy or political economy.
Credulity See credence.

Economical Relating to economics.

Declared More precise and emphatic than said. See claimed.

Farther Of distance (see further).

Different From, not to or than.

Fewer than Of numbers. Do not confuse with less than, of

Dilemma A choice between two alternatives. Not to be used in

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 quantity.

First Say first, second, third, not firstly, secondly, thirdly Hanged Criminals are hanged. Things are hung.
etc.

Happened Without warning, as in occurred. Took place suggests

Fix Vague as a verb. Where possible use arrange, attach, planning.
organize, set up, etc.

Historic Part of history.

Following Do not use instead of after or as a result of. It is less
precise.
Historical Concerned with historical events or records. From the
i.e. Latin id est (that is) and should be used to introduce a
Forensic Simply means pertaining to words of law – nothing definition; e.g., exempli gratia (for the sake of
more. example), should be used to adduce an example.

Forgo To abstain from. Do not confuse with forego, to i.e. From the Latin id est (that is) and should be used to
precede. introduce a definition; e.g., exempli gratia (for the
sake of example), should be used to adduce an
example.
Forego See forgo.

Imply To suggest without stating directly. Do not confuse

Forward Not usually forwards. The s is mostly dropped with infer, to deduce or draw a conclusion from.
from homeward, backward and sideward but is
retained in towards.
Infer See imply.

Further Of time or degree. See farther (of distance).

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Insure To provide for damages or replacement in the event of it from loathe, meaning to detest.
loss. Do not confuse with ensure, to make certain, to
guarantee.
Militate See mitigate.

Last Of more than two things.

Mitigate To make less severe or serious. Do not confuse
with militate, to be directed against or fight against.
Latter Of two things.

Nice Too vague a word now that it has lost its old meaning
Leading Not a question that is difficult to answer, but a of fine, balanced. Use a more precise adjective.
question question that is so designed that the answer is
suggested.
Practical Useful in practice.

Lend More correct that to loan, which is an obsolete Old

English verb that has come back to enjoy a vogue in Practicable Capable of being carried out.
the US.
Practically Has come to mean virtually. Better to use virtually,
Lengthy Long is mostly better (and shorter). which has only one meaning, or almost, which is
shorter and simpler.

Less than See fewer than.

Protagonist Means advocate or champion and not necessarily the
opposite of antagonist.
Leave Do not misuse for let. Say ‘let it be.’

Refute Means to prove wrong, not to deny or repudiate.

Loth, loath This adjective, meaning unwilling, is correct in both
spellings but is best spelt without the a to differentiate

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 84

Resource, A source of much muddle. Resource is a stock or
reserve to

Transpire Became known – not happened or occurred.

recourse, draw upon. To have recourse is to return to or fall
back upon
Try Try to, not try and.

resort (one’s resources). Resort, in this area of meanings, is a

place, or thing or person upon which one depends for a Under way Beginning to move. Formerly under weigh (anchor).
solution: ‘A royal pardon was his last resort.’
Unique Avoid quite, most or rather unique. There can be no
Respective Pertaining to those in question – an adjective of degrees of uniqueness.
which respectively is the adverb.
‘The respective authors,’ but ‘the authors
Verdict The finding of a jury. The judge gives the decision and
were, respectively, etc.’
sentence.

Seasonable Suitable for the season or time of the year.

Whence ‘She returned whence she came,’ not from whence.

Seasonal Occurring in association with a particular season. ‘Hot

Wise Tax-wise, price-wise etc. are mostly and preferably
weather is seasonable in the summer’ but ‘most
avoided.
holiday work is seasonal.’

Stated More fully covered than said (as of a statement), not House style
so emphatic as declared.
In handling text, you need to be familiar with the house style of your
newspaper in order to avoid textual inconsistency in spelling, numeration,
the use of abbreviations, the Anglicizing of foreign words and in other
Took place See happened.
areas where alternative uses exist. Most newspapers, having opted for

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 85

particular ways of doing things, guard their house style as zealously as
their typographical style and can come down heavily on its neglect. Subs Marquis/marquess uis preferred.
are expected to prevent style faults getting into the paper.
The justification for sticking rigidly to house style is not that the
newspaper’s version is necessarily the right one but that spellings, Gipsy/gypsy Both forms remain popular.
abbreviations and style in numeration are confusing to the reader, untidy
and also unprofessional if rendered in different ways on the same page. An
imposed consistency is the way out. Judgment/judgement The e is losing ground.
You can resolve style problems by adopting recommended uses in such
works as Collins’s Authors’ and Printers’ Dictionary or Hart’s Rules For
Compositors and Readers. Some newspapers opt for the shorter or more Swop/swap The a version is growing in favour.
contemporary or more ‘English’ of any given alternatives, while others go
for etymological exactness (with its risk of pedantry) or follow a style
because it has always been the style. Whatever the reason, here are some Transatlantic The medial cap A is seldom used.
areas where newly trained subs should reach for the house style sheet
when in doubt:
The use of ize endings in such words as organize and nationalize as
Spellings against ise for merchandise, advertise, etc. (despite the advocacy of
the Oxford English Dictionary and the Authors’ and Printers’ Dictionary)
is losing ground and ise is appearing in all cases. The differentiation was
Inquire! enquire Authorities who try to prove these words never popular in newspapers. It is still used in some publishing houses –
meandifferent things are nit-picking. and in the text of this book.

American words
Gaol/jail The old Norman French legal word is giving
way to the more modern jail. The use of American spelling is generally discouraged in English
newspapers even in quotes from documents. Subs handling American-
originated copy should see that railroad is railway, that a
Connection/ The new connection is ousting the old English car fender becomes a bumper, and that specialty becomes speciality.
connexion form. Beware the use of the word subway. Color, honor, rigor, glamor etc.
should have their u restored, and defense should read defence.
Yet peddler is often used in place of the English pedlar where drug
Despatch/dispatch It’s commoner with the i. peddling is the subject, and program is here to stay in computer contexts.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 86

Foreign names Names

Wide variation exists in the spelling of foreign names, with Russian The usual style is ‘John Jones, aged 20’ but sometimes the aged is missed
composers coming up in particularly bizarre forms. Tchaikovsky can be out. Street names are occasionally hyphenated as in 25 Church Street,
Chaikovski and Scriabin Skryabin. Peking (or Pekin) has become Beijing, Norwich, although house numbers are often dropped to save people being
while Hankow can turn up as Quanzhou. pestered. A danger, however, is that there may be two people of the same
More simply, Capetown and Hongkong can be Cape Town and Hong name in the street. People are referred to after the first mention as Mr, Mrs,
Kong. Then there are Baghdad (Bagdad), Irak (Irak), Tokyo (Tokio), Miss or Ms, or in some human interest stories by Christian name. In
Tehran (Teheran), Khartum (Khartoum), Bucharest (Bucarest) and criminal court cases the style is usually by surname only.
Rumania (Romania, Roumania).
Numbers
Capital letters
Most newspaper style sheets give one to ten in letters and eleven upwards
In the eighteenth and even nineteenth century capital letters littered writing in figures. Fractions can be an exception, 5½ looking better than five-and-
to denote qualities, word stress, people’s titles and specific references to a-half. Figures are always used for mathematical formulae and
things. Now they are the exception. The Prince or the Duke is used where percentages. Sentences should never begin with a number in figures:
a specific person has been introduced by name and continues to be referred ‘Three hundred years ago, a leading poet…’ is better (see Chapter 7).
to, and where the title is part of the name. A capital is not used where the With dates, many style sheets go for the day, month, year order – 23
word is simply the rank or appointment, as in judge, chairman, secretary, December, 1998, but some have the month first. Inclusive dates are best
chief engineer, etc. A country’s President takes a capital P. Some papers rendered 1998-9, 1915-16 rather than changing just the last digit.
use capitals when they introduce an important official for the first time, as With money, amounts are usually rounded down in headlines and intros,
in ‘Trevor Griffiths, General Secretary of the National Union of Teachers’, £507 becoming £500, and with an m used for million in headlines, as in
thereafter referring to him as Mr Griffiths. The Royal Family is usually £35m, with £35 million preferred in copy to £35,000,000. Figures are used
capitalized but other uses of the word royal are kept in lower case. in text where more precise amounts or numbers are required. In smaller,
The seasons can be capitalized or lower case according to house style, say, £49.07, but in 49p use the p.
specific areas like the North, the West Country, etc capitalized but points
of the compass usually not. The Government takes a capital G but Editor’s phobias
government in general lower case. Left-wing or Right-wing, or simply the
Left and the Right, are capitalized to show political meaning. Every style sheet has them. Few editors will tolerate kiddie,
Capitals used in abbreviations are appearing more without points, as in hubby and doggy.
UK, BBC, EEC, and IBM, but U.S. takes points so that it does not An overused headline word is sometimes put under total interdict. For
mean us. Acronyms (combinations of initials pronounced as words) take years the word sex was banned in the News of the World.
no points and are usually given in lower case as in Unesco, Mensa and
Nato. Cyphers

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 87

The ampersand & is little used in newspapers despite its brevity. Accents It is necessary to be consistent in the text in the rendering of book and film
are mostly missed out and the dollar sign $ is not always in the type range. titles, quoted verse, the names of newspapers and popular songs, and the
Percentage signs % tend more and more to be written as pc or per cent. style and title of MPs, church dignitaries, and so on. Some newspapers
give all titles of songs, books and newspapers in italic. Others give them
Abbreviations with initial caps. Song titles are sometimes quoted. Check the use of
quoted line-set verse with the type style card. MPs can be given as John
Most capital letter abbreviations are written without full points, with Jones (Con, Glamorgan South) in a political report, but as John Jones,
acronyms in lower case after the initial capital (see above). In the case of Conservative MP for Glamorgan South in other contexts. Check style and
common abbreviated titles as in Prof., Mr and Dr, many style sheets leave titles of church dignitaries in reference works if they are not given in the
off the point if the last letter of the word is included. Headline style sheet.
abbreviations carry no points unless the meaning is in doubt without them. Each newspaper has its regular style for setting tabulated work such as
Give organizations in full at first mention so that the abbreviation television programmes, racing programmes and election results, which
thereafter is understood. In long texts it is useful to repeat the full name, should be followed. Look out for simple formatted setting codes in these
even in a shortened form, to refresh the reader’s memory. areas. Some newspapers use page-ready setting input from agencies for
With ranks there is wide divergence, as in Lieut-Cdr (Lt-Cdr), Flt-Lieut this sort of material.
(F/Lt), Lieut-Col (Lt-Col), Con. (PC), Corpl (Cpl), etc. You need to study
the house style sheet. Check the use of county abbreviations such as Beds., Trade names
Berks., Bucks, Oxon. and Salop, and also abbreviations for the months
such as Aug. Sept. and Nov. Many firms take umbrage if the names of their products are used as
Weights and measurements, where giving precise amounts, are usually generic names without capital letters. Angry complaints received on this
abbreviated thus: 10 kg, 4 lb, 6 fl oz and are not pluralized with a final s or subject have resulted in all newspaper offices having lists of trade names
given a full point. If written out in full, as in five kilograms, the normal with their general equivalents either as part of house style or listed
plural s applies. separately. These have to be learned. Some well-known examples include:
Excessive use of a variety of abbreviations in the text is tiresome to the
reader and should be avoided. The space saved by them is often more than Hoover vacuum cleaner
counterbalanced by the loss in clarity,
Writers should never use time-saving abbreviations such as aftn
(afternoon), btwn (between), yesty (yesterday), mng (morning) or chmn Kleenex paper tissues
(chairman) in keyboarding in case the subs miss them and they turn up like
that in the paper.
Fibreglass glass fibre
Typographical style

Thermos flask vacuum flask

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 88

 the text as manager, supervisee general secretary, chairman, or what-ever.
‘Boss’ is simply verbal shorthand.
The words ‘rap’ or ‘row’ in a headline might suggest criticism or
disagreement but they do not have the precision the text requires if the
Biro ball-point pen story is to mean anything to the reader. To be ‘axed’ or ‘probed’ in a
headline might put across the general idea of what happened (if there is no
time to write a better heading) but the text has to back up these words with
Elastoplast tape dressing clearer, more precise ones.
Words of this sort are used in headlines not just because they are short but
because they can fit a variety of stories in which more specific descriptions
Oxo beef or chicken cubes are too long to be accommodated, and sometimes because there is little
time to the page deadline. It is this lack of precision (apart from the fact
that they have become headline jargon) which limits their usefulness in the
Nylon/Terylene artificial (man-made) fibre text. The fault with journalese, in fact, is not just its mind-lulling jargon
but its vagueness.
We have noted elsewhere that words used in news language are rooted in
Martini vermouth everyday speech, even though the grammatical structure and thought and
fact sequence are not. As a useful test of a piece of edited news try
mouthing it silently to judge by its ‘sound’ if the words used are real
demotic words or just chunks of your newspaper’s home-produced
Journalese headline jargon..
Would a neighbour say to you, I hear cops have quizzed Jones following a
How do you recognize journalese? By its words. It is a debasement of the cash probe at the superstore he’s just quit,’ and would you reply,
language caused by the stereotyped short words and short-cut phraseology ‘Yes, and I hear he’s quit home in a night drama after a big rap from his
used in headline writing infiltrating the text. wife’?
Words that are tolerable in headlines because of the difficulties of A final word for subs on this depressing subject: Winkle out journalese if
character count and the need for visual balance should be examined it appears in any reporter’s copy – and do not be guilty of it yourself.
closely before they are used in the text. Here the need is for precision if
meaning is to be conveyed. The explanation and justification of facts, upon
which the headline leans, cannot be put at risk by ambiguous jargon words,
however well these might have served their purpose in drawing the story to
the reader’s attention.
While the short word ‘boss’, for example, might get you out of a difficulty
in a headline, it is a noun that must be clarified and taken a stage further in

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 89

 The first function has to do with words. The sub is the synthesizer,
filtering the material so that its essence is refined into a simple ‘read me’
message. This must be achieved without doing damage to the facts by
CHAPTER SEVEN over-simplification or ‘bending.’ In other words, under the pressure to
achieve a good headline, the sub must guard against distortion.
WRITING HEADING Here, the sub comes up against the second function of the headline. For the
technique of modern newspaper design demands that some sort of type
Writing a headline is one of the more difficult of subediting jobs. It takes a pattern be imposed on newspaper pages. On news pages, stories are
high concentration on the materials of the story – the facts and supporting allotted a size of headline type and width of setting that suits the story’s
quotations – to render them quickly into a few short words that will tempt relationship to the page as a whole. This limitation nominates the
the reader to read on, even though the reporter may have encapsulated the maximum number of letters or characters to each line. In writing a
main points. headline, the sub (except where the layout can be changed) has to
Some subeditors have a natural flair for it at first reading of the copy, but accommodate the words it contains to the character count allowed by the
headline writing comes mostly with painstaking practice. The best ones are type.
not necessarily quick off-the-top-of-the-head ideas; they can be the result
of patient juggling with words on a copy pad after subbing on the screen is The words
completed. Here, the morning paper routine, particularly on a well-staffed
To attract the eye a good headline must have clarity and impact. Clarity
national paper, with its longer time factor, is an advantage. There might be
means that the wording conveys to the reader what the sub intends without
time for discussion in the case of a big story. Many a good headline is a
confusion or ambiguity. Impact means that the effect of the words is strong
‘committee job’ in which improvements have been worked on the ideas of
enough to persuade the reader to read on.
others. There is thus every reason why a national paper should show polish
in its headlines compared with a town evening with its tight edition It will be seen in the pages that follow that headline language, in its
deadlining. simplicity and immediacy, is close to everyday language – the demotic
Yet there is no room for sloppy, ineffective headline writing on any spoken tongue of a country with its familiar, generally short words. Yet in
newspaper if it wants to be taken seriously and get the reader’s attention. its construction a headline is nothing like ordinary speech, for to say what
It is useful at this point if we have a definition. We can say that the has to be said it has to be as deliberately composed as a metrical poem. It
headline has two main functions: is language pared down to the bone, producing the maximum effect from
the minimum of words, which words, in addition, must submit to a
1 It draws the attention of the reader to the contents of the story. typographical discipline quite alien to ordinary speech. Every word has to
2 It forms part of the visual pattern of the page. be carefully weighed and measured, key words located and not left out,
legality and factual accuracy considered, and a visual effect achieved with
the result.

Subject

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 90

Since it is, in effect, a condensed sentence, the headline has to have a Whatever the words, you should go for plain English. Multi-syllabic or
subject and a verb in the right place. The subject is what the headline is unusual words are a put-off to the reader except in newspapers in a
about. THE QUEEN ABDICATES would be a blockbuster of both subject specialist field. They rob the wording of pace as well as impact. At the
and verb at work. 300 DIE IN JUMBO JET CRASH shows that it is the same time the sub should not try to create a special headline language by
deaths of 300 people rather than the crash itself that is the subject. The using words that only exist in terms of their headline use. (See Journalese,
subject comes first in an effective news headline. It is your summation of pages 123–4 and Alternative words, pages 152–8.)
the material of the story. It is what the story is about.
While, in the text, an implied subject can sound right in a context that Omission of words
makes clear what it is, a subjectless headline should be avoided. I read in
my local paper the headline BLAMED DRINK, and in an American paper A number of ploys are used to give a headline pace while containing its
STEALS PISTOL TO END LIFE. This is headline space badly used. message within a given type and measure. Some of these, if not used
There are better and clearer and more compelling ways of attracting the carefully, can endanger the meaning.
reader’s attention than by this verbal shorthand. For example, the auxiliary verbs to be and to have, can be omitted where
they are implied beyond all doubt in the wording. SIEGE GUNMAN
Verb GIVEN LAST WARNING sounds right without the is after gunman. But
JOBS PLAN HOPE FOR WORKLESS should include
The active voice is stronger and uses fewer words than the passive voice. either is or gives before ‘hope’ to avoid ambiguity. ‘Plan’ could strike the
STORM POUNDS BEACHES has more pace and immediacy than reader first as a verb and not a noun. SICK PAY UP is tantalizingly
BEACHES ARE POUNDED BY STORM. BOY MEETS GIRL is better ambiguous without the is.
than GIRL IS MET BY BOY. But beware of distorting the headline in LAB FIRES PROBE BY CID boggles the eye until we learn from the text
trying to avoid the passive voice. ROCK STAR KILLED IN SKI FALL is that it means LAB FIRES are PROBED BY CID.
better than the more active ROCK FALL KILLS SKI STAR because it has ABUSES INQUIRY IN S. AFRICA tempts us into thinking there is an
the subject in the right place. A headline that relegates the subject to the implied subject with abuses as its verb. But abuses, it turns out, is a noun-
last two words is a weak headline. adjective describing ‘inquiry’. The auxiliary is after ‘Africa’ would have
Yet the verb must be used as soon as possible. It is the verb that energizes made this clear.
the headline and gives it pace, compared to which an adjective, for
instance, has a modest role.

Special words Nouns and adjectives

Nouns as adjectives, sometimes compounded, are a useful short cut in

identifying the subject without using too many words. Abuses inquiry in
the headline above, is shorter than inquiry into abuses, but a headline like
FAN CLUB FIGHT DRAMA is baffling until we realize that it is a label

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 91

headline and that fight is not the verb we are looking for but part of the PRINCE WOOLLIE COMES HOME, from The Sun, not only symbolizes
subject and that fan club is two nouns compounded into a noun-adjective. a picture of Prince William swathed in woollies on a cold Spring day but is
Likewise in JUMBO CHECKS ORDER we discover on reading the story a clever play on the name. In a different market, the Financial Times is not
(if we are tempted to read it by such a muddle of words) that jumbo is a averse to using metaphor and literary allusion to create a symbol headline
noun-adjective (jumbo jet) and not the subject, and that checks is a noun in an unlikely setting as in:
and not the verb, and that the headline is a verbless label telling us that a
check on jumbo jets has been ordered. DANISH ENGINEERS
These faults show the ambiguity and obscurity that lurk when nouns are TAKE A TILT AT
used as adjectives in headlines that are not activated by a verb, In all the WINDMILL MARKET
examples quoted above (which really did appear in newspapers) the faults
might have been detected had the sub mouthed the words half aloud. A Sport is a great area for metaphor, pun and allusion. Even The
good headline should sound good as well as reading right. Times pitches in with BLACKBURN REVEL IN ROVER’s RETURN,
Here is a headline in which the subject has a compounded adjective made using a popular TV ‘soap’ to point a football team’s success.
up of three nouns and a verbal phrase (not a recommended idea) but which The Birmingham Evening Mail goes back to Laurel and Hardy for
is saved by an active verb following the subject, as it correctly should be: ANOTHER FINE MESS, STANLEY, while The Sun, a master in this
field, put PAT’s JAZZ BANNED on a story about a jockey called Pat and
JET CRASH GIRL’ S an unlucky horse called Jazz.
‘WAKE UP’ PLEA The more everyday use of love nest, love pact, sex-bomb, whizz-kid. brain
SAVED MOTHER drain and latchkey babes as situation symbols show the extent to which
headline imagery has filtered into the language. The danger at this level is
Let us look at one more actual example of nouns used as adjectives. that these identity flags will lose their potency through overuse.
MYSTERY MAN FACES ‘DEAD PRIEST’ CHARGE shows an
adjective-noun phrase being used as an adjective to describe the criminal Word accuracy
charge in a headline in which the subeditor is trying, for legal reasons, to
avoid using the word murder. The headline, though not ideal, is acceptable Since a headline gives a story its prominence in the page, you should be
and produces a wording that makes the story clear. It also tempts us to read careful, as we have said, not to damage the accuracy of the facts in the
on to find out more. search for a compelling wording. Emotive words such as hysterical, failed,
regretful, ruthless, resentful, glib and cruel should be used in court cases
only with care, and if they are supported by evidence given in court or in a
magistrate’s or judge’s summing up. Verbs such as critical, attacked,
Symbols condemned and scorned must be borne out in the text by attributed
quotations. People’s words must not be pushed beyond their meaning to
A metaphor or phrase that can sum up a complicated situation and signal it stand up a headline.
clearly to the reader is a subeditor’s dream. It not only eases the job of Beware of devaluing words such as slashed, slammed, lashed, smashed,
containing the message in the type but can give a colourful headline. rushed, raced, grabbed, slaughtered and demolished by using them to pep

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 92

up headlines when the material of the story does not match up. In one issue The ultimate test
of a national tabloid paper the following headlines appeared: TELFER of a marketing
LASHES LIONS, POLE-AXE FOR POOR BUSTER, INTIKHAB man: Sell Libya
BLASTS A WARNING, JACK FLATTENS SUSSEX CRICKET,
WILLIS CALLS FOR KILLER TOUCH and SOBBING SUE Or in place of a dash as an acknowledgement:
SMASHED. Violence on the sports pages seems to be trying to outdo
violence on the field. WE’ RE A NATION AT LAST:
MANDELA IN LONDON TODAY
Headline punctuation
The comma is sometimes necessary but avoid it if possible. It can be used
A headline is a condensed sentence so as well as needing a subject and a to denote a missing is as in INVESTMENT BOOM IN COINS, STAMPS
verb it needs punctuation. A quick examination of any headline, however, or a that’s as in ABSOLUTELY ELEGANT, JOANNA’S NEW ROLE. It
will show that commas, dashes, question marks and brackets look untidy is not necessary before an attribution as in VICAR INSULTED ME SAYS
in big type. While keeping in essential punctuation, it is a good idea to VERGER. If you need a comma to avoid ambiguity, it is better to reword
write headlines that need little or none. The following guidance is offered: the headline.
Full points are not used except in wordy free-style headlines (mostly on Avoid question marks if possible. A headline should not be asking the
features pages) which have a sentence break such as: reader a question. An exception would be in a dialogue headline such as:

ON YOUR BIKES A BULLY? NOT ME SAYS WIFE

YOU LAZY LOT.
THAT’S THE Exclamation marks (or screamers) should be restricted to exclamatory
MESSAGE FROM phrases such Cheers! or Howzat! or Get out! Using one is pointless in the
THE MINISTER following actual tabloid paper headline:

A colon is a useful break in a two-idea headline: £85,000 JET-SET CAR IS A LOCK-OUT!

JAIL CRISIS A seven-word exclamation that also labours under figures, a pound sign
LOOMS: STAFF and two hyphens. Happily there seem to be fewer of them in headlines
QUIT TALKS these days.
Quotation marks are best used single. Apart from enclosing actual quotes
But even the colon is being phased out on many papers. Instead, a second they are useful to put round words to indicate doubt or an unconfirmed
headline idea, if wanted, is given a deck on its own. A colon is still useful, assertion as in: ‘DEATH-TRAP’ CAR BLAMED FOR CRASH or to
however, in a headline like this: show up a fact to be false as in ‘DEAD MAN’ TURNS UP AT
WEDDING. Single quotes also get over a problem where two or more
words are compounded into an adjectival noun as in ‘SHARE A JOB’

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 93

SCHEME TO BE SCRAPPED. Where actual quotes are used in a should be avoided, or at least rationed to one to a page for the sake of eye
headline, either the name should be included or a tag-line should be used comfort. Dr, Mr, Coun., Capt., the Rev. and Prof. are often inescapable but
as attribution. are more acceptable. Whether they are followed by a full point is a matter
Ellipses are strictly dots denoting missing letters or words, but they are for house style (see Chapter 5).
used in newspaper headlines for a variety of purposes from replacing a The most unattractive abbreviations are those invented by headline writers
colon to filling out short lines. They are visually ugly, especially when themselves for use in a tight spot, such as ‘tec, ‘groom, ‘quake and ‘copter.
accompanied by an exclamation mark as in the actual example in Figure It would be a blessing if all papers followed the practice of the enlightened
43 on this page. few which ban such monstrosities,
They should not be necessary.
Numbers
Headline abbreviations
Multiple noughts look ugly in headlines, apart from being eye-boggling to
Abbreviations, especially those formed from initial capitals, make a
some, and where the figures are simple it is better to say ‘ten thousand’, or
headline hard to read and can make it obscure to some readers. A number
‘three thousand’ or ‘two million’. With sterling amounts use £10,000 or
will be uncertain what EEC, EU, WEU and CJD mean, to say nothing of
£3,000, although with millions the abbreviation m can be used as in £2m.
the ever-changing abbreviated forms of trade unions. BBC and TUC pass
This looks better in caps in a caps headline. Odd figures are usually
muster but the Electrical, Electronic, Telecommunication and Plumbing
rounded down for the sake of tidiness, 5943, for instance, becoming 5900
Union, the Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers and even the
and 507 becoming 500.
National Union of Mineworkers are better referred to in headlines as the
electricians, the engineers and the miners rather than by initials. The full Figures are narrower than letters in a type range and in Old Style the 3, 5
name can be explained in the text. and 7 hang below the x-height of the type, a point to watch in automatic
line spacing when using capitals.

Content

Anything that is news to the reader is material for the headline. Yet there
are certain points that should be kept in mind.

Taste

Figure 43 Punctuation that a headline can do without: one that appeared It should go without saying that you should not identify people by race,
creed or colour unless their race, creed or colour is the subject matter.
Acronyms such as Unesco and Nato (where lower case letters are used) are Words used to describe people should be relevant to the text. If a mother
more memorable and easier on the eye but are still best kept out of of four is evicted from her house, the size of the family is worth using in
headlines. Even the better known abbreviated forms of organizations

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 94

the headline. If a father of four children is made editor of a newspaper the encountering such diminutives of their name in headlines could take
size of his family is of no importance. umbrage. Princess Margaret dislikes being called Meg in American papers.
People can be touchy if certain things about them appear in a headline with Remember that the Queen and the Pope take the definite article.
no apparent justification. To say someone appointed as a magistrate was Man, girl, baby, mother and pensioner are acceptable words but the
expelled from school at 15 could be regarded as bad taste, if not actually headline should flesh out who or what they are. For example MOTHER
damaging. If a well-known actor is homosexual it is no concern of a GETS BACK LOVE-TUG BABY, and COWBOY BUILDER WRECKS
reviewer or headline writer. It becomes of concern to the newspaper only PENSIONER’S HOME.
if the actor is involved in court proceedings in which homosexuality is an ‘The man who…’ is a useful way of personalizing a headline, and getting
issue. away with a label, as in THE MILLIONAIRE WHO LIVED IN A
COUNCIL FLAT.
Vital facts
Time
It follows from the above that relevance is important in considering a fact
for a headline. Not everything that a reporter gathers is vital to the story. With the when of a story, there is a natural assumption that the news on the
Take ages. Lists of offenders due to appear before courts usually give page has just happened or is still happening. The use of the present tense in
everyone’s age. It might concern police records that a motorist accused of headlines confirms this as in TOWN’S BUS DRIVERS STRIKE OVER
dangerous driving is aged 53. It matters little to the headline. TOLL PLAN or TEENAGER SHATTERS LONG JUMP RECORD. Even
Yet if a woman of 53 becomes a Wimbledon tennis champion or even is with a football game the night before, the headline would read
chosen for a hockey international, her age would be the headline point. LIVERPOOL WHACK BOLTON STRUGGLERS. BRITAIN MOVES
Likewise, if a man of 89 becomes a father it is a headline point. Age, like INTO THE BLACK is used in the present tense even though the trade
other facts, is important only in its relevance to the story. Effective figures it refers to are for a quarter that ended three weeks previously.
headline writing lies in you identifying vital facts that bring a story alive. The future can be specified if it is relevant to the story, as in MUCH-
MARRIED MP TO WED EIGHTH, or AT LAST – IT’S A SUNSHINE
The personal touch WEEKEND.

Location
The who of a headline is important. Opinions and quotations derive their
strength from the reader knowing whose they are. There is nothing wrong
in having a person’s name in a headline – in fact, the The where of a news headline is most used in an area or regional paper
abstract he or she should be avoided. If what a person does for a living is anxious to show the spread of its coverage. Thus a county weekly in
the important thing, then give that. For instance: FIREMAN SAVES GIRL Cumbria might refer to the towns of Silloth, Aspatria and Whitehaven to
WITH KISS OF LIFE, or TOWN’S BUTCHERS GO ON STRIKE OVER assure these widely-scattered places that it is looking after their interests.
MEAT PRICES. Where an area has its own page of edition news under an area label, the
Headlines should avoid giving offence by skimping on the name. ‘Maggie’ need for place names is less important. In a tightly-knit urban evening
might have saved useful headline space in the Thatcher days, but people paper a few place names are useful where they are relevant to the story but

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 95

a rash of names on every little filler is tiresome (see pages reproduced POLICE CHIEF
in Chapters 1 and 2). SUSPENDED
In a national daily or Sunday paper, place names are not common in OVER BRIBES
headlines unless their relevance is inescapable, as in: WEST RIDING ALLEGATION
POLICE CHIEF LINKS CRIME RISE TO DRUGS, or WINDSOR
‘RUINED BY NOISE POLLUTION’ SAY PALACE. MOTHER DIES
SAVING BABY
Composing a headline FROM SEA

In composing a headline it is possible to reduce the approaches to two: SABOTAGE

FEAR IN
The direct approach DOCKYARD
The oblique approach EXPLOSION

The direct approach ENGLAND

CRASH TO
AUSSIE
A headline taken directly from the facts of the story is the commonest SPINNERS
method. It conveys the ‘hardness’ of the story. By hardness we refer to the
particular quality of stories that are rooted in facts – a Cabinet reshuffle, a The words available to the headline writer – police, chief, bribes
rescue of a person or animal, a rail accident, a Test match, a by-election, a suspended, mother, baby, dead, sea, sabotage, dockyard, explosion,
political speech – rather than stories that are based upon the words, England, Aussies, spinners, defeat – are rooted in the event the headline
reaction, behaviour and oddity of people. has to cover. They are tight, informative, un-emotive, and yet they are
What people say and do can be an integral part of a news story. ‘News,’ evocative of the nature of the happening. They are the direct means by
Harold Evans has said, ‘is people.’ Yet in the coverage of ‘hard’ news, which the headline makes the connection with the reader. In selecting from
which occupies the principal part of a reporter’s job, the quotations from such words you are making a qualitative judgement about the story and
people with whom the reporter has spoken tend to be used in justification, using that judgement to give it impact in the page.
description or corroboration of the facts of the story. It is the facts for
which the reporter has gone in search, and it is the facts the reporter has The oblique approach
gathered and checked that form the bedrock of the story and the material
for the headline. Thus the hard news of the day might yield such headlines
as: Scattered here and there in a newspaper, and sometimes given
typographical prominence, are stories of a softer sort to which we give the
term ‘human interest’. These are hard to classify but they are generally
concerned with the human situation: what someone has done or said, how
they have reacted to something; or they concern unusual personal

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 96

circumstances that have come to light. Often they are about animals and There is greater scope and more fun for the sub in writing headlines like
their relationship to humans. There could be an element of oddity or this, although most newspapers wisely limit their use. They can be fun for
humour which lifts a story out of the ordinary, or a quirkiness about the the reader, too, when they are used judiciously as ‘kickers’ on a page, but a
personality of the people involved. glut of them can make news pages look trivial.
It is here that an oblique approach is useful in writing a headline, although
it has to be said that the guidelines are less precise than in the direct Headline thoughts
approach. A story might inspire a headline based upon a popular song or
catch phrase with which the reader is expected to be familiar, or a proverb To be effective, a headline should express one main thought and not hedge
or saying. Irony or humour might shape the subeditor’s thinking. The it around with qualifications and explanations. In arriving at this thought
headline could be done in the form of a quotation projected in a you should be looking for what it is about the story that makes it different
deliberately wordy way. Let us look at some examples that have appeared. from any other – why this story is chosen for this particular space on this
particular page. If there are other thoughts or facts to be brought forward
JUST THREE WHEELS they can be given in a second deck of headline (if one is schemed) or be
ON HER WAGON put into the intro.
AND STILL If there are two thoughts that are simple and complementary, however, you
SHE’S ROLLING can compound them into one headline as in PASSENGERS FLUNG OUT
ALONG AS TRAIN HITS BUFFERS or VIOLENCE FLARES IN GAZA AS
POLICE GO ON STRIKE.
This from the Daily Mail, was a bizarre story in which the motorist was The after headline is in a similar category to the as headlines quoted
seen driving along on three wheels after being involved in a crash. It both above: MANAGER FOUND GAGGED AFTER RAIDERS SNATCH
utilizes wordiness and derives its words from a song. DIAMONDS, and LOOTERS STRIP SHOPS AFTER FUNERAL ENDS
IN RIOT.
WHEN DID YOU LAST
SEE YOUR MOTHER? Label headlines

This one tweaks a famous picture title to draw attention to a news feature
These are headlines without a verb, or in which the verb is incidental, and
in The Express about mother and daughter relationships. It is a headline
they are not recommended on news pages. The can sometimes work on a
where a question mark is completely acceptable, as it is in another oblique
‘colour’ or human interest story, as in BRRRRRRR…HELLO SUMMER!
headline from The Times:
or in THE MAN WITH THE IRON JAW.
What do you Possessives can help them work as in MOSCOW’s DAY OF SHAME. A
do if papa is a dramatic statement such as THE BOOT FOR ENGLAND stands well
Rolling Stone? because it is really an exclamation.
Some apparently label headlines such as PANTHERS TRAIL IN SNOW
gain strength from an implied verb – in this case Is found5 before ‘snow\

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 97

Generally speaking, label headlines have not the pace needed for hard Avoid headlines with no, nothing or no one in them. They are crying
news and are best left to features pages. out to be passed over by the reader. If the story is worth using it must have
a positive angle. For example:
Split headlines

The old strictures about grammatical splits in headlines – turning lines so

that the subject is separated from the object, the adjective from the noun,
or the parts of the verb divided – no longer have the force of taboo they
used to have. Good flowing headlines were often spoiled by applying these
pedantic rules. It is still best not to have the indefinite article a or an at the
end of a line, but only because it is weak visually, not because it breaks a
sacrosanct rule. The general scan of the words and the visual effect of the The positive angle of the escape in the unusual circumstances of an
type as it comes up on screen should be the guiding principles. Does it aircraft hitting a tree becomes the story. The fact that it was on take-off
look right? Does it sound right? can be given to the reader in the intro. But beware of calling it a miracle
escape. A miracle, says the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, is ‘a marvellous
Turn heads event exceeding the known powers of Nature.’ The reason 90 people
escaped is because the aircraft had brakes and the captain the knowledge
and skill to use them in an aborted take-off. This the story can explain.
Where a story from Page One (or elsewhere) continues on an inside page, Beware the temptation of creating miracle babes, miracle mums and
the inside page headline, or turn head, should contain a key word or phrase miracle dads in circumstances in which the text offers perfectly rational
from the main heading so that it can be identified immediately. This does explanations of what has occurred.
not mean that it has to be a label. If a story is about a doctor charged with To get the best out of a headline word it should not be repeated in the
an offence against a patient the Page One headline might say: DOCTOR
same headline nor, if possible, in any other headline on the page.
ACCUSED OF RAPING DRUGGED PATIENT. Then the turn head
The words may, might and could should be avoided as they leave the
could say: ACCUSED DOCTOR: NURSE TELLS OF ‘STRANGE
SUBSTANCE IN BOTTLE’. Thus, while the story is clearly flagged for reader uncertain about what happened in the end, unless they keep a look-
the reader, the headline draws from the inside page material to carry the out for the continuation of the story in the next few days or weeks. This is
story forward. Another way would be to use a strapline: too much to ask.
Accused doctor: hearing continues
If a story is based on the possibility of something happening it is worth
NURSE TELLS OF ‘STRANGE SUBSTANCE IN BOTTLE’ using only if the likelihood is very strong, otherwise the possibilities that
Either way, the headline should have close to it, either reversed or as a can be written about are infinite. Newspapers sometimes have inside
white-on-black or preceded by a black blob, the slogan • FROM PAGE knowledge that something is about to happen which enables them to go a
ONE which leaves no doubt that it is the right story. step further than may, might or could. Headlines such as BUILDING
SOCIETIES SET TO CUT MORTGAGE RATES or 2% CUT IN
Things to avoid LENDING RATE LIKELY are ways of writing headlines in which the

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 98

possibility is almost a certainty. Even then, such headlines should be given shorter second line alongside a picture or another story (see examples
to the readers only when the expected event is days or hours away. in Chapter 2).
In addition to these conventional shapes there are long single-line
headlines crossing the page, often down-page, and extending perhaps from
three to as many as six columns in maybe 36pt or 42pt type. These cover
stories carried in a number of legs, such as under a picture. See also
examples in Chapter 2.
The more important stories both in tabloid and broadsheet layouts,
particularly the page lead, might occasionally introduce a second headline
thought for emphasis or for design purposes by means of
a strapline or overline, as in:

Sects break truce in border flare-up

TEN DIE IN JORDAN AMBUSH
CHAPTER EIGHT A strapline can justify a main heading which might seem bare on its own,
or make possible one that might not otherwise stand at all. The second
HEADLINE TYPOGRAPHY deck is also used on some papers for this purpose as in:
Modern newspaper design with its strength below the fold allows for a RAIL FIRMS FACE
great variety of headline shape, especially in broadsheets. Pages these days SAFETY PURGE
consist of one-deck, one-thought headlines, as opposed to the multi-deck Action follows
style once favoured, although sometimes a second deck is introduced. Southall smash
A deck of headline can consist of a number of lines of type depending on
its width, or measure, and upon its shape and position in the page. This method permits a bold main heading to hold the top of the page while
giving needed explanation below it in smaller type.
Shape A one-thought headline consisting of an opinion might have a tag-line to
justify as in:
Single-column headlines are usually of two, three or four lines, although
sometimes they can have as many as five or six if they have dominant end- EXPORT BOOM
column positions, or contain some particularly wordy phrase which the A TRIBUTE TO
page planner wants to put across (see example on page 136). ‘NEW LOOK’
Double-column or three-column headlines are usually of two or three lines INDUSTRIES
and of a bigger type size than single-column heads since they are found on
the more important stories on the page. The page lead has a headline that Chancellor tells City
crosses most of the page – a banner or streamer – running into perhaps a

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 99

Although it would have been better here to include ‘Chancellor’ in the Within the various shapes a headline is arranged in two main ways. Either
main headline thought. it is centred on the space available, or it is set left, sometimes indented by
Most headlines, however, concentrate on one point in one deck. In single- half a pica (a nut). Readability is usually the deciding factor, although type
column ones of this sort the character count in the bigger type sizes might style can come into it where a paper opts for predominantly centred or set
be as little as 6½ characters to the line, although where an 18pt or 24pt left headlines. A centred headline with a wide difference in width of lines
headline is used, usually down-page, the count is easier. With wider has the eye jumping about to find the starting point of each line and is
headlines across two or more columns the count is not necessarily any therefore hard to read. A successful centred headline should have fairly
easier since the typesize called for is bigger. A seven-column streamer in full lines with not too much variation in width, with the top line full to lend
large type can offer the most difficult count of all. Its one advantage is that it strength (as below).
the words do not need to break into a number of even lines to satisfy a A set left headline is supposed to drop the eye to each successive line more
narrow single-column measure. easily. Yet it must still have a have a full top line to look visually right,
A headline that offers a really generous character count is the freestyle one and if the lines are too uneven the raggedness on the right leaves
which is often built around a statement or a quotation which aptly sums up noticeable white on the page. This can give the outside edge a weak look if
a story. Such headlines are made a focal point in page design, often in used in the right-hand end column. It is banned from this position in some
conjunction with a picture, and cannot be arbitrarily imposed on a page papers.
without breaching its type balance. Here is a headline that accompanied an A set right headline (or caption for that matter) is seldom used for the
atmospheric picture: reason that the raggedness on the left makes it hard for the eye to pick up
each line. Look at these examples:
Weapons at the ready,
faces daubed, No 2 POLICE POLICE POLICE
Platoon move off into HOLD HOLD HOLD
the dawn light LOOTERS IN LOOTERS IN LOOTERS IN
SWOOP ON SWOOP ON SWOOP ON
The aim of this sort of headline is to give an impressionistic treatment to a CITY SHOPS CITY SHOPS CITY SHOPS
news story. It succeeds by being different from other headlines. It signals
that here is a special sort of approach.
To have visual balance and what newspaper designer Alan Hutt used to The only other arrangement is the stepped headline, still favoured by some
call ‘eye comfort’, a page of news items cannot be a hotch-potch of US papers:
headline shapes altered at will to suit a subeditor’s whims. Fitting the
headline thought to a nominated shape and type is a discipline that has to METAL FATIGUE
be learned. It also focuses your thoughts wonderfully on the facts. IS LIKELY CAUSE
OF JUMBO CRASH
Arrangement

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 100

The first line should be set full left, the last full right, and the middle line lower case headlines can dispute the fact that the success of tabloid papers
placed evenly between. The lines need to be the same width to look right. was built on the eye-catching poster effect of big sans caps headlines.
It is a style now little used.
Character counts
Type style
The office type book, of which all production journalists should be given a
In a well planned newspaper the types conform to a regular stock range, copy along with the office stylebook, will provide you with character
with a variant introduced to give emphasis to a particular story or to form a counts for the different standard measures. The examples should show
display focal point, perhaps in conjunction with pictures, as we said each size in capital and lower case letters, with roman and italic, expanded
in Chapter 2. Newspapers are careful to stick to their main stock types. If and condensed versions where applicable, along with numbers, fractions,
the seriffed Bodoni or Century is used for the news pages, perhaps a sans punctuation, stars, blobs and other type ‘furniture’ in each range. It will be
serif Gothic or Helvetica face will be the variant, with a greater but still seen that letters within a type size vary in width not only in their lower
controlled type variety allowed on the features pages. If Gothic or case form but in capitals, too. The count for a headline has to take account
Helvetica is the stock news face, then Century Light or the heavily seriffed of these variations and also of the letter space needed between the words.
Rockwell or Pabst (see pages reproduced in Chapters 1 and 2) might be the A headline count is easier in capitals. Apart from the I which counts as a
variant. half character, or the M and W which count as two, the variation in width
Within most headline types, including the bit-mapped computerized clones among the remainder in virtually all types is slight enough to be self-
now mainly used, there are bold, light and italic versions and condensed cancelling between one letter and another. Allowing the space between
and expanded ones. There is thus ample variety in size and shape within a words as equal to one character, it is easy enough in most types to get an
range without need to mix the ranges other than to introduce a chosen accurate count. Even so, a rash of Is or Ws can lead to imbalance however
variant. carefully the characters are counted.
What is helpful to the headline writer is the modern tendency for In lower case letters there is more variety of width, with f, i, j, l, r and t
newspapers to use only the lower case of a range in different sizes and being narrower and averaging out at about half a character each, while w
weights. This might be accompanied by the occasional use of capitals in a and m count usually as one and a half. Punctuation can vary from a half
variant type (Helvetica and Century light are popular for this) for logos or character to a full character, as between a comma and a question mark.
special headlines, of sometimes second decks. We have already referred to Dashes and ellipses can take two or more character spaces.
the theory that lower case headlines with their flowing outline and more Most systems are formatted for single character space between words,
varied contour are easier to read at sight, as with ordinary reading text. although this can be reduced to accommodate a much-wanted headline or
Along with the trend towards lower case is a decline in the use of italic otherwise save space. The readability of reduced word space depends on
type, both lower case and capitals, for the same reason – readability. whether the letters separated by the space have upright or receding strokes,
Using lower case certainly eases the letter count and is helping to free the latter giving the impression of greater white, as with the letter c or with
headlines from dependence on short stereotyped headline words of the sort capitals A, V and W.
sometimes used in tabloid papers with their narrow columns and large caps Working out a headline count goes like this:
type. The other side of the coin is that bigger character counts can result in
wordy headlines that lack punch and eye appeal. And no advocacy of

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 101

ISRAEL IGNORES When writing a headline you can press a ‘headline count’ key to show on
½111111½111111 = 13 screen whether it fits or if it is too strong and by how many characters. It is
UN ARMS WARNING allowed on most papers to vary a chosen size up or down by up to 5 per
111112112111½11 = 16½ cent to accommodate a wanted headline.
Having a typebook around is important in visualizing, especially for a new
The second line here is too long for a headline which allows for a subeditor. It gives the ‘feel’ of type and helps in understanding projection
maximum count of 14, so ‘UN’ is deleted, leaving the headline as: and page design. An editorial production staff with a feeling for type and
an awareness of its possibilities is an important requirement for a good-
ISRAEL IGNORES looking paper. A paper’s type character is threatened if subs are blindly
½111111½111111 = 13 writing headlines they cannot visualize or connect with the pages. It is a
ARMS WARNING pity some offices use headline sizes and shapes coded by numbers or
112112111½11 = 13½ letters. Though quick and convenient, such cyphers discourage the young
journalist keen to know about page design.
This gives two almost equal lines with a little white each side when The type book is your introduction to the world of typography. The usages
centred on the space. and nuances of effect of different types and variations of letter shape can
But watch out when numerals are used. They are narrower than letters. The convey to you a feeling for the psychology of type, an awareness that there
odd one or two will make little difference as in: are fast and slow types, and male and female, that some types are suited to
particular purposes. If you lean towards page design and have a flair for
TEACHER visualizing you will learn how to give weight and boldness to a news page,
CHOOSES authority to a leader page, and busyness to the sports section. You will
PRISON discover how a condensed type used sparingly can enliven a standard
INSTEAD format layout, and how a newspaper’s visual character is maintained by
OF ‘UNFAIR’ cunning and consistency in type use.
£10 FINE
Spacing
But in the following headline the last line will be a good deal shorter
Tight character counts pose problems not only with the words in headlines
SHOPLIFTER but with the visual balance of the lines. White space used sparingly and
TOLD: PAY creatively in a page can help the eye, but white space in a headline that
BACK FIRM’ S was intended to be occupied by type is a waste. It does nothing for the
£50,000 page and, if occurring frequently, can make it look empty.
Try to get the letters, as far as possible, to fill the space allotted. If white is
Type, as we have seen, can be reduced or enlarged to any size within its wanted for visual reasons the lines can be indented (i.e. set narrower than
top and bottom limits in a computerized system. Yet systems are formatted the space to be filled) or a deliberate display can be projected with planned
to give type in standard size sequence (see Chapter 2). This helps in
visualizing and in giving pages calculable type balance and eye appeal.
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 102
white space as part of the pattern. Some glossy magazines are very good at Spacing through the lines of a headline at page make-up to fill out a
this. shortfall of text in the story will result in poor visual balance and should be
In headlines the use of white space is to give adequate separation between avoided except when time is short It is better to extend the text.
words and lines so that the message is easy to read and the visual effect Spacing – other than the above strictures – is a matter of visual style.
satisfying. For instance a headline should not finish up looking like this: There can be no universal rules for headline or columnar spacing. Some
magazines make a feature of tightly spaced lines, which can be easily
GIRL achieved in computer setting and can look good in gravure and in
TEN, SAVES advertising display. Others go for all-round air or massive front indents.
CAT IN STORM Some newspapers, as a matter of style, indent all columns by a nut each
DRAIN side to give more vertical separation of matter, or indent the front of the
lines only. Others print the text with type that has a bigger body – 7pt on 8,
Nor should it become pyramid-shaped: or 8pt on 10 – thus marginally increasing the separation between the lines
and avoiding clash of ascenders and descenders.
SPIN TWINS The golden rule is to be consistent You will achieve a cleaner page if
SHATTER SURREY headline spacing is not tight here and wide there. Maximum readability
HOPES AT THE OVAL demands that one line should be clearly differentiated from another and
one word from another, otherwise the eye should not be aware of the white
Or be a staircase: space.
SUN BREAKS The creative moment
ALL RECORDS
FOR SEPTEMBER There are two methods of thinking your way into writing a headline. One
is to read the copy and try to come up with the wording before subbing the
If you find it hard to get a good shape, change the words and start again. story. This is necessary if the headline is to be the keystone of the layout.
The bigger the type the greater the damage caused by bad balance. An 84pt The method has the advantage that the headline is written at the stage
banner that falls short by half a column at each end weakens the top of the when the type and even the layout can, if need be, be adapted to
page and loses authority. Likewise, long single line headlines below the accommodate it.
fold need to be full if they are to dominate as they are intended to.
The other method is to sub the story, absorb the material and then work out
Vertical or line spacing is automatic with most systems but it helps with
the headline. The disadvantage here is that by now you are closer to the
headlines if space can be varied visually in lower case lines where
page deadline and time might be short.
ascenders and descenders clash one on to the other. Lower case type is
Some stories produce a headline easily so that in reading the copy it jumps
difficult to line-space tidily. Spacing lines of capitals is matter of
into your head; others are difficult to transmute into a few words. In
consistency, but beware the intrusion of the cross-line descender on the
human interest or ‘mood’ stories the hard facts can be few. The effect is in
capital Q.
the telling or the description, as with royal visits or elaborate ceremonials.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 103

Whatever the story, if a headline has not immediately occurred to you it is MOTHER’S
a good idea, as you sub the copy on screen, to jot down likely words on a BAN ON POT
pad. As many as half a dozen key words might emerge. You then shuffle DRIVES
them and arrange them in the right order to give balance and sense, as in a TEENAGER
puzzle. FROM HOME
Take an imaginary situation. A teenager called Janice Thompson has gone
missing from home. Her friends tell the school head that the girl has Still a bit slow. Also the second and last lines are one character too long
quarrelled with her mother over drugs and glue sniffing. A reporter on the for the type size and the size must not be reduced. Using the name would
local paper, which has already been told by the police that the girl is connect the story better with the readers. Try again
missing, hears about this and goes to see the mother. She is anxious to talk.
She wants her daughter back. She says Janice, who is fifteen, walked out MISSING
after being told by her that she was no longer welcome in the house if she JANICE:
continued to smoke pot and sniff glue. The reporter files the story and it is MY DRUGS
given a strong top-of-the-column space on page five. BAN TO
The copy is late. The subeditor checks it, tightens it up a little, casts it off BLAME
quickly and writes down the words: mother, teenager, drug, quarrel, SAYS
vanish and home. The first effort is: MOTHER

TEENAGER Better, but too many lines, and the headline thought has again been split.
VANISHES Try not to use the colon. Thought: why not mum instead of mother?
AFTER ROW
AT HOME MY DRUGS
OVER POT BAN DROVE
JANICE
This is no use for the fact that the girl has gone missing is not new. Also FROM HOME
the word after splits the headline thought into two. SAYS MUM

MOTHER’S BAN fits the five lines and is just right. Fill out the middle line by making it
ON POT DRIVES JANICE, 15, and we’ re there.
TEENAGER FROM HOME In another story a foreman at the local car factory is sacked after an
altercation in which he hits an apprentice and knocks him down. The
is better. Nearly there, in fact. How does it look as five lines of single apprentice had accused him of being a ‘scab’ (a non-striker) during a
column? strike.
The words on the pad are: union, sack, foreman, angry, scab, factory. First
of all, the ‘scab’ jibe is not new or contested. The new issue is what has

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 104

happened to the foreman. The sub’s first effort at a two-line double It is a favourite occupation of critics of newspaper headlines to tot up how
column lower case headline is: many times in a day’s issue of the national tabloid papers verbs such
as axe, snub, lash, probe, slash, hit, quiz and quit can be found.
Foreman loses job Using the same truncated words can lead to tired don’ t-read-me headlines,
in ‘scab’ jibe row which is a pity with a language as flexible as English. As a young sub, you
will find the best way out of this trap is to devise your own list of short
‘Scab jibe row’ is not liked. Also the headline needs more pace. A neat alternative words for use in headlines. A good thesaurus of English words,
shuffle produces the answer: a modern usage dictionary such as the Penguin English Dictionary and a
stout exercise book are all that you need for this assignment.
‘Scab’ jibe costs Here to ease the way are some suggested alternative words, but remember
foreman his job in using synonyms that there can be nuances of meanings between one and
another, and that a situation or statement could be misrepresented if an
There are advantages in subbing a story before writing the headline. The alternative word were used without proper thought. Also, as the list shows,
sub knows thoroughly what the copy is about so that whatever headline some words have two or more meanings, each with its synonyms.
emerges has to square with it. A headline written first could be based on a
misconception acquired at a superficial reading. There is a subconscious
tendency, too, where a good headline has cropped up first, to bend the
story towards the headline. This is how distortion begins.

Alternative words

‘If there is one outstanding fault in present-day headlines it is that very

sameness with which they speak day in and day out. Much of this
monotony in inevitable because of the cramping space limitations that
compel repeated use of words, phrases and constructions that have been
found most serviceable.’
Garst and Bernstein, Headlines and Deadlines

It will be seen from the examples quoted in this chapter that the limitations
on word length and the search for type balance lead the headline writer to
use a short word where alternatives are available. Fortunately this offers
few problems. There is almost always a shorter word. The danger arises
where certain ‘serviceable’ short words are allowed to become clichés:
words to fall back on as familiar get-outs especially in those cases where
the facts of a story do not entirely justify their use.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 105

 hustle manage ration plead seize assistance bequeath
A
press rule share snatch aid allot
push run appoint back-up give
abandon quicken amalgamat choose approve help leave
desert rush aggravate e invest agree relief provide
drop speed annoy combine name allow will
give up inflame fuse pick OK attain
leave accumulate irritate join pass achieve bewilderme
neglect amass provoke link appointmen permit get nt
pull out build up worsen merge t reach daze
quit gather mix job arbitrator secure puzzle
hoard agreement team up mission go-between shock
abbreviate store accord unit place judge authorize surprise
cut bargain post mediator allow
lop acquire bond amalgamati referee approve business
reduce buy deal on apportion umpire back company
shorten collect pact joining allot favour firm
gain treaty link distribute argument let
abolish get merger divide dispute permit
close grab alleviate tie-up share quarrel sanction C
drop take care ease split row sponsor
end lessen announce rumpus
disclose appreciate calculate
finish adjust let up set-to
notify enjoy assess
rid alter lighten B
proclaim grow ascertain estimate
squash change reduce
report increase check rate
revise relieve
abscond reveal like confirm beginning tot up
shift soften
flee state rise discern birth dawn value
leave administer allocation tell ensure debut
appropriate onset challenge
run boss lot find out
appeal grab opening contest
control part inquire
accelerate ask loot start dare
direct portion learn
hasten call nick defy
give quota seek
dispute
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 106
change competition probe run hurt designate supply key
alter contest report on spoil appoint main
amend fight study cooperate sully fix division necessary
revise game help name break-up vital
reword rivalry construct join with deflate select parting
shift assemble share contract split exaggerate
complain build pinch destroy blow up
circumvent bitch erect create shrink break donation boost
balk groan form build squeeze end gift distort
foil grouse make design ruin grant magnify
outwit grumble put up form demonstrat shatter hand-out overstate
skirt moan raise invent ion smash present
nag make demo examinatio
close object continue march disagreeme n
call off extend criticize show nt E analysis
protest
end go on assess sitdown clash inquiry
resent
finish persist censure sit-in conflict probe
challenge employmen
shut confront plod on dispute scrutiny
deprecate t
challenge chide quarrel study
belittle career
commence face contradict decry rift test
damn job
begin halt deny evaluate row
discount post exonerate
embark present dispute rap rumpus
discredit task absolve
open dissent rebuke wrangle
knock work acquit
start congratulat gainsay review
take off e oppose slam run down discriminat clear
endorseme
comment refute ory
nt
communica praise reject description biased expedite
acclaim
te account partial hasten
D approval
call consider control picture hurry
distribute backing
pass on examine curb sketch push
damage circulate sanction
reveal inspect limit story quicken
harm give out support
tell look at organize tale rush
write mull Peg hit issue speed
essential

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 107

explanation foundation (noun) hazardous notable influence pump jeopardize
account base bond dangerous prime colour question endanger
alibi basis pledge dodgy top induce quiz hazard
answer charity promise perilous vital lead vet imperil
excuse grounds support risky push risk
origin surety unsafe improve sway introduce
roots warranty better explain judgement
F trust (verb) enhance inquire float decision
endorse I heighten ask launch finding
fundament ensure polish beg promote result
fabrication al restore look into start ruling
pledge
falsehood basic illegitimate question verdict
warrant
invention primary banned improveme see investigate
lie vital guillotine illegal nt analyse justify
story axe illicit advance instigate check back
tale chop lawless betterment cause deliver bear out
untruth cut off unlawful progress incite examine confirm
G
gag recovery provoke inquire defined
facilitate illustrate set off probe endorse
govern silence
advance explain inaugurate spur pry excuse
ease command picture begin start sift explain
expedite control show install
H study support
smooth direct launch interfere
manage imminent open hinder invite
forbid rule hallucinatio at hand set off interrupt ask
ban near K
run n start meddle beg
bar delusion soon pry bid
block grievance dream independen kidnap
thwart call
deny grouse freak-out important t abduct
disallow grudge illusion big free interrogate capture
prevent injury mirage great impartial ask carry off
high J
reject wrong vision neutral examine grasp
stop key unbiased grill seize
guarantee
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 108
snatch assert intervene place spy stop seek
P
steal hold judge section watch veto trace
take care keep zone track
insist moderate operate pacify prohibition trail
support allay nominate act allay axe
L control appoint control calm ban pursuit
manageme lessen call run cool embargo chase
nt limit choose work ease end hunt
leader board decree heal halt quest
boss company modificatio invest oppose quieten veto search
chief directors n name bar settle
head executive alteration present block proposition
master firm amendment propose challenge permanent idea Q
ruler owners change put up combat abiding notion
guv’ nor switch raise contest constant offer
manoeuvre counter durable plan question
legalize s fight enduring challenge
allow dodges obstruct lasting purpose doubt
N O
ordain exercises rebuff aim point
permit plots reject postpone ambition probe
ratify negotiate objective query
ruses repel delay end
bargain aim
tricks hold up idea
luxurious confer ambition
wiles organize putt off plan
costly discuss end control reason R
lush manufactur haggle target prohibit
develop
plush e parley ban pursue
fix recommend
posh build talk observe bar chase
form back
rich construct check plan disallow dog
neighbourh eye boost
make run end follow
ood inspect comment
produce set up forbid harry
area look at praise
M half hound
mediate district note present
prevent hunt
decide environs see support
maintain rule out search
locality urge
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 109
reduce repudiate task treaty accept stout vacillate delicate
axe deny truth allow unmoved demur exposed
chop disclaim endure unshaken hedge suspect
cut spurn S support live with hesitate tender
lower aid stand undermine sway weak
slash requisition back belittle waver
acquire sanction foster impair wobble
regulate get allow help sap
approve U
control grab prop weaken vanquish
govern seize OK push beat
legalize take pass standby unblemishe undertakin defeat
permit d g
order uphold rout
resign clean agreement
run scatter
abandon scrutinize faultless bargain
vet shatter
give up check flawless deal
T smash
relinquish lay down examine guiltless duty trounce
abandon leave inspect spotless mission
drop quit study terrorize virgin plan vindicate
forgo vet awe promise bear out
responsibili bully unyielding task
give up justify
ty settlement frighten firm
leave set right
duty bargain scare fixed
quit uphold
job bond threaten resolute
resign V
role deal solid vulnerable
pact tolerate steady

Not only must the story you are subbing be accurate, clear and readable
and of the right length; it must also be legally safe to print. Production
delays caused by a late decision to take a story found to be libellous out of
CHAPTER NINE a page can cost money and lose sales.

FURTHER TECHNIQUES IN SUBBING Subeditors and the law

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 110

All newspapers retain a trained lawyer or senior journalist versed in the greater harm; two, newspaper companies are regarded by litigants as rich
law to read copy and advise the editor of potential legal traps. If a story is and a good target. Editors are thus sensitive to those laws of which
considered unsafe to use, the legal person, after consulting the editor or newspapers are most liable to fall foul.
chief subeditor, will issue a legal kill, which means it must be thrown Two sorts of law affect newspapers in Britain:
away or removed from the computer. Any legal alterations to make a story
safe are passed to the sub or page editor who amends the text. 1 The general laws of the land to which editors are liable in the same way
Electronic editing causes no particular problem to the legal reader. While as the ordinary citizen, These include laws covering defamation of
security of text means that computer access is limited in certain areas to character or libel; contempt of court, trespass, confidentiality, and the
those performing editorial tasks, the legal reader has access to all incoming various provisions of the Official Secrets Act which restrict the passing on
texts, which can be called up file by file and read on screen. Even so, it is or circulating of certain information.
necessary for the legal overview to extend to the finished pages, which can 2 Laws aimed more specifically at the press and broadcasting media to
also be called up (or printed out) to ensure that no legal danger has resulted restrict the publicity given to court cases. These are, in effect, a form of
from editing, captioning or headline writing. censorship. They include the laws forbidding publication of evidence in
The overview of the lawyer or legal reader is a general one and varies in divorce and other matrimonial cases, the identification of offenders in
efficiency from office to office and it does not absolve the subeditor from youth court cases, the publication of evidence given at lower courts against
watching carefully for legal dangers in copy. If there are any doubts about people committed for trial to higher courts, and the details (and names in
a story that you cannot resolve in the editing, refer it in good time to the some cases) of people involved in sex offences. Also included are some
legal reader before consigning it to the page. The difference between a safe provisions contained in the race laws.
story and an action for damages can turn on a phrase or a sequence of While all these laws worry editors since they restrict what a newspaper can
words at a critical point in the text. say and do, some are of less immediate concern to the sub. The laws
Lessons in law for newspapers are included in all journalism training restricting the coverage of court cases, for instance, are accepted and
courses but it takes time for a young sub to develop the sixth sense a senior applied by newspapers. While you as a subeditor should be aware of the
colleague uses to spot legal traps that can lie behind innocent-seeming types of restrictions, you are not likely to be presented with a blow-by-
words. Rewrites of stories are an obvious danger when facts are being blow account of the evidence in a steamy divorce case because reporters
rearranged and quotations paraphrased or perhaps keyed in wrongly. Yet a know such evidence is not allowed to be reported. Only the names and the
‘tick-marking job’ – a well written story that needs little editing or cutting judge’s summing-up can be used.
to fit – can hold as great a danger because it may lull the sub into a state of Nor are the laws covering youth court cases flouted. Names and identities
false confidence. Read a story through again carefully if it seems to have can be reported only if the magistrates direct that they should (which they
needed little attention. seldom do) in the case of very serious offenders who put the public in
danger. Here the magistrates’ direction becomes an important part of the
Legal traps story. The provisions of the various Criminal Justice and Sex Offenders
Acts from 1967 onwards, which forbid publication of evidence against
Keep two thoughts in mind when considering legal problems in editing: people committed for trial from lower courts (except in special cases),
one, a mistake or damaging statement gains much more currency with the although disliked by editors, are universally applied.
public than by any other means of dissemination and therefore can cause

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 111

Yet legal traps can still lurk in copy. Chief of these is the perennial danger people look small or ridiculous. Check back any obvious danger points
of libel in which the threat of being sued can cause a timid editor to shelve with the reporter.
a story which should have been published for the public good. People with criminal records are particularly sensitive about having them
mentioned in stories that have nothing to do with their murky past. Actors
Libel can stand criticism of a particular role but could sue if their professional
competence were being questioned. People in public life would expect to
A newspaper is guilty of libel when it can be proved that a person’s meet opposition and criticism but it would be actionable to say that they
character or livelihood has been damaged as a result of statements made in are not fit for public office. Likewise, suggestions that people are drunks
the paper. A successful action can result in substantial damages being paid or take drugs can be dangerous, or suggestions that they have been less
out. While some well-known cases get much publicity, many more are than honest in their handling of public or shareholders’ money.
settled unknown to the public by out-of-court arrangements in which quite
large sums of money change hands, accompanied by a printed apology. Contempt of court
This method at least avoids heavy court costs where a newspaper feels the
judgement might go against it. This means broadly any conduct or spoken or written words or printing of
Defence against libel is difficult. An editor might plead the truth of the pictures which might impede the working of a court or bring justice into
statements, or contest that they are not defamatory, or that the story was disrepute. This is a law aimed at everyone, not just the press. Yet the press,
‘fair comment made in good faith and without malice about a matter of because it reports court cases, is particularly exposed to the danger of
public interest.’ being in contempt.
While the decision on whether or not to publish is the editor’ s, the sub Here are some things that a subeditor, or anyone else involved in editorial
needs to be careful in the arrangement of words and facts in a story in production, should watch for:
which there is a known danger of libel. This is particularly so in stories
where the editor, having taken legal advice, is ignoring a letter threatening 1 No picture should be published of persons accused, or expected to be
libel action if the story appears. Such threats are used by people to try to accused, of an offence until they have been identified in court. An
stop publication and are ignored only if the editor has good legal grounds – exception is where the police have issued a picture of a wanted person.
or good legal advice. In such a story the office lawyer should be allowed to Here the caption should avoid accusing the person and should contain
vet the edited version at an early stage to avoid late changes which would words such as is wanted by the police for questioning in connection
delay pages. with…’ etc.
A persistent litigant or a wily lawyer can find libel in the most innocent 2 A newspaper must not publish new facts or evidence about people being
statements and no paper is ever free of writs. Some, however, are just tried while the trial is in progress. The people charged are not in a position
attempts by unscrupulous people to make money and a newspaper learns to refute them, the defence or prosecution case might be damaged by them
how to deal with them. or the jury influenced.
In stories of known legal danger you should make sure that risky 3 A newspaper should not interview any witness or person involved in a
statements are corroborated in the text; that people against whom trial. Printing such an interview can put the paper in contempt.
accusations are made have space in the story to in which to make their 4 Criticism of the judge or the court proceedings during a trial is
reply, and that background details are not chosen out of malice or to make considered serious contempt.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 112

5 A newspaper must not try to get in touch with a member of the jury Charles Jinks, a labourer, of Caxton Street, Riverport, was charged in
during a trial. Extown magistrates’ court this morning with the murder of Elsie
These are the main points concerning news stories about court Jones, of Privet Street, Extown on or about October 8.
proceedings, but there is a wide area beyond this in which, at the decision He was given legal aid and was remanded in custody for further
of a judge, an editor might be in contempt of court, and even be fined or inquiries. Bail was refused.
sent to prison. For instance, two reporters were sent to prison in Britain for
refusing to disclose to a judge the sources of information in a story about It would be wrong of the local paper to introduce the death of the second
an accused person printed before a trial began. Also, judicial tribunals girl into the story at this stage, even though they might know that a further
presided over by judges into disasters and other situations have been ruled charge is pending. It has to wait.
to be subject to the laws of contempt of court, thus restricting newspapers Eventually Charles Jinks is charged with the murder of both girls and
in what they can print in the same way as with court proceedings. evidence is presented and pleas taken. The paper can still publish only
The idea of the law of contempt of court is that a person, once accused, what is allowed under the Criminal Justice Acts, which means that, unless
should be able to get a fair trial. To give an example, a persistent pattern of the magistrates direct otherwise, only Jinks’s name and address, the
crime in an area such as attacks on women or children can produce in the charges against him, the names of the girls, his plea, details of bail if any,
public mind the shadowy figure of the marauder who becomes and the fact of his committal to a higher court can be given.
personalized as the Yorkshire Ripper or the Beast of Bournemouth. As Not until the case comes before the Crown Court for the area and the
long as the police search goes on and further attacks are reported the name prosecution and defence cases are given in full before a jury can the
Yorkshire Ripper or Beast of Bournemouth dominates the headlines. Once evidence be published in the press. Only after the trial has finished and
a person has been arrested and charged, however, or even if a person is judgement been given can the paper comment on the case, interview
being held for questioning and not yet named, the editor is in danger of people involved and – if the evidence and result justifies it – use once
being in contempt by associating the name given to the marauder with the more the term Yorkshire Ripper or Beast of Bournemouth. It can then, if it
person held. The matter has become sub judice. It is subject to the due wishes, even comment on the way proceedings were brought and on the
processes of the law with which there should be no outside interference. A police handling of the case.
newspaper story can give only those details that are allowed under the law. By observing the law of contempt of court, the editor has ensured that the
The sort of story that first appears after someone is arrested might run like paper’s coverage has done nothing to impede a person’s fair trial (since
this: under British law a person is innocent until proved guilty) by publishing
information or comment that might have influenced the jury or damaged
A man was helping police with their inquiries at Extown police station the prosecution or defence cases.
last night in connection with the deaths of two teenage girls whose Your job in subbing court cases is to check that the law has been observed
bodies were found last Wednesday in the River Ex. by the reporter at the hearings at the various stages and not to allow
anything into the newspaper that will get it into trouble – and that includes
The next development of the story might be: the wording of your headline.

The Official Secrets Act

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 113

This is a wide Act which can be used to cover many aspects of government 3 Protection does not include anything not part of the proceedings such as
business as well as security and state secrets. Controversial areas are spelt an outburst or scene in the courtroom.
out to the press from time to time in DA-notices, which are requests to 4 The report must be ‘contemporaneous’. This means it should be carried
editors not to publish certain things on threat of being guilty of breaching in the next possible issue of the paper after the hearing.
the Act. The decision here is whether to publish an item at all and it is one 5 The wording of the headline must not go beyond the facts of the story.
for the editor. 6 Beware of wording. A charge of murder becomes a case of murder only
after the verdict. If a person at a lower court elects to go for trial, do not
Privilege say he or she was ‘sent’ for trial, which suggests the court has decided
there is a case to answer. A statement made by a person before the hearing
Newspapers would be in trouble with litigants much more were it not that is an ‘alleged statement’ until it has been agreed and accepted in court.
under British law the need for freedom of speech in the public interest is 7 Descriptions of witnesses, their dress and behaviour, are not covered by
recognized and certain newspaper reports are protected by ‘privilege’. The privilege.
law on privilege covers the reporting of court hearings and sittings of
parliament and public bodies where serious accusations can be made about Qualified privilege
people which, if made and reported elsewhere, could lead to actions for
libel.
This allows protection for reports of judicial proceedings that are non-
The application of privilege needs to be learnt by journalists during contemporaneous, and to reports of Parliament and other public bodies
training for it is a valuable guide to the protection their reports have. It over a wide field. Broadly, qualified privilege means that the reports are
must be known by subeditors. Privilege comes in two sorts. privileged in law provided that there is no malice or other improper motive
behind publication. Where these motives can be established in court, the
Absolute privilege protection of qualified privilege is of no avail. Subs should keep in mind
this important distinction when dealing with such reports.
Absolute privilege covers a fair and accurate report of judicial proceedings The areas covered by qualified privilege include: Parliament,
published contemporaneously, provided that legal restrictions on coverage Commonwealth legislatures, international organizations and conferences
in certain cases specified in law have been observed. However untrue in to which the UK Government sends a representative, public inquiries,
fact statements in court are, or however unfair, a newspaper who reports bodies formed in the UK to promote the arts, science, religion, learning,
them and says who made them is safe from action for libel. An exception trade, business and industry; associations for promoting sports and
to this in the past has been statements involving sedition, blasphemy and pastimes to which the public are invited, public meetings held for a lawful
obscenity, though these have become increasingly hard to define. purpose, meetings of local authorities, committees or tribunals appointed
Points to watch: by Act of Parliament, and reports of notices or information issued to the
public by the Government, local authority or police.
1 ‘Fair and accurate’ means that the report must be fair to both sides. Schedules listing these and other occasions of qualified privilege, and also
2 The report is not covered by absolute privilege if it includes matter spelling out some important exceptions, are published as part of the 1952
taken from documents that have not been read out in court. Defamation Act and its successors.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 114

For the subeditor, danger can crop up with statements made by some There is nothing sinister about angling a story. It simply means deciding
public bodies covered by qualified privilege in which the background the viewpoint from which to tell it. The intro of any story in effect defines
material to which the newspaper might have access is not so covered. The the angle. The fact sequence that follows supports and justifies what the
advice of the office lawyer or legal reader is the only course in some cases. first paragraph has to say.
The publication of material not covered by qualified privilege does not It can happen that the night editor or chief-sub, with more mature
mean that the newspaper is automatically in trouble – only that if a court judgement, sees a story differently from the reporter, and the sub is
action follows, qualified privilege cannot be used as a defence. instructed to re-nose it for the page from a new angle. Here are some
examples of what might result:
When to rewrite
1 A simple local paper account of a street accident becomes a ‘death trap
Subs are generally thought by reporters to be too keen to rewrite copy. It claims new victim’ story because the sub remembers cuttings of previous
can be galling for a reporter who has taken care over writing up a difficult stories of accidents at the same spot and draws the chief sub’s attention to
assignment to find that half the words in the published version, perhaps them.
under the reporter’s name, are unrecognizable. 2 Bequests in a will are brought alive through the eagle eye of the night
Do not alter or rewrite copy just for the sake of it. On a well-run subs’ editor who called for cuttings of some interesting beneficiaries. An
table this does not happen. For one thing, subs should be too busy editing unexpected human interest angle emerges.
to page deadlines to devote time unnecessarily to a story. For another, the 3 A decision of the local planning committee is found through copy from
chief sub would not stand for a well-turned story which earned its space another reporter to have vital implications for the community that were not
being pulled apart. immediately apparent in the report of a council meeting.
Yet rewriting can be necessary just as heavy editing is necessary for 4 A story about an old lady found dead in a flat in which she lived alone is
reasons that have nothing to with the way the reporter has written a story. combined with other material into a story to exemplify a campaign the
The treatment of copy, as we have seen, is influenced by the volume and newspaper is running about urban loneliness.
changing pattern of news on the day, and the availability of space on the
page, which might change after the story has been completed and the Angling as demonstrated shows how the creative assessment of a story
reporter gone home. It may also be governed by new developments that after it has left the reporter’s hands can result in recasting of the material
put a story in a different light, the inclusion of other copy sources, a by the subeditor even if it is not totally rewritten.
change of emphasis to suit a night editor’s or chief subeditor’s judgement, There is also the more general angling of stories to suit the readership.
a clash with editorial policy, or simply changes for editions. It can happen Political stories, we have seen, are sometimes presented in regional and
that the work that needs to be done on a story for these reasons is so town papers in terms of local connections of the politician or of proposed
complex that rewriting is the quickest solution. legislation. A paper’s political writers are aware of this and it does not
The following examples show where rewriting or partial rewriting would often fall to subs to re-nose their copy. Other jobs can entail a considerable
be the best means of editing. amount of work by the sub to bring out the local angle, often for different
editions. The casualty figure in a crash or disaster story might include local
Angling people and the story, especially from the more general agency copy, will

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 115

be edited from this viewpoint. Likewise, trade and industry stories are A more obvious candidate for rewriting is the story that is badly written,
angled on local connections. either for lack of time by the reporter or through a wrongly judged style or
approach. Such copy might be sent back for the reporter to try again, but if
Multiple copy sources time is short or the reporter is out on another job the sub is instructed to
‘knock it into shape.’ This could include ‘cleaning it up’, which means
Sometimes you will be given a story which has copy from more than one taking out explicit sex, obscenities, excessive violence or things likely to
source. It might be story with several ends in which a main section is offend the readers; ‘sharpening it up’, getting rid of dull writing, tedious
perhaps by a staff reporter with legwork provided by area correspondents. phrasing and wordiness; or ‘toning it down,’ ridding it of extravagant or
For instance an air crash might have local interviews, or a rescue story emotive language, excessive use of adjectives, or gush.
material from several areas. Sometimes agency copy, either from home Some reporters who are employed because they are brilliant news
agency such as Press Association (PA) or an international agency, has gatherers, maybe with important contacts, are indifferent with the pen and
coverage which is relevant. Some stories have foreign ends which have rely upon the subeditor for the final polish. In American practice this need
important links with the main story. File background has to be worked in is recognized by the use of rewrite people separate from the subs. In most
and perhaps a financial angle from the City correspondent, or other British papers it is found useful, for page making purposes, to keep
specialist contribution. rewriting within the subbing orbit, although more use is made these days
Keeping up with this amount of copy in a complicated many-sided story of newsroom rewrite staff.
requires an eye for vital detail, especially when extra copy arrives during The precise boundary in rewriting between what should be done in the
the subbing of the story or even while it is being fitted into the page. You newsroom before submitting copy and what should be left to the subs is a
cannot afford to leave out anything of importance, and you must see that matter for house practice. There is no doubt that basic newsroom collating
new facts, however late in arriving, are placed in correct sequence. of source material simplifies the sub’s job, yet with imminent page and
Rewriting is often the answer. Most newspapers require staff reporters’ edition deadlines the arrival of late or additional material is best dealt with
copy to be used where possible in such stories, with agency copy filling by the subeditor, who is closer to the space requirements and may be
the gaps, but the agency version might provide an important element. Such already well into editing the story. Daily newspapers, especially town
stories should carry a combined staff and agency credit. evenings, are much more subs’ papers than they are writers’.

Bad copy Electronic tools

Electronic editing offers no handicap to jobs that entail collating and

rewriting. Computers have a prodigious capacity for storage and retrieval
of material and, although split screen allows only two stories to be
displayed comfortably at a time, you can display the main edited text on
one side and work in material from other stories successively from the
other side on those systems that offer the facility.
In most cases where there are multiple sources, copy feeds into the main
story file to which it relates – the running story in Chapter 10 is an
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 116
example – and the computer makes easy the task of inserting, adding, that print a variety of national and local papers by contract. Thus a paper
rearranging and rewriting the material. Original text can be left in the can be printed at the same time wherever a company chooses for whatever
computer in the form of notes to get back to if needed. edition areas it wishes to cover. This has resulted in editorial control
By the same coin, where separate story files are merged it is not difficult to becoming concentrated in London where all the changes are originated,
copy required material from one file to another as part of the editing job. with the pages being transmitted instantly to whichever presses need them.
Rewrite subbing from complex sources is a job for an experienced sub. It is not even necessary to print papers on the same site where they are
Such a person can sift through a varied input of copy, do the necessary edited.
checking by reference book or cuttings, and within minutes begin writing Area changes in national paper editions are mainly concerned with sport,
the story from intro onwards, or with intro to follow. with full-length match reports in football and cricket being substituted on
The following points should be watched with rewrites, particularly by subs the sports pages for each readership area. One or two pages might be kept
new to the table: open for big regional stories but the bulk of the news changes concern the
updating of national stories or the introducing of later news and pictures in
1 Is the rewrite necessary? Is using part of the reporter’s copy, with place of earlier items. Stories that are likely to need updating are carried on
subbing adjustments, just as quick, or quicker? page one, the back page and dedicated inside pages; including TV and
2 Have you checked quotes, names, ages, addresses etc. against the radio programme pages, with the greater number of pages – including the
original copy? features – staying the same through all editions.
3 Have you transcribed all quotes accurately or paraphrased them fairly? Provincial papers – town evening papers and local weeklies, printing
4 Have you followed house style in spellings, abbreviations, use of mostly on one site, update general news and sport in their main editions,
colloquialisms etc? but also change special area pages of community news, sometimes to the
extent of varying the title of the paper to emphasize its local identity. Thus
Revising and editionizing the Hoylake News and Advertiser becomes the Heswall and Neston News
and Advertiser, and the Malton Gazette and Herald becomes the Pickering
National dailies in Britain publish four or five main editions during a Gazette and [Link] town evenings run as many as six or seven
production cycle lasting from midday to about 2.30 a.m. the following editions in a production cycle lasting from about 11.00 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. In
morning. At one time most nationals printed in London and Manchester, evenings and weeklies the pagination is arranged (depending on whether
and sometimes Glasgow, from where the various edition areas were served the paper is tabloid or broadsheet) so that pages devoted to area news can
Those editions furthest away – Ulster or Northern Scotland, say – went to be replaced at each edition change. The front and back pages usually
press earliest. The main pages were transmitted from London by page change with every edition and contain the general stories that most likely
facsimile, with late or edition area pages being inserted at the regional need updating or replacing. With tabloid size, remember that pages go on
printing centres to make up a paper which looked the same wherever it the press in pairs.
was bought. If the need is urgent it is possible to ‘slip’ a page (or pair of pages) on its
Today, the computer and the electronic systems available have enabled own between editions in order to change or update a story, thus creating a
national papers to decentralize their printing to any number of sites around special or ‘slip’ edition. This is done if new facts or news have to be
the country to facilitate faster distribution. Some of these printing plants carried and the editor does not wish to wait until the next edition to get at
are directly owned and managed; others are provincially-owned centres the page.

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 117

In the case of edition coverage the stories are catch-lined with their edition For the more complex problems of revision and edition changes,
when subbed and are stored type-set to length in the computer to be called see Chapter 10.
into pages as changes become due. You might find yourself subbing a
story in different versions to different deadlines to bring out edition angles. Caption writing
A story in one edition of a Yorkshire evening paper about a robbery in
Bradford might be angled in another as ‘Huddersfield man accused.’ A Writing picture captions, a job that usually falls to the page editor or sub,
story in a West Country paper about a Bristol bride can turn up in another is a world on its own. While a picture cannot stand without them, the
edition as a story about a Swindon bridegroom wording should not stress the obvious but should try to extend what the
It is usual on evening papers to list editions and page press times on an picture is saying by offering explanation and context. For instance, a
information sheet so that subs, especially new ones, can refer quickly to caption to a picture of a man playing golf would be banal if it said:
the deadlines for whatever story or edition they working on.
Faldo playing a long shot
Rejigs
It would be better if it told the reader:
The revised form of a story is called a rejig or redress. Your job as a sub is Faldo: a record round
to work in later material from the reporter or agency or whatever other
source to update the text for each edition. Add matter is intended to go or
conveniently at the end (it is not often as simple as that). If the story length
in the page is the same, a cut has to be made to accommodate it. This is the The Faldo style: today’s picture
simplest form of rejig with the headline and body of the story staying the
same. Which at least makes the point that the picture is hot from the camera (if it
Where the later material is more important or complex it can involve re- is). Likewise, a rail crash picture would have to say something more
nosing and re-headlining the story for the next edition. This might entail creative than:
reworking the whole story although it is likely you can pick up some of the
old material, provided it is not outdated by the new. In such a case you The crash scene at Extown junction
should give the story a new catchline, or add an x or a z to the present one
to differentiate it from the old one that might still be in the computer. For instance it could tell the reader:
Alternatively you can erase the old story if you are certain parts of it are
not going to be needed. Unless more space has been allowed for the The upended coach in which ten survived
rejigged story – maybe a page lead instead of a single-column top – you
cast it off to the same length as the version it replaces. Even stock pictures used on TV programme pages can be brought to life
Later material can also arrive on screen as inserts – perhaps A and B – and not just give names. For example:
marked by the writer to particular parts of the story. Here again, cuts need
to be made so that the length in the page is preserved. WOGAN: A sit-com debut

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at least gives readers a piece of information that sends them looking into rather than for any other justification. It is here, in providing self-contained
the programme details. And note the use of the name in caps. This is a captions to primarily display pictures that the caption writer’s art is most
good ploy with ‘mug shot’ captions. clearly demonstrated. Absolved almost from dealing in facts – or restricted
These examples aim to extend readers’ awareness of the accompanying to the very barest – the writer has to use comment, whimsy and clever
text as well as explaining the picture. By giving titbits of information they writing to bring the words alive. Even so, the conventions of identification,
persuade the reader to read on. Note that identification is paramount in a justification and the use of the present tense have to be applied. The reader
caption, whereas time and location are not always necessary. has to be guided.
Do’s and don’ ts about caption writing
Caption typography
Try to use the present tense. It can give even a stock head shot
*
immediacy. This is best kept simple. It should be different from the adjacent reading
text, usually in bolder type and a size bigger. In captions of more than one
line the writer should aim at even lines. The use of stars, blobs, squares
Try to place the caption adjacent to the picture, preferably under it. and other graphic decoration to draw attention to captions is unnecessary.
*
A caption that has to be looked for has failed. Some captions where the material is self-contained, and even those where
the picture is exceptional, can be usefully given a headline. Here, a label
heading, usually banished from news stories, can effectively draw the
Try to avoid having composite captions that cover a number of readers’ attention to the message in the picture, especially if there is
pictures. Directions such as below left, bottom right, above centre, already a main headline on the story. For example, a sports picture
* headline might say:
etc. can exasperate readers – especially if one of the references
proves to be wrong.
HOWZAT!

or:
Do not repeat the wording of the headline or intro. The reader
*
needs to be told something new * CAUGHT NAPPING!

Most captions appear alongside the story which the picture illustrates and or:
therefore do not have to say more than will justify the picture, but some
ENGLAND’s GLORY
display pictures do not tie in with stories and depend on their own self-
contained caption. The material usually still has a news point, even if it is
On a human interest picture a headline might say:
just a new portrait of one of the Royal Family, or of the new mayoress
trying on her chain of office. THE LOVE CHILD SHE NEVER FORGOT
A difficulty arises in the popular tabloids, however, where a girlie picture
appears in a regular slot because this is where the reader expects to find it
New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 119
or on a train crash rescue: asked to write off bills on any stories they are handling that they consider
‘billable.’
THE MOMENT OF FREEDOM The technique of writing contents bills is to disclose enough information to
arouse the readers’ interest without saying so much that the reader has no
Picture headlines which sometimes consist of clusters of words, perhaps in need to buy the paper – a legitimate advertising and publicity ruse. In this
the form of a quotation, such as: sense they are not explicit in the way headlines are, which are intended for
the reader who has already bought the paper. For instance:
Dawn breaks over the base camp
on the mountain that nearly cost FLEET IN
them their lives STAND-BY
SENSATION
are not trying to tell you the essentials of the story. These are given in the
news headline close by. They are trying to connect you with a fleeting has urgency yet suggests an intriguing range of possibilities, and is typical
moment in time caught by the camera. They are a rare example, as wording for a general bill.
captions themselves sometimes are, of comment being allowed to intrude
into a news page, though intrude is not the right word. What comment is POP STAR IN
doing in this case is to orchestrate and heighten what the picture is saying MARRIAGE
so that you are drawn to read the facts of the story. RIDDLE

Writing contents bills likewise gives in general terms a story of wide-ranging possibilities, as
does:
One of the lesser known jobs associated with subbing is the writing of
news bills, usually called contents bills (posters in the US). Part of a SEAMEN’S
newspaper’s self-publicity is to display these bills outside news-stands at STRIKE DECISION
strategic points in the circulation area.
There are various types. Stock bills are those that remind readers that It would be self-defeating (and bad practice) if the wording deliberately
racing form cards or TV programmes or ‘latest sports news’ can be found misled the reader – for example, if the fleet turned out to be the Italian
in the paper that night or morning. These are pre-printed with stock fleet or the pop star an obscure American West coast singer, or the seamen
wording such as ‘Today’s race cards’ or ‘All tomorrow’s TV were from Danish ships. A good general bill should honestly justify the
programmes.’General bills are those that advertise an important story or ‘bait’ placed before the passing reader.
new serial, and are placed at all display points in the circulation area. Third With local bills the place name is all-important. A national paper which
are local bills, which emphasize the local connection of stories and are avoided the town’s name in a headline would bill a story to its area as
placed in their own area. BRISTOL WIFE IN POISON RIDDLE if it felt the story were good
On some papers a senior sub writes all the bills, taking the material off- enough to garner a few extra local sales. A town evening paper might
screen as each page is made ready. In others, subs and page editors are exploit suburban references to bump up sales. The Birmingham Mail might

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bill the same story as HANDSWORTH WIFE IN COURT RUMPUS and supreme test of a cool sub. It is so-called because it involves a continuous
WIFE IN SOLIHULL COURT RUMPUS. In cases of casualty figures or process of editing, revising and re-headlining the material, and often
local election results, one story might yield a handful of local bills, each revising the layout, right up to the last press time of the last edition. It is a
containing a different area name. job for an experienced subeditor because of its speed and complexity,
Bills can be ‘local’ in a different sense than in place names. A national although a modest three- or four-paragraph story given to the newest sub
story about universities might suggest ‘local’ bills for all university towns, on the table can turn into a running story and unexpectedly provide a
or a council decision about housing be billed to all housing estates in an career baptism of fire.
area. A story about theatres in general could be billed outside all London A wide variety of news events can become running stories, some of them
West End theatres. foreseen, others totally unpredictable. The more obvious – and
Bills are unashamedly labels. While the active verb is not excluded it is not unpredictable – are disasters and rescue stories with the long-running
often there. The wording thrives on evocative but very general terms such drama of casualties and the hunt for survivors. Those that can be planned
as rumpus, riddle, sensation, row and drama, which would be frowned ahead include elections, with the cliff-hanger of the shifting balance of
upon in headlines by most chief subs, but whose lack of precision is a power as results are announced, and important trials taking several days in
virtue for the purpose of a bill. Long words should be avoided so that the which evidence is covered by relays of reporters. Public inquiries, tennis
words can be given maximum size for instant reading, with four or five tournaments, Test matches and political crises are other stories of this sort.
words the maximum. The message should be simple, consisting of one To edit a running story, sometimes in the intervals of handling other
thought. Bills that try to say too much do not get read, stories, you need a clear head, an acute news sense and speed. You give
The usual system is that bills are sent, hand-written, to the circulation the story its required shape for the first edition using the copy available, if
department who produce them by stencil or heavy hand lettering on need be inserting the intro and leading paragraphs last so as to start with
standard headed sheets for delivery by newspaper vans to distribution the most up-to-date situation. Yet no sooner is the story complete and the
sites. page sent than you begin reshaping it for the next edition, again with the
intro being the last part to be written.
The easy revision now possible in screen editing and make-up can allow
for quick changes in all but the most complex of running stories. Here, a
newsroom-collated new lead (if there is time to wait for it) can help where
there is a rapidly changing situation or a variety of copy sources. More
generally, the responsibility for the text falls on the sub, with newsroom
and agency inputs arriving on screen thick and fast right up to the page
deadline.
CHAPTER TEN You can rejig and update a story as many times as there are editions if an
ongoing situation demands it and the input of copy warrants it. In doing so,
HANDLING A RUNNING STORY watch any figures and amounts carefully so that the middle of the story
and the headline are updated along with the intro and there is no
A running story is one that continues to yield copy edition by edition discrepancy. Later information can change the picture entirely and the
throughout the day, and sometimes through several days. Handling it is the whole sequence of paragraphs has to be kept under review. For instance, in

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 121

a train crash story you must ensure you do not report in paragraph ten that
rescuers are searching for someone who in paragraph two has been found. the morning in Peru.
More precise information later can alter impressions drawn from first
eyewitness accounts. Keep in only those aspects of the earlier version that
are still relevant to the narrative and not in contradiction to the fuller 11.30 The two Reuters flashes and a background piece from the
picture that is emerging. Sometimes the story as finally revised contains a.m. newsroom, who have identified Flight 004 as being a Boeing
almost nothing of the first version. During revisions check that any 747, are given to the page one sub to prepare a quick story.
material you keep in from an earlier version to fill the allotted space is not The empty page slot with headline and body setting marked in
contradictory. is the only hole remaining on screen in an otherwise made-up
page one. The page-to-plate deadline is 11.45 a.m.
Dealing with the text

Here is how a broadsheet evening paper using screen make-up might

handle a running story. This one is based on real-life actualities in order to 11.35 The editor switches the story from single column to a double-
show the problems involved: a.m. column shape alongside an ‘own correspondent’ political
splash (Figure 44) and gives it his own headline in three lines
10.00 Reuters news flash reports: SCHEDULED FLIGHT FROM
of 60pt capitals:
a.m. LONDON HEATHROW TO CHILE TWO HOURS
OVERDUE AT SANTIAGO. The newsroom checks flights to
Santiago and identifies the aircraft as almost certainly British
BRITONS FEARED
Airways Flight 004 from London but can get no confirmation LOST IN ANDES
from the airport. AIR DISASTER

11.00 The editor at his main production conference decides to get a There is some discussion over the words ‘Britons’ and ‘disaster’
a.m. story into page one of the first edition, due to press at 12.30 but the editor takes the view that the flight, since it is a British
hours, and gives it the right-hand end column, the usual late Airways flight from London, must be carrying some Britons and
news spot, on the assumption that more copy will arrive. that a passenger airliner coming down on a mountain top is
the disaster category. The airline has still not confirmed that it is
Boeing 747 Flight 004, though they have not denied it. The picture
11.15 A second Reuters news flash reports: WRECKAGE OF library offers stock pictures of Boeing 747s in British Airways
a.m. AIRLINER SIGHTED BY MILITARY AIRCRAFT ON livery.
MOUNTAIN TOPNEAR CUZCO, PERU. It is 6 o’clock in

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 122

 A number of Britons were believed to be on board a British
Airways Boeing 747 jet which crashed in the high Andes in
Peru early today with a feared big loss of life.

11.49 The re-worded version is dropped into the page by the sub a
a.m. tolerable four minutes late. The earlier pages have gone well
and the plate room is happy. The editor hopes still to have the
edition out on time.

12.15 A lead story now comes from the agency, building on the
p.m. earlier flashes and a rush message about the flight being off
course, together with the agency’s own background sources,
into a twelve-paragraph story but it goes no further than the
sub’s own [Link] have been no further rushes and the
Figure 44 First inkling of a disaster story – layout 1
editor is pleased there is a useful story in the first edition.

11.45 The sub has managed to put together seven paragraphs based
a.m. on the Reuters flashes, the news room inquiries, information 12.30 A news agency rush, followed by snaps giving details,
on the aircraft’s known stops and help from an atlas, and it p.m. announces that 27 Britons joined Flight 004 at Heathrow.
spills neatly, all in double column, down the shape in the page British Airways, who have made a statement to the press, say
(Figure 45). It is a line short but the sub presses the vertical that first indications suggest there may not be many survivors.
justification key and seven left-over points of space is leaded Peruvian Army helicopter units are trying to reach the crashed
evenly through the text so that it fills. A third Reuters flash, aircraft which is on the edge of a small plateau.
HELICOPTER REPORTS NO SIGN OF LIFE IN
AIRLINER WRECKAGE IN ANDES, arrives just in time for
12.40 The editor consults the managing editor and the chief-sub and
the intro paragraphs, which the sub is able to reword as:
p.m. decides to make the story the page one splash now that 27

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 123

 Figure 45 The story develops – layout 2
Britons are known to be involved. The managing editor orders
a location map from the art desk and gives the graphics
assistant the atlas reference and geographical details. The 12.50 The Press Association (national) agency puts out an ADD
chief-sub is told to get the old political splash reduced to a p.m. ANDES AIR CRASH STORY saying that the 27 Britons on
double in the vacant end two columns. board are believed to include a national team of 12 women
gymnasts bound for a pre-Olympic work-out at Valparaiso.
The story gives no names. With this information the news
12.45 Further agency snaps arrive. The Peruvian Army is being desk checks out the likely members of the team who would
p.m. helpful. It is airlifting a rescue team with radio by helicopter have taken Flight 004. As is usual, British Airways do not
to the crash scene. The team is in contact with the army base name crash victims until names are confirmed and next-of-kin
near Cuzco. have been informed.

12.55 The page one sub, armed with the first edition just off the
p.m. press, the Reuters lead, the PA add story, the latest snaps and
a piece from the news room on the women gymnasts, starts
updating the story for the second edition splash. It has a 1.15
p.m. page deadline. The editor soothes the political
correspondent for downgrading his important story, which is
to do with the effect of new housing legislation on the town,
and suggests a follow-up feature on it for next day’s paper in
addition to the half-lead still on page one.
There are 20 minutes in which to prepare the splash.
Twelve column inches (300 mm) plus an intro across three
columns are being kept for it. The centre and top of the page
are reshaped to allow for the display the editor wants. A
column one story about a local councillor finishes down
column six. The political lead and the tie-in material above it
are combined and cut by another sub to fit the space in
columns seven and eight. Some cuts offered by the political

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 124

 correspondent are gratefully accepted; even with screen editions.
make-up it is all hands to the pumps when there is a lot of
work on a text-size page and not much time.
Pictures are the real problem, the stock jumbo jet being a
bit static (Figure 45), although the map is now on screen and
[Link] first edition air crash story was short and set in
lOpt across two columns, but the new story is mostly in single
column and a good deal longer. It is almost a complete re-
write to take in new facts.
The sub drops the main part of the story into the page,
leaving the first two paragraphs until last. The chief-sub
writes the new headline which says in 120pt ‘disaster caps’:

FEARS FOR
27 BRITONS IN
JET DISASTER

It carries the strapline: Figure 46 It takes more of the page – layout 3

Big death roll as London

airliner hits mountain top 1.05 Press Association, the home agency, puts out a statement from
p.m. British Airways saying the aircraft is Flight 004 and that it has
220 people including a crew of ten on board, well under
The story is wrapped round a three-column picture of the Boeing
capacity, among them 47 Britons – not 27. There is no
747 from stock, carefully captioned. To the left of the intro is the
information about survivors. It is thought further Britons
map giving the approximate crash position and a dotted line
boarded the aircraft at New York. The statement names the
showing the estimated flight path, and also Cuzco, the nearest
captain and first officer but gives no other names.
town. It is the best that can be done in illustration since the
The new figure of 47 Britons is substituted in headline and
difficulties of the site, despite the extra hours available in western
intro and the new information worked into the story, which has
South America, make crash pictures unlikely for the afternoon’s

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 125

 to lose a paragraph before h-and-j-ing to fit. writer a credit.

1.15 Another sub prepares a tie-in piece from cuttings about 1.43 A Reuters rush message says: PERUVIAN ARMY RESCUE
p.m. previous jumbo jet crashes in case it is needed in the next p.m. TEAM IN RADIO MESSAGE TO BASE REPORT TWO
edition change. The chief-sub offers brief compliment to the PEOPLE FOUND ALIVE NEAR CRASHED JUMBO JET.
sub who put it all together. It is all in a day’s work.

1.45 The managing editor claws back a further 10 inches of space on

1.30 Further agency snaps confirm that the women’s gymnasts’ p.m. page one for the 3 o’clock edition (Figure 46) by moving a
p.m. team is on board. They also say no word had been received by local council story on to page two, which goes to press 15
air control at Santiago that anything was amiss, although it now minutes before page one. The air crash story, with its stock
seems the aircraft was 200 miles off course. The editor jumbo picture, map, headline display and text, is now taking up
discusses these developments with the managing editor and the nearly half the page. The copy on previous jumbo crashes is
chief-sub and decides to keep the story as the splash, although hived off from the main piece and is given to another sub to
the page could do with a live picture. prepare with a separate headline under the map in columns one
The chief sub suggests using mid-page an attractive picture and two.
of a boy with a dog he had rescued from a culvert. The editor
agrees. It will give the page an air of busyness a town
broadsheet needs. 1.50 Further Reuters snaps arrive describing the wreckage, followed
p.m. by a new lead re-nosed on the two people found alive, and
describing the search and rescue operation. In a note to news
1.40 The group’s air correspondent, based in London, files a editors, Reuters say their man in Santiago has now reached
p.m. comment piece about instrument failure due to electrical Cuzco and linked up with the stringer there and has found the
disturbances in the atmosphere being a possible cause of the Army authorities helpful. The Army has even agreed to airlift
aircraft being off course. He has checked the weather reports both of them to the forward base from which the search is
and found that the aircraft, though not in a storm, could have being directed.
been affected by electrical disturbances reported between the Meanwhile the newsroom has produced a background story
Pacific and that part of the Andes. The copy is passed to the about the gymnasts with a recent picture of the team, two of
sub with instructions to ‘bring it up’ in the story and to give the whom come from the circulation area. It is not known for
certain if all of them boarded the flight. There is some

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 126

 discussion between the editor and the news editor. The picture cut if the story gets too long since it is the least important part
would be useful on page one but with the passenger list still not of it.
released it poses a delicate problem. The editor decides, on the
grounds of taste, not to use it for the present but to have it
scanned and prepared. 2.22 The Reuters pair, who have managed to get their first message
p.m. to London from the forward base using Army facilities, send a
description of the scene on the plateau, where it is now 9 a.m.
2.00 The editor changes his mind about the gymnasts picture and local time. Cloud has lifted and 12 rescuers are combing the
p.m. decides it will be reasonable to use it provided it has a non- wreckage, though hampered by the high altitude. The sub
committal caption and goes with a separate story and headline. decides to work this material into the intro.
It must in no way be interpreted as being part of a list of
casualties.
The managing editor, who has more or less taken control of 2.30 A Reuters rush says: THREE CRASH SURVIVORS FOUND.
the crash situation, asks the chief sub to find a home for the p.m. ENGLISH STEWARDESS SLIGHTLY HURT. TWO
projected dog rescue story and picture on page two in order to PASSENGERS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. NO SIGN
clear the way for the gymnasts. The new picture is schemed FURTHER SURVIVORS. The information is just in time to be
across four columns below the fold, almost the same shape as included in the intro which now reads:
the dog picture but slightly shallower. The sub who did the
jumbo jet tie-in story is given the job of preparing careful copy
to go with the gymnast’s picture. This is slotted into columns An English stewardess and two passengers are thought to be the only
one and two in place of the tie-in story. The newsroom has survivors of a British Airways Boeing 747 jumbo jet which crashed in
the high Andes in Peru early today.
supplied only identification material, not being certain how the The stewardess, who is only slightly hurt, was being airlifted by
picture would be used with the main crash story. helicopter along with the two injured passengers, to a hospital in
Cuzco, 200 miles away from the cash scene.
Peruvian Army mountain rescue troops are still searching the
2.05 The splash sub begins revising for the 2.40 p.m. page deadline wreckage of the airliner whose 220 passengers and crew includes 47
p.m. for the 3 o’clock edition. Leaving the intro again till last, the Britons. Among them are members of a team of women gymnasts who
sub works in the new details, picking up the earlier text where boarded the aircraft in London. Two of the team are believed to come
it still applies and restoring the material on previous jumbo from Lancashire (i.e. in the circulation area).
crashes, which is run on at the end. This will make a useful late

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 127

This means reducing part of the rescue description for the present, but the
sub knows it is important to nose the story on the latest information since
the fact of the crash will already be known to readers through radio and
television newscasts. The thrust of the story must now centre on the rescue
operation and the survivors, in which the journalists on the spot have an
unbeatable advantage. The one snag is that, being agency reporters, there
will be no exclusive angles available to any paper.
The final step for the 3 o’clock edition is to update the splash headlines
(Figure 46), which are changed to read:

Air hostess and couple survive

out of 220 in air crash

THREE ALIVE
IN BRITISH JUMBO
JET WRECKAGE

The splash story now spills round the headline and picture of
the gymnasts, and runs down almost to the foot of column six.

Figure 47…and still more – layout 4

2.50 A Press Association ‘with air crash’ story begins running,
p.m. giving the names of the crew of the jumbo, which have been 3.00 The editor holds a last page one conference with senior
released by British Airways. Four stewardesses are included p.m. colleagues before going off duty at 4 o’clock and handing over
but the one that has been found alive has not been identified. to the managing editor. They decide to build up the local end –
PA promises pictures to follow. the two Lancashire women in the gymnasts team – but to keep
the splash in its present space. In the absence of pictures from
the scene, the one of the gymnasts, which has been provided by
a reader, becomes a key element on page one. Also, it is
exclusive.
The news editor suggests sending a reporter to see the
families of the two women but the editor rules against this on

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 128

 the ground of taste since it has not been confirmed that they map are moved round, the map finishing up down columns five
actually caught the flight. Also, the official casualty figures and six, so that most of the elements, including the rejigged
have still not been released, nor are they likely to be before the splash, can still be used (Figure 47). The main heading is the
last press time of 4.45 p.m. For the present, the local end would same but is broken into four lines so that the two-column
have to rest on theteam picture and the background material picture of the stewardess can go at the top of columns five and
which the newsroom has culled from cuttings. The editor says six. The gymnasts copy is cut and reset into a short single-
that the local end should be included in the strapline. column piece in column one, a story is lost down column three
and the rest of the page is left as it is.

3.10 The sub meanwhile begins revising for the 3.40 deadline for
p.m. the 4 o’clock edition, lifting the reference to the two 3.37 An agency second new lead noses on the survivors’ names and
Lancashire gymnasts, on instructions, into the second p.m. gives an account of the crash scene by their correspondents
paragraph. He covers this by saying that although the names of seen from their helicopter. This enterprising piece of reportage
the crash dead have yet to be released, the two were members comes too late for the revised story, which is past its press time
of the team of gymnasts who were known to have boarded the for the 4 o’clock edition. The managing editor decides to get
flight at Heathrow. back at the text in the 4.45 p.m. slip edition. This is a permitted
quick plate change used for mopping up late stories on page
one and late racing and sports fixtures on the back. The page
3.25 A Reuters rush message gives the names of the survivors plan is not altered and the changes have to be in-and-out text or
p.m. which have been announced by the hospital in Cuzco. The headline segments. The deadline for this is 4.20 p.m.
stewardess is Alice Merrin, aged 26, of Hampstead, London,
and the other two a husband and wife named Williams from
Cardiff. The sub quickly re-noses the splash to bring in this 3.50 Reuters snaps report the air stewardess as saying: AIRCRAFT
information, dropping down the local reference to paragraph p.m. RAN INTO VIOLENT THUNDER, LIGHTNING BEFORE
four. CRASH. PILOT UNABLE TO REACH AIR CONTROL AT
By this time the promised Press Association photographs of LIMA.
crew members have arrived and a stand-by picture of Alice The first inkling of the crash cause from a survivor is worth
Merrin is scanned and imaged into a two-column slot the anew intro, and also a new strapline, which is changed to read:
managing editor has prepared for it in the page. This is done
rather neatly. The pictures of the aircraft, the gymnasts and the

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 129

Air girl Alice tells of
last minutes before disaster technical data about the causes. By the end of the morning
paper editions there is every likelihood, too, that an official
casualty list will be available. It could be as busy a night on the
morning paper as it has been a busy day on the evening.
The sub reworks the first eight paragraphs of the story with
the first local reference dropping further to paragraph six.
Some of the description has to be left out so that the reworked
paragraphs fit the space. The local end is still covered in the
separate background piece now above the picture of the
gymnasts, but there have been no further developments to this
part of the story and nosing on the dramatic details about the
survivors is inevitable. Also, the stewardess’s story bears out
the perceptive item from the group’s air correspondent about
local weather conditions. CHAPTER ELEVEN
FEATURES: PLANNING AND DESIGN
4.15 A Reuters message says, PILOT’S BLACK BOX RECORDER
p.m. FOUND BY ARMY RESCUE TEAM. Since this will hold the Features is broadly the part of the newspaper that contains opinion,
secrets of the aircraft’s last minutes, the chief sub prepares this assessment and advice – the subjective rather than the objective material of
the news pages. In practice the features department (even the smallest of
news, despite its lateness, as a self-contained cut-off item to
newspapers usually has one) deals with all manner of non-news content
drop into the middle of the story under the simple heading of ranging from crossword puzzles to serials and articles by the famous,
LAT ENEWS FLASH. The managing editor agrees this is the taking in along the way such things as women’s pages, showbusiness
best way to handle it and a cut is made in the text to gossip, TV programme notes and agony columns.
accommodate the cut-off. It will stand out in the page and In production terms, the subbing calls for differences in routine and
achieve its purpose. approach from the news pages. There are a number of reasons for this.
This last dramatic development marks the end of the evening While the features department might seem the counterpart of the
paper’s coverage of the air crash. With local time five hours newsroom, with the features editor in charge of writers and copy inputs,
the work is more programmatic, with some autonomy being allowed to
behind Britain there should be plenty of material for morning
specialist writers who provide features on their topics. This material tends
paper follow-ups, with an interview with the stewardess being to be placed regularly in pre-selected part of the paper such as the political
the prize to aim for, and with probably crash pictures and more or leader pages, the women’s page or the showbusiness or arts section. The

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quality Sundays – and dailies both national and regional on Saturdays – Special articles might be ordered from non-journalist experts such as ex-
have separate sections given over to a variety of features. Cabinet Ministers, sports stars, trade unions leaders, or leading local
There is more forward planning in this part of the paper and more time politicians who happen to be in the news or whose views are though to be
spent on copy preparation. When important books are serialized there can good for circulation. Freelance writers who submit material ‘on spec’
be weeks of negotiation and discussion followed by a careful ‘gutting’ of might find their work chosen if it fits the newspaper’s plans.
the text to provide a series of instalments. Some features require in-depth
investigation over a period. The arts, showbusiness, fashion, holiday
supplements and a good deal of sport are other areas where the writing,
being tied to events, can be planned in advance.
Background articles to news events have to be written, it is true, but on the
whole the features editor is able to operate a much longer term work
schedule than his or her colleague in the news room, and the department’s
workload, down to the making up of the pages, can be programmed
without the hazards of copy flow suffered on the news pages.

Copy sources

The longer time scale, guaranteed columnage and need for persuasive,
opinion-forming writing means there is more scope for creative prose, or
writing on which writers can impress their own personal style. There are
usually a few gifted stylists who can turn their hand to a variety of Figure 48 The features department: copy flow from writers to features
contemporary topics under by-lines which become the paper’s brand editors and thence to page make-up
names. Many writers, however, specialize tightly, using their own
particular knowledge, experience or training to write on subjects such as who happen to be in the news or whose views are though to be good for
politics, education, economics, technology, finance, fashion, motoring, circulation. Freelance writers who submit material ‘on spec’ might find
travel and even hobbies. their work chosen if it fits the newspaper’s plans.
Some of these are staff writers where the demand for their subject is Readers’ letters form a significant part of features pages, not only in
regular. Others are outside contributors who are paid a retainer or fee per general columns but as the basis of advice or service columns written by
article and who might also write for other publications on their speciality, experts ranging from travel writers and financial and legal experts to the
not necessarily under the same name. Some newspapers share the work of ‘agony aunts’ who deal with readers’ emotional and personal problems
group feature writers working for the same company. (Figure 49). Some staff experts give advice by letter as well as basing their
Material such as crossword puzzles, comic strips, cartoons and horoscopes column on letters. Letters might also be solicited on specific subjects
is supplied by syndication agencies operating nationally or even where reader-participation features are planned. (See F. W.
internationally. Some agencies also provide topical features with Hodgson, Modern Newspaper Practice, Focal Press, 4th edition,
photographs and worldwide background situationers. 1996, Chapter 4.)

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Copy sources are thus more diverse than with news, but also more
preplanned and subject to precise arrangements (Figure 48).

Planning

Filling the features pages forms part of the same planning process, by
discussion and conference, as the news pages. Some of the material is tied
to the news. At executive level ideas are discussed and exchanged, the
features editor reports on the day’s proposed input, and spin-off articles
arising from the news are set in motion for the day or for subsequent days.
There is a greater participation by the editor in the features to be run since
many express the opinions and policy of the paper, although some writers
have a free hand, within limits, to express their own. There is a close
relationship between the editor and industrial and political writers in the
planning of the editorial opinion, or leader, which is the mouthpiece of the
paper. This can be written by the editor (although national papers have
specialist leader writers) and it is an important subject for conference
discussion.
Where there is particular topicality to a specialist subject, such as a
controversial television programme, the launching of a new range of cars,
or a worrying phase of industrial trouble, special space might be allocated.
Sometimes, feature writers are asked to provide a comment piece to add to
a news story. Running a one-off piece by a big-name contributor might
mean having a page one blurb on the day, or the day before, so the readers
know about it. Contents bills might need to be ordered to publicize an Figure 49 The agony aunts – mainstay at the popular end of the market in
important feature, at points of sale or a special placing given to news the national tabloids and in many provincial papers. These examples are
stories connected with it. All these features matters are brought up at the from the Birmingham Evening Mail and The Sun
planning conference.
Inevitably there is overlap with news. By-line experts might be called in to In some newspapers, where by-line writers are allowed to inject comment
report on stories relevant to their field as well as provide features. into news they are covering, it can be hard to tell whether a piece is a news
Reporters might be asked to help out with investigative features item or a feature. This is a controversial area where editors who allow this
where legwork is needed. sort of overlap might encounter complaints about bias in news coverage.
Topicality remains a strong element with features as it does with news.
Subjects might still be pegged to seasonal or contemporary events, as with
show business and fashion writing, travel, holidays, the arts and family

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features. Even writing on food and recipes tends to have a seasonal basis. The main difference on smaller papers is that the chief sub usually
Feedback and criticism from readers are also taken into account in supervises the subbing and making up of both news and features pages,
establishing a content in which the news and features are complementary with the features editor supplying the more important page plans and
and jointly targeted on the readership. having the final authority over the pages.
While there is a good deal of common ground in the subbing and making
Features production up of news and features pages there are also some important differences.
These concern particularly the handling of text and page design. These
The difference in production terms between features and news is that, with differences will be dealt with in the rest of this chapter and in the
the exception of one or two ‘live’ pages, features pages are planned and following chapter.
made up in advance of news pages, some on morning and evening papers
being prepared the day before. The reasons for this are twofold: Page design

1 Except for spin-offs from news of the day, the longer-term ordering and News pages have a balanced arrangement of stories with a lead, half lead
planning in features departments enables copy and pictures to be made and maybe six to ten other stories (including briefs) forming a pattern
available earlier, often with the advantage of pre-determined copy length. based on headlines, pictures and text. Features pages have maybe just two
2 Features are prepared mostly for fixed slots or for display on pages or three items and sometimes only one. As a result, the projection is more
where space is planned and the advertisements sold early, so the pages can contrived and thematic than with news (Figures 52 and 53), with emotive
be made up without hindrance or delay. or eye-catching headlines and a more deliberate visual pattern. Type and
pictures are used with greater freedom.
The consequence of this is that editorial production is planned so that the
subbing and making up of news pages does not find itself clashing with the Typography
TV programme pages or last night’s theatre reviews. Features pages,
whether made up on screen or still by paste-up, are the first to be
To offset the longer features texts, the typography is generally bolder and
completed and consigned to the plateroom.
more varied, with quotes and subsidiary headlines used as breakers. Panel
On morning and evening papers, where editorial production usually splits
rules often divide a feature from the remainder of the page. Stars, blobs
into shifts, the early subs or page editors deal first with the features pages,
and reverse type (white on black or colour, or black on tint) might be used
then move on to the news pages. On some papers, production is separate
to highlight parts of the text.
from news and there is a features chief subeditor responsible to the
The type chosen for the main feature headlines is likely (though not
features editor or assistant editor (features), with separate subeditors. A big
always) to be different from the rest of the paper, and the choice of type
national paper might have a separate art desk for page design.
can be influenced by the theme of the text. Thus, depending on the type
The features page that is left until last is the one containing the editorial
character of the paper, lighter faced types such as Helvetica light, Record
opinion, which needs to be up to the minute, the main feature article of the
Gothic, Futura, Century light and old seriffed faces such as Garamond
day, and perhaps the political column. This page is ‘sent’ just before page
might be used for softer features, while bold expanded faces are brought in
one and the back page.
for headlines that demand impact.

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Type decoration can range from holly borders for Christmas to crowns and first might include the credentials of the writer. If the name is well known
architectural rules for royal features, and drawn diagrams, motifs and it will be given special prominence; in the case of exclusive stories by the
bleachouts of all kinds to set moods and supplement half-tone illustrations. famous it can be the biggest type on the page.
Computer graphics have greatly increased the choice of such material in It would be wrong to use all the typographical devices mentioned above on
screen make-up. Artistically placed white space remains an important features pages, or in one newspaper. Even though there is a freer approach
element. to display, newspapers retain a typographical style that encompasses the
sort of type and devices that may be used with features text so that the
Pictures paper does not become a typographical mish-mash, and so that its type
character is preserved.
Pictures on features pages are often bigger, or used in series or as part of a
compo or montage (see Figure 50), and are generally more integral to Guiding the reader
the display. Where a picture is chosen for a news page usually for its news
Stock logos, or identification devices, are commonly used to flag regular
value, on a features page it can be used to establish mood or atmosphere,
features such as television programmes, cartoons, horoscopes and the
or be given a deliberate display function.
editorial opinion column (Figure 50). Where possible these features appear
The text in a fixed spot in each issue of the paper to facilitate easy finding. The logo
message is simple: Opinion, Your Stars, Sunday Fun, or simply the
writer’s name in biggish type in the case of a regular commentator on
The text generally has the same body type as the news pages but the current events or a challenging personal column. Here the name, with
measure, or setting width, often varies from the set columns. Drop capital picture, gets the display, the headline being of lesser importance.
letters on intros, little used in modern news pages, have made a comeback
and are sometimes house style, turning up as eye breakers in place of
cross-heads. Indented setting is commonly used to show greater white
space; column rules, which are used to separate stories on news pages, are
dispensed with and columnar white space used for separation instead.
Crossheads – often some formal 12-point line on news stories – are chosen
from display faces to match the headline type rather than conforming to a
general style, and can be of two lines instead of one, sometimes with
underscores. Italic or bold paragraphs to give emphasis, or as eye breaks,
are more likely to be found on features pages because of their usefulness in
breaking up long texts.
Other devices used in the cause of display are stand-firsts, which are short
blurbs in different type placed above the intro (thus standing first) to
introduce the feature; and by-lines or sign-offs giving the writer’s name,
often in display type and maybe set in a panel (see Figure 50). A stand-

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Figure 50 The furniture of the features pages: a selection of columnist by- The pages reproduced in this chapter are intended to show the freer
lines and logos for a variety of service columns and special features approach to features page design whatever the type of newspaper, and to
demonstrate the ideas that have been discussed above. They should be
The ‘selling’ of regular columnists tends to be low-key. They might be compared with the more static design effects in the news pages shown in
allowed regular slots on pages which are otherwise given over to news, but the earlier chapters.
they are differentiated by their logo and static familiar display, and perhaps The two-page spread from the tabloid-sized Birmingham Evening
the use of drop letters, so there is no danger of mistaking them for news. Mail (Figure 51) is an example of the imaginative use of type, half-tone
The typesetting and flagging of TV and radio programmes is an important and display devices in tackling a serious subject – in this case ‘stalking’ –
area for the familiarity technique. Newspapers take a good deal of trouble across the paper’s 14-column double width. The layout takes advantage of
to give programmes a format which makes the details readable and the absence of advertisements to run a daringly cut page-deep picture of a
instantly findable as well as accurate. Bold type is used to highlight the look-alike model, balanced visually by the bold deep Comment panel on
names and times of programme and ‘still1 shots from the day’s offerings the left.
included to catch the eye (see page 46). As the reading eye traverses from right to left, it encounters the other main
The contrasting elements of bold display and familiarity can be seen in the focal point – the big headline:
Birmingham Evening Mail features spread reproduced in this chapter
(Figure 51). The imaginative page design, built around pictures, is flagged Looking
at the top with a white-on-tint stencil logo, and lower down a white-on- into the
black ‘Factfile’, telling the readers that it is one the paper’s ‘Talking Point’ eyes of
investigations. In this example there is another familiarity touch – the TERROR
paper’s Comment column in its regular deep panel on the left. It is a
technique much used in the national Sunday papers, where episodes of In a heavy condensed sans type of a ‘bastard’114-point depth. Between the
series are presented with a well pictured display to carry the ‘big read’ and two are the ‘eyes’ of the headline peering through a partly open door. Only
a familiar logo to remind the reader about it. then, after the impact has been achieved, does the reader’s attention switch
It will be seen from the page examples analysed below that headlines can to the strap-line, the logo, and thence to the stand-first and the start of the
be subservient to pictures in drawing the eye to features material. In some story.
cases the headline might be relegated to a decorative breaker in the text. It It is a model of visual persuasion. It is also an example of the sort of
will also be seen that there is a good deal of variation in the way type and subject that gains in drama from black and white illustration rather than
pictures are used, depending upon the readership market of the paper. colour. A degree of mono ‘colour’ is obtained down the page by running
the subsidiary text and its headline in type-on-dark tint fading to light.
Features workshop Other than that there is a simple 4-point black rule tying in the top of the
spread, and a standfirst is of correct weight against the intro type. The
lighter sans headings in the Comment panel and its Helvetica body setting
are useful foils against the feature types.

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Figure 51 How a big evening paper handles a double-page features If one had any carping criticism to make it would be that the Factfile WOB
spread: a Birmingham Evening Mail special report on women plagued by intrudes too much into the circular half-tone, and that an extra drop letter
stalkers as an eye-break would have helped in the first column of the spread –
preferably not another K.
Avant garde by the standards of its quality colleagues, The
Guardian continues to plough its own furrow in page design. The arts page
in Figure 52 groups photographs in a solid slab down the focal centre to
illustrate a feature on television drama, balancing them against a 60-point
Univers bold main heading:

New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 136

Prison’ s
too good
for us

And some tantalizing white under an upended arts logo. Up-ended logos
are de rigeur these days in the glossies and even in the artier features pages
of some regional dailies, but never was 120-point Univers deployed to
such striking effect as in this Guardian design. Nor would it normally be
atop such an interesting slab of white, but then the creative use of white
is The Guardian’s own special contribution to the pages we read.
The Guardian style is no longer regarded as a designer’s gimmick.
Witness the traverse of the eye in this case: first, the immaculately cropped
study from Cathy Come Home, then the bold headline, through the
enticing stand-first and – taking a deep breath – into the intro. After a few
paragraphs, curiosity strikes: the eye feels it must still leap away to explore
down the white hole to the ‘Shooting Stars’ items. This done, it settles
back into the meat of Peter Ansorge’s thesis despite it being aggressively
lacking in crossheads or eye-breaks, as is The Guardian’s style. As this
unfolds, the relevance of the remaining small pictures in the ‘slab’
becomes clear.
The reader is captured, and there is still the bonus of the Laurence
Donegan piece on the Burrell Collection neatly tucked away underneath to
move to next with its characteristic Guardian-style thumbnail cartoon. It is
perhaps a tribute to the copywriter’s art that the advert on the bottom left
seems a natural extension of this page design and raises a momentary
query in the reader’s mind.
Perhaps because it is a book review (Figure 53), the Daily Mail arts page
takes a very different approach. The design here shows how simple type
balance and well cut, if static, pictures can give a touch of traditional Figure 52 Features display Guardian style: daring white spaces and eye-
elegance. The Century bold condensed type, which the Mail retains for its grabbing big picture
features pages, allows a good character count, enabling a meaningful
headline to be achieved in 84-point. The ‘Books’ label and the by-line are
admirably discreet, and the stand-up drop letters in the Mail’s features
style make useful text breaks. The bold adverts on the right are left to their
own space without clash of type or half-tone from the editorial content.

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 Figure 54 A leader page for all tastes: a strongly pictured main feature, a
perceptive leading article and a light-hearted columnist go together well in
Figure 53 The elegance of a Daily Mail books page: stand-up drop letters, this Liverpool Echo design
neat picture balance and clean uncluttered setting are the ideal foil against
cluttered advertising The picture crops are subtle, the space on either side of the head in the
main portrait giving a feeling of depth, the oval looking nicely in period
for the flashback picture of the subject. Add to this the fine rule round the
type-on-light-tint headline and the one enclosing the oval picture, and we
have another example of how mono still can score in the right page
environment.
Our final sample in this features workshop is a very professional leader
page from the Liverpool Echo (Figure 54). Here, you have eye appeal

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based on good type and picture balance, and yet the page has a feeling of to a layout blocked out on screen until the page corresponds with the ideas
busyness which a big city evening paper should have. of the page executive who originated it.
The main feature publicizing the paper’s campaign to help the city’s aged So far so good, but the features sub needs to be aware of some important
gains in impact through the cropping of the picture of the elderly couple, differences from news in the handling of text and the projecting of
who are highlighted against the retained background. They seem to be material. Headline writing, for instance, can be very different.
walking out of the trees and into the page. The overprinting of the headline
SHOW CONCERN on to the top of picture accentuates its significance Accuracy
rather than detracts from it. The smaller picture adds a cheerful extra
dimension and usefully holds up the shadow box stand-first (though here First a warning: do not assume experts always to get their facts right. Some
not really standing first), thus providing two focal points centre-page. who are close to their subject rely too much on their knowledge and
The Echo Comment, with its rounded-corners box and liver bird motif, memory and let through basic mistakes where the less informed would
provides visual balance to the left of the page. The Ian Kirby column with have checked. Memory can play false with names, titles and functions and
its flip headline ‘Tea and a little sympathy from Claudia’ and type-and- with dates – for instance, of Acts of Parliament. Politicians as contributors
picture compo nicely holds up the bottom. It also gives subject balance to are notorious for factual blind spots when not being briefed by their
the whole by providing lighter reading as a foil to the more serious items – researchers. Always add up figures and check statistics and tables in
a useful function on a leader page. stories, where possible, to see that they work out.
It is with non-journalist and some freelance contributors, unused to
newspaper discipline, where the greatest chance of error lies. Since such
contributions are often specially ordered and well displayed they throw a
greater burden of checking on the subeditor. It will be no use you blaming
the writer when you have been put there to spot any errors.
With regular staff writers the danger is less but the responsibility remains.
Advice columns, upon which readers will rely, cannot afford to make
mistakes. Merchandizing information in fashion pages has to be right.
Crossword puzzles have to be checked to see that the clues work out.
Television and radio programme details, a tedious editing chore that can
CHAPTER TWELVE fall to new subs, are a minefield for the unwary. Readers are quick to
complain if anything is wrong.
Mistakes in figures in newspaper competitions, usually looked after by the
FEATURES: EDITING AND PROJECTION
features department, can result in bad publicity and cost newspapers
The essentials of subediting are the same for features as for news. You money. A greater danger arises from the failure to spot factual errors or
check copy for factual and grammatical accuracy and for legality, you edit unjustified statements that might get the paper into legal trouble
it to the required length, and eliminate ambiguity, sloppy writing and (see Chapter 9). Features material is not only more deliberately displayed
errors of house style. You write headlines and captions in the type and than news; it can also be controversial and provocative, and this makes
setting required and – these days – fit the text and the pictures together on checking for accuracy a high priority in features subbing.

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Language Here, from The Times, is an example of style in a feature from columnist
Nigella Lawson:
Because features are mostly written to length and are often important for
the way they say things rather than what they say, they are not normally Seriously: how can anyone be shocked by the idea of an Oxford
given ‘heavy’ editing. The sort of rewriting carried out on news stories, undergraduate earning money as a stripper? Modesty is a defunct virtue,
because of bad copy, complex copy sources or shifts in emphasis, should
not be needed. informing most people’s lives as little as that other superannuated
There is a freer approach to intro, structure and sequence. These, however, accomplishment, watercolouring. We retain enough of a memory of
are normally imposed by the writer. A feature that needs re-nosing and re-
structuring by the subeditor is an exception, although it can happen. decorum to enjoy the frisson of surprise. But it’s just a mime, not rooted in
Freed from the pressure on space and relentless word economy of the news any moral dismay.
pages, feature writers writing under their own by-lines adopt a wider range
of vocabulary and idiosyncrasy of phrase. In some specialist areas the Far from it: those under a certain age would rather admire Melissa Butler
vocabulary might seem outside an ordinary reader’ s, as for example in for strutting her stuff at the Sunset Strip in Soho. For them, the stripper is
articles on science, finance and some areas of sport.
Another reason why ‘heavy’ editing should not normally be needed is that not some sleazy figure, but a strong woman who owns her body and is
the pages are free of the changes of space arising from the arrival of late happy with it; a woman who gets what she wants – money and applause –
news pictures, the revising for later editions or the organizing of running
stories. In this sense the features subs’ work lacks the excitement and for revealing what she is.
‘dicing with the clock’ of the news pages.
The first sentence establishes the tone of gentle mockery. And from the
Style same edition of the same paper, Alan Coren pursues an almost equally
idiosyncratic vein on the subject of telly watching in Bosnia:
What has to be allowed for is a greater regard for style. Copy can contain
persuasive argument and description by which specialist writers For what has stricken the Bosnian Serbs is the lack of decent telly.
communicate more directly and more personally with their readers. This Confronted with an unremitting barrage of regional cultural programmes,
can involve longer sentences and longer paragraphs. ‘Repair’ and
improvements may still be necessary but in correcting weaknesses of many of them repeats, those previously loyal to Nanja Luka’s SRT TV
grammar or word sequence you must be careful to preserve the writer’s
have fled in their pitiable hordes. Unable to take any more wobbly
way with words. Style is a fugitive thing that can be damaged by
insensitive or unnecessary editing. You should be seeking to keep in the documentaries about well-dressing or donkey enemas or jamjar museums,
colour, feel and pace of a well written feature, to use editing as a means of
or rural hats, they have taken instead to the street. They have become box
preserving and enhancing these qualities in addition to checking that the
facts are right. refugees. They do not know which way to turn.

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Even seasonal fare can take on a certain quality in the hands of a stylist grounds of taste. The task of amendment remains with the subeditor. It is
(this from the Daily Telegraph): just that tact and discretion have to be added on to the attributes a news
sub would be expected to have.
Our Christmas feastings are nothing to those of our ancestors. From If one is looking for sacred cows then the one piece of copy you should not
cut or alter is the paper’s editorial opinion, although the facts, dates,
medieval times until Cromwell’s Commonwealth the Twelve Days of quotations etc. still have to be checked. An error allowed through here
Christmas were celebrated with feasting that could reach wild excess. would be akin to an act of sabotage. Ask the editor or leader writer for any
cuts needed.
Then the Puritans abolished Christmas festivities. A popular song of the
Ghost writing
time ran:
Plum broth was Popish, and mince-pies, In some newspapers, notably the national Sundays, the practice of ghost
writing might be found. This is where a feature or even a book, is written
Oh, that was for idolatry by a professional writer for the person under whose name it appears.
With the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, feasting returned, Ghosting might at first sight seem an indefensible practice. It is certainly
not one that newspaper journalists want to see encouraged, yet it may be
though never to the same extent, and favourite Christmas foods could be the only means by which important one-off pieces of writing can reach the
safely enjoyed once more. reader. It is used where a newspaper wants to carry a personal story by
someone in the news, or whose experiences and opinions are of interest to
Plum broth, or Christmas Porridge or pottage, was the forerunner to the the readers, but who might be too busy or have insufficient skill with
Christmas Pudding. A rich soup stuffed with dried fruit, thickened with words to provide copy in an acceptable form.
A feature writer who is an experienced ‘ghost’ is put in with the person by
breadcrumbs and enlivened with alcohol, it is quite delicious. Pepys noted agreement, often with a tape recorder, but sometimes with a notebook, to
on Christmas Day, 1662, that he enjoyed ‘a mess of brave plum pottage’ ‘talk out’ the material. Ghosting can be done even over the telephone. The
feature is then written, keeping intact the opinions and verbal style of the
before his roast beef. person – who might perhaps be a trade union leader, a sports personality or
even a politician. When complete, the text is shown for approval to the
Not just a recipe, but titbits of information enlivened by a snatch of song celebrity whose name it will carry. Any adjustments to wording or content
and a cascade of mouth-watering verbs. are made and the finished article is signed as being agreed by the ‘author’.
Some by-line contributors whose style is their brand image have contracts It is then printed as an authentic piece of writing.
that specify that their copy should not be altered without their agreement Writers employed on ghosting have to be adept at picking up nuances and
Editors try to limit the number of these arrangements since they can shades of expression in conversation which they use in the writing, and
constrict production. Also, however good the writer there can still be space they are expected to carry out their role sympathetically. The best are often
problems due to changes in advertising, or writers exceeding the ordered professional freelances whose skill brings them a regular living from this
length, or where parts of a feature are not liked for legal reasons or on sort of work.

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If given ghosted work as the page sub you should handle the copy with the letters used are cut only by permission of the writers and the cut version
same care as the written work of any big-name outside contributor, read back to them, or faxed, over the telephone. A check with the writer is
checking back for approval any proposed changes in text or cutting to made by most papers if there is a fear that a seemingly newsworthy letter
length, but checking above all for its accuracy and legality. might not be genuine, or be part of a publicity stunt – a practice not
unknown to editors.
Reader participation

Reader participation is the stuff of features pages. Not only are readers’
views aired regularly in letters columns but their opinions are solicited on
subjects on which it is intended to run ‘viewpoint’ features – the
Government’s standing, favourite holiday stories, the popularity of TV
programmes, the state of the roads, and so on. Advice and service columns
also live off letters, while competitions of many sorts could not survive
without willing and hopeful participants.
This promotional side of the paper is, in fact, carried out largely by the
features department, helped by the promotions department where there is
one. It serves the triple purpose of providing the readers with a platform,
and often a service, and also getting the paper publicized and talked about.
Yet publishing letters can be fraught with danger. Readers write in
hundreds and thousands each week with no idea of the limitations of space
into which they have to fit if used (fewer than one in twenty letters to The
Times, for instance, get published). Choosing them is the easy part –
topicality and originality are looked for – but editing them to fit can court
complaints of misrepresentation when perhaps fourteen to twenty
paragraphs are reduced to three or four to give the point of a letter along
with nine or ten others.
The total area available for them in a national paper might come to no
more than a column and a half, including the space for the main headline
and a number of smaller ones. There is usually more room set aside for
them in regional and local papers. Some evening papers (see Figure 55)
run a double page spread of letters to foster feedback to the editor of topics Figure 55 Reader participation: letters are rated highly in all manner of
occupying readers’ minds. newspapers, but there can be traps in running a Letters to the Editor
You need to be a sympathetic subeditor to edit letters in a succinct fashion column. These busy, well-filled examples are from the Nottingham
without upsetting the writers. The practice with most papers is to check Evening Post and the Huii Daiiy Mail
with the writer if the subject is controversial or personal. At The Times, the

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In cutting letters, try to keep in the essential point the reader is making by hour and in changes in editing being carried out, and even pictures having
using their own words with the minimum of alteration even if a good deal to be replaced.
of the letter cannot be used for space reasons. Well known in newspaper
offices is the dictum of the old Press Council (now the Press Complaints Projection
Commission) that in a letters column ‘editing should be done solely to
qualify a letter for publication, and it should never be allowed to defeat or You are more involved with the projection of the edited material on
obscure the points or points the correspondent wanted to make.’ features pages than is the case with news. A main feature is ‘sold’ visually
In other words, beware of taking phrases away from their context. In more to the reader by a complex of headlines, pictures, blurb, stand-firsts and
general letters-based features, readers’ views are quoted as part of a pattern quotations in which the sub has the vital promotional role. Not only are
of opinion supporting the aim of the article. When they are quoted in you editing the copy; you are persuading the reader of its importance and
advice columns, usually only the relevant part of the reader’s question is drawing attention to special aspects.
used. Thus editing ideas go beyond headline and intro. They require a degree of
identity with the aims of the writer and an ability to exploit display
Features and the law techniques. You are drawing out the mood and underlying substance of the
material and transmuting these in terms of picture, caption and significant
Features pages give the office lawyer a lot more trouble than the news quotation as well as headline. The editing, in short, is more visual and the
pages. The opinion and criticism they contain are more likely to wound subeditor is integrally involved in the design of the page.
than the objective reporting of fact. Some of the more sensational Even in stock features occupying regular slots, such as a nature column or
‘confessions’ and ‘lid off it all’ series that appear in the national Sunday the arts reviews, mood is an important ingredient of the headline and you
papers can suffer legal revision – and applications to the court for have to be responsive to this.
injunctions – right up to press time and have been known to die to the A blurb, which a feature might require (see Figure 56), is best described as
death as a result of the court’s intervention after the page has been made a piece of self-advertisement carried by the newspaper, not necessarily on
up. the same page as the feature, inviting readers to turn to it. Sometimes it
In buying such series, newspapers are aware that they are dependent on consists only of one selling line that identifies the story (for example,
what the lawyer will allow because of the danger that lurks in the law of ‘confessions of a wayward star’ or ‘your verdict on the great drugs
libel and contempt of court. Editors’ belief that the public has a right to debate’) accompanied by a page reference; or it might have several
know what they have uncovered has to be tempered by their preference not sentences of description. You aim to present a compelling reason, or
to have to go to jail. reasons, why the reader should read the feature. Blurbs are mostly given a
Investigative journalism in which matters of public concern, often bold display that will stand out from the page. They might include a
concerning crime, are examined by skilled reporters who might get picture as well as type, with maybe the use of type reversed as
evidence from unorthodox sources, are a particular headache to lawyers. a WOB or BOT. They combine the visual role of a display advertisement
You are likely to be given tricky jobs like these to edit only after the legal with that of a news bill or poster.
vetting process is complete, but the need for vigilance remains. A shift in a
delicate situation or legal second thoughts – or even the wording of a
headline – can result in a page being ripped apart at an inconveniently late

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 A separate static feature, perhaps the Opinion column, could be used in
each case as a foil to the main projection.
A number of scenarios like this could set a pattern for workshop projects.
They could also include devising a static layout for television and radio
programmes, and one for a weekly ‘name’ columnist writing pithy
comments on current news, in which witty one-liners in, say, 14-point,
might be used.

Features headlines
Figure 56 The front page blurb – and sometimes the back page – is the Headline writing, as with page design, has a freer approach than with
shop window for the day’s big feature offering news. The headline must still draw attention to the text and form a focal
point in the display but these aims are merged in a big feature into a
A stand-first (see examples on pages 198, 201 and 203) is likely to be used general projection in which pictures play a bigger part (most news stories
on a feature, especially a series which arises from special circumstances, to are fairly short and do not have pictures) and in which blurb, stand-first,
explain how or why the article came to be written. The aim is to justify or display quotations and even cross-heads and by-line all have a role.
qualify what follows so as to enhance the readers’ understanding or While a headline might sum up the vital facts it need not necessarily do so.
acceptance of it. For a start, many features are built around comment or opinion or
Blurbs and stand-firsts, the writing of which falls to the sub, are deduction arising out of facts that are already known. The headline is more
fundamental to the projection and call for imaginative and yet concise use likely to hinge on what the writer is trying to say or what the pictures on
of words so that within a small compass the reader can be given a the page symbolize.
compelling reason for reading on. Take, for example, the features spread from the Birmingham Evening
Mail (Figure 51, page 198). The headline LOOKING INTO THE EYES
• Here, for students, is a useful exercise in features projection. An OF TERROR owes its existence to the boldly cut pictures of the frightened
investigation has been made by a small team into the effects of loneliness girl and the one of the eyes through the partly opened door. On its own it
on the aged in a big city. Three separate reports have been filed plus an would be a meaningless label. But having been caught by the main display,
exceptionally good mood picture worth running as a deep horizontal six- the reader wants to know more. The ‘Talking Point’ logo and the strap
column illustration. There are two other smaller pictures of interior shots heading, THE TORMENTED WOMEN WHO ARE PLAGUED BY
and some statistics from the local council. From these, devise a page one STALKERS supply the necessary information. The stand-first and by-line
blurb, one main headline and two subsidiary ones, a stand-first and a panel pull the reader’s eye down into the text. The Factfile WOB is there to give
of statistics, and project the material: back-up. The combined assault upon the reader by the page designer and
subeditor has worked.
1 As a broadsheet display on a page with modest advertising. The main picture also dominates The Guardian feature on TV drama
2 As a double-page spread in a tabloid paper with no advertising. (Figure 52 on page 201). The young mother holding the feeding bottle and
looking bleakly across the page symbolizes the poignancy of Cathy Come

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Home. It is a striking picture cut to accentuate the look in the woman’s and illustration, but it is the quality of the picture – in this case the old
eyes and it says more about a landmark TV drama than any words could couple – that again dominates. The stand-first and the smaller picture are
have done. It is the woman and the feeding bottle that captures the eye and used to turn the text neatly round and under, leaving a useful amount of
the imagination, compared to which the headline PRISON’S TOO GOOD space on which to display the rest of the leader page contents. The result is
FOR US remains an enigma and has to await explanation from the text. a busy and attractive features page.
The stand-first does, however, give an inkling. The smaller pictures are Here are examples of particular styles of features page headlines:
there to support the thesis, and to invite the reader to play a who-was-who
game with clips from yesteryear’s dramas – no bad thing in a show- The emotive phrase
business feature.
The main headline and picture occupy about equal billing visually in The Sun is rather good at this sort of headline, as in I JUST WANT TO
the Daily Mail books page (Figure 53 on page 202). Actor-novelist DIE WITH DIGNITY IN THE ARMS OF PEOPLE I LOVE, and the
Stephen Fry (also in cameo flashback) is a good picture subject, but the terser MY EX IS SLEEPING WITH MY MOTHER.
headline LOVE, SELF-LOATHING AND THE LIFE OF FRY is an
inspired ‘comment’ headline that a reader with any interest in the subject The whimsical phrase
would find it hard to resist, and it has to take precedence. The intro
supports the headline immediately.
This goes well with the less serious sort of feature, as with the Daily
One summer afternoon at prep school, when he was about 11, Stephen Fry Telegraph’s GREAT COATS for a fashion feature on women’s coats.
Whimsy, however, can be serious, as in The Times’s THE
was off games and sloping around one of the dormitories when he came
UNDERWRITING ON THE WALL.
upon a joke shop catalogue.
The informative phrase
Discovering that a half-crown postal order would acquire him, among
other delights, chattering false teeth, a bar of soap that turned the user A headline that is better with a verb, even though it can still manage
black, and a sugar cube that melted leaving a realistic-looking spider without the active voice, as in, HOLY GHOSTS: HOW A VICAR CAME
TO BELIEVE SPIRITS ARE EVERYWHERE, in the Daily Mail, about a
floating in the victim’s teacup, etc. vicar with psychic powers. An enigmatic example from The Independent:
HOW TO LEARN TO LOVE STOCK MARKETS EVEN WHEN THEY
Quiet elegance is the only additive such readable text requires. This is CRASH. And another how-it’s-done one in the Daily Mail, on a Lynda
provided by clean 11-em setting, drop-letter eye-breaks and the discreet Lee-Potter interview: HOW JOHN CLEESE BECAME AN EX-
use of white space. It is a path that has been well trodden by the Mail. NEUROTIC.
The Liverpool Echo’s main feature (Figure 54 on page 203) invites the
readers’ participation by yoking headline and main picture together in a The decorative phrase
successful read-me compo. SHOW CONCERN is the message for the day.
Printing it across the top of the picture in this case highlights both headline

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Harnessing a pun or an old song title is the resort of the subeditor when
confronted by an awkward review, a feature full of useful titbits for
readers – or a bland holiday article. The Daily Mail offers, OH, ISLANDS
IN THE SUN on its travel page; the Liverpool Echo counters with WE DO
LIKE TO BE BESIDE THE SEASIDE. A review in The Times (they’ re
good at word play) of a play once attributed to the Bard, has the neat HAM
WROTE SHAKESPEARE, NOT BACON.

The confessional

My fifth category remains the tour de force of headline approaches and

one that Fleet Street believes sells papers. The News of the World has
unrivalled experience in this field with such blockbusters as MY
ELECTRIC NIGHT SHIFTS WITH SORAYA and AGONY OF LOVING
MY EAST-EASTENDERS CO-STAR. Then there is The Express’s more
sedate, CHILDHOOD TRAUMA HAS LEFT ME HAUNTED BY FEAR,
and The Guardian’s avante garde version of the genre, I’ M ALWAYS
HOPING THAT I WILL WEAR OUT BEFORE MY CLOTHES DO.
You will see from these examples that space and word count are not
usually the problem with features headlines since the page pattern is less
formularized and the items fewer. Even with the constraints of narrow
measure which can apply with static features in regular single- and double-
column slots you have greater freedom of wording, and a good deal more
professional pleasure, because of the variety of headline approaches
possible with features material.
Moreover, you will find that the use of mood and colour in headlines and
the freedom from hard news concepts removes dependence on headlinese
even in tight headlines. Such tired cliché words as probe, shock, horror,
quiz, rap and drama, which mar news page headlines, should not have to
APPENDIX
be resorted to.
PRESS COMPLAINTS COMMISSION CODE OF PRACTICE

The Press Complaints Commission is charged with enforcing the

following Code of Practice which was framed by the newspaper and

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periodical industry and ratified by the Press Complaints Commission on
26 November 1997. ) between comment, conjecture and fact.
All members of the press have a duty to maintain the highest professional
and ethical standards. This Code sets the benchmarks for those standards. (v) A newspaper or periodical must report fairly and accurately the
It both protects the rights of the individual and upholds the public’s right outcome of an action for defamation to which it has been a
to know. party.
The Code is the cornerstone of the system of self-regulation to which the
industry has made a binding commitment. Editors and publishers must 2 Opportunity to reply
ensure that the Code is observed rigorously not only by their staff but also
by anyone who contributes to their publications. A fair opportunity to reply to inaccuracies must be given to individuals or
It is essential to the workings of an agreed code that it be honoured not organizations when reasonably called for.
only to the letter but in the full spirit. The Code should not be interpreted
so narrowly as to compromise its commitment to respect the rights of the 3 Privacy *
individual, nor so broadly that it prevents publication in the public interest.
It is the responsibility of editors to co-operate with the PCC as swiftly as
possible in the resolution of complaints. (i) Everyone is entitled to respect for his or her private and family
Any publication which is criticized by the PCC under one of the following life, home, health and correspondence. A publication will be
clauses must print the adjudication which follows in full and with due expected to justify intrusions into any individual’s private life
prominence. without consent.

1 Accuracy (ii The use of long lens photography to take pictures of people in
) private places without their consent is unacceptable.
Note – Private places are public or private property where
(i) Newspapers and periodicals must take care not to publish
there is a reasonable expectation of privacy.
inaccurate, misleading or distorted material including pictures.

(ii) Whenever it is recognized that a significant inaccuracy, 4 Harassment *

misleading statement or distorted report has been published, it
must be corrected promptly and with due prominence.
(i) Journalists and photographers must neither obtain, nor seek to
obtain, information or pictures through intimidation, harassment
(iii or persistent pursuit.
An apology must be published whenever appropriate.
)
(ii) They must not photograph individuals in private places (as
(iv Newspapers, whilst free to be partisan, must distinguish clearly defined in the note to Clause 3) without their consent; must not

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 persist in telephoning, questioning, pursuing or photographing (v) Where material about the private life of a child is published
individuals after having been asked to leave and must not follow there must be justification for publication other than the fame,
them. notoriety of his or her parents or guardian.

(iii Editors must ensure that those working for them comply with 7 Children in sex cases
) these requirements and must not publish material from other
sources which does not meet these requirements. 1 The press must not, even where the law does not prohibit it, identify
children under the age of 16 who are involved in cases concerning sexual
5 Intrusion into grief or shock offences, whether as victims or as witnesses.
2 In any press report of a case involving a sexual offence against a child –
In cases involving grief or shock, enquiries must be carried out and
(i) The child must not be identified.
approaches made with sympathy and discretion. Publication must be
handled sensitively at such times, but this should not be interpreted as
restricting the right to report judicial proceedings. (ii) The adult may be identified.

6 Children * (iii The word ‘incest’ must not be used where a child victim might
) be identified.
(i) Young people should be free to complete their time at school
without unnecessary intrusion. (iv Care must be taken that nothing in the report implies the
) relationship between the accused and the child.
(ii) Journalists must not interview or photograph children under the
age of 16 on subjects involving the welfare of the child or of any
other child, in the absence of or without the consent of a parent 8 Listening devices *
or other adult who is responsible for the children.
Journalists must not obtain or publish material obtained by using
clandestine listening devices or by intercepting private telephone
(iii Pupils must not be approached or photographed while at school conversations.
) without the permission of the school authorities.
9 Hospitals *
(iv There must be no payment to minors for material involving the
) welfare of children nor payment to parents or guardians for
(i) Journalists or photographers making enquiries at hospitals or
material about their children or wards unless it is demonstrably
similar institutions must identify themselves to a responsible
in the child’s interest.
executive and obtain permission before entering non-public

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 areas. physical or mental illness or disability.

(ii The restrictions on intruding into privacy are particularly relevant (ii It must avoid publishing details of a person’s race, colour,
) to enquiries about individuals in hospitals or similar institutions. ) religion, sexual orientation, physical or mental illness or
disability unless these are directly relevant to the story.
10 Innocent relatives and friends *
14 Financial journalism
The press must avoid identifying relatives or friends of persons convicted
or accused of crime without their consent. Even where the law does not prohibit it, journalists must not use
(i)
for their own profit financial information they receive in
11 Misrepresentation *
advance of its general publication, nor should they pass such
information to others.
(i) Journalists must not generally obtain or seek to obtain
information or pictures through misrepresentation or subterfuge. (ii) They must not write about shares or securities in whose
performance they know that they or their close families have a
(ii) Documents or photographs should be removed only with the significant financial interest, without disclosing the interest to
consent of the owner. the editor or financial editor.

(iii Subterfuge can be justified only in the public interest and only (iii They must not buy or sell, either directly or through nominees or
) when material cannot be obtained by any other means. ) agents, shares or securities about which they have written
recently or about which they intend to write in the near future.

12 Victims of sexual assault

15 Confidential sources
The press must not identify victims of sexual assault or publish material
likely to contribute to such identification unless there is adequate Journalists have a moral obligation to protect confidential sources of
justification and, by law, they are free to do so. information.

13 Discrimination 16 Payment for articles *

(i) The press must avoid prejudicial or pejorative reference to a (i) Payment or offers of payment for stories or information must not
person’s race, colour, religion, sex or sexual orientation or to any be made or through agents to witnesses or potential witnesses in

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 current criminal proceedings except where the material ) action of an individual or organization.
concerned ought to be published in the public interest and there
is an overriding need to make or promise to make a payment for 2 In any case where the public interest is invoked, the Press Complaints
this to be done. Commission will require a full explanation by the editor demonstrating
Journalists must take every possible step to ensure that no how the public interest was served.
financial dealings have influence on the evidence that those 3 In cases involving children editors must demonstrate an exceptional
witnesses may give. (An editor authorizing such a payment must public interest to override the normally paramount interests of the child.
be prepared to demonstrate that there is a legitimate public
interest at stake involving matters that the public has a right to
know. The payment or, where accepted, the offer of payment to
any witness who is actually cited to give evidence must be
disclosed to the prosecution and the defence and the witness
should be advised of this.) GLOSSARY
(ii Payment or offers of payment for stories, pictures or information, ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations, the body that authenticates and
) must not be made directly or through agents to convicted or self- publishes newspaper circulation figures.
confessed criminals or their associates – who may include
family, friends and colleagues – except where the material Ad Advertisement
concerned ought to be published in the public interest and
payment is necessary for this to be done. Ad dummy The blank sets of pages of an edition with the shapes and
positions of advertisements marked in; also on screen.
The public interest
Ad rule The rule or border separating editorial matter from advertisements
There may be exceptions to the clauses marked * where they can be on a page.
demonstrated to be in the public interest.
Add Copy added to a story already written or subedited.
1 The public interest includes:
Advance Printed hand-out of a speech or statement issued in advance to
the press.
(i) Detecting or exposing crime or a serious misdemeanour.
Advertising agency An organization that prepares and designs
(ii) Protecting public health and safety. advertisements for clients, and buys advertising space.

Preventing the public from being misled by some statement or Agony column A regular feature giving advice on personal problems to
(iii
the mainly young; hence agony aunt.

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Alts Alterations made to copy or set matter. Beard The space between a letter and the edge of the base upon which it is
designed.
Angle A particular approach to a story.
Beat An exclusive story or one that puts a newspaper’s coverage ahead of
Angling Writing or editing a story from a particular angle, i.e. to bring out another’ s.
a particular aspect of its news content.
Big quotes Quotation marks larger than the typesize they enclose, i.e. used
Art Pertaining usually to design and layout of pages, the use of pictures for display effect.
and typography in newspaper display.
Big read A long feature covering many columns – usually an instalment of
Art desk Where page layouts are drawn in detail and the pictures edited. a series.

Art editor The person responsible for the art desk and for design of the Bill A newspaper poster advertising the contents of the paper at selected
newspaper. sites.

Artwork Prepared material for use in newspaper display. Black Used to describe certain boldface types.

Ascender The part of a letter that rises above its x-height, as in h, k, l and Blanket Newspaper page proof, i.e. print-out of page.
f.
Bleach-out A picture overdeveloped to intensify the blacks and remove
Author’s marks Corrections or amendments by the writer on an edited the tones – useful in producing a motif to use as a display label on a story.
story.
Blobs Solid black discs used in front of type for display effect, or for
Back bench The control centre for a newspaper’s production, where sit the tabulating lists.
night editor and other production executives.
Blow-up Enlargement of a picture or type.
Backgrounder A feature giving background to the news.
Blurb A piece of self-advertisement composed of type, and sometimes
Back numbers Previous issues of a newspaper. illustrations, used to draw a reader’s attention to the contents of other
pages or issues to come.
Bad break Ugly or unacceptable hyphenation of a word made to justify
line of type. See Justify. Bodoni A commonly used serif type, noted for clean lines and fine serifs.

Banner A headline that crosses the top of a page – also streamer. Body The space taken up by the strokes of a letter – the density of a letter.

Bastard measure Any typesetting of non-standard width. Body matter The reading text of a newspaper.

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Body type The type used for reading text. Bureau The office of a news agency; in the US any newspaper office
separate from the main one.
Bold Name given to type of a thicker than average body.
Buster Headline whose number of characters exceed the required measure.
Border A print rule or strip in the computer used to create panels for
stories, or for display effects in layout. By-line The writer’s name at the beginning, or near the top, of a story.

BOT Type reversed as black on tone background. c & Ic Capital letters and lower case of type.

Box A story enclosed by rules on all four sides – also panel. Caption Line(s) of type identifying or describing a picture.

Break 1 Convenient place to break the text with a quote or crosshead; 2 Caps Capital letters of type.
the moment of happening of news.
Caslon A traditional-style seriffed typeface used for headlines.
Breaker Any device such as a quote or crosshead which breaks up the text
in the page. Cast off To edit to a fixed length; the edited length of a story as estimated.

Break-out A secondary story run on a page with a main story, usually on a Catchline Syllable taken from a story and used on each folio, or section,
feature page. along with folio number, to identify it in the typesetting system.

Brevier Old name for 8pt type. Centre spread Material extending across the two centre-facing pages in a
newspaper. Spread: any material occupying two opposite pages.
Brief A short news story, usually one paragraph.
Centred Type placed equidistant from each side of the column or
Bring up An editing instruction meaning use certain material earlier in a columns.
story.
Century Much used modern seriffed type with bold strokes.
Broadsheet Full size newspaper page approximately 22 in by 15 in, as
opposed to tabloid, half size. Change pages Pages that are to be given new or revised material on an
edition, or on which advertising material is being replaced.
Bromide Emulsioned stiff paper on which type is printed, still used in cut-
and-paste; any photographically printed material. Characters The letters, figures, symbols, etc. in a type range,
hence character count, the number of characters that can be
Bucket Rules on either side and below tying in printed matter to a picture. accommodated in a given line of type.

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Circulation The number of copies of a newspaper sold, i.e. in circulation; Copy All material submitted for use in a newspaper.
hence circulation manager, the executive in charge of distributing copies
and promoting circulation, also circulation rep (representative). Copy-taker Telephone typists who take down reporters’ copy on a
keyboard.
City editor Editor of financial page; in US the editor in charge of
newsgathering in main office. Copy-taster Person who sorts and classifies incoming copy in a
newspaper.
Clean up Editing instruction to improve tone of copy.
Copyright Ownership of written or printed material.
Cliché A well-worn, over-used phrase.
Corr Short for correspondent.
Cliffhanger A story that still awaits its climax or sequel.
Correction Published item putting right errors in a story.
Close quotes Punctuation marks closing quoted material.
Count The number of characters in a line of type.
Close up To reduce space between words or lines.
Coverage The attendance at, and writing up, of news events; also the total
Col Short for column. number of stories covered.

Column Standard vertical divisions of a newspaper page; hence column Credit Usually the photographer’s or artist’s name printed with an
measure. illustration; hence credit line.

Column rule Fine rule marking out the columns. Crop To select the image of a picture required for printing.

Columnar space Vertical space separating one column of matter from Crosshead Line or lines of type to break the text, placed between
another. paragraphs.

Command A keyboarded instruction to a computer. Cross-reference Line of type referring to matter elsewhere in the paper.

Compo Composite artwork made up of type and half-tone. CRT Cathode-ray tubes, used as a light source to create the type image in
a photosetter (used now only in paste-up).
Condensed type Type narrower than the standard founts; hence extra
condensed and medium condensed. Cursive Any flowing design of type based on handwriting.

Contents bill Bill or poster advertising a story or item in a newspaper. Cursor Electronic light ‘pen’ on VDU screen, used to manipulate text
during writing and editing.

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Cut To reduce a story by deleting facts or words. Diary 1 The newsroom list of jobs for the day or week; 2 A gossip column
in a newspaper.
Cut-off A story separated from the text above and below by type rules
making it self-contained from the rest of the column; hence cut-off rule. Didot point Unit of type measurement slightly larger than the British-
American point and used in Europe, except Britain and Belgium. Equal to
Cut-out Half-tone picture in which the background has been cut away to 0.01483 of an inch.
leave the image in outline.
Direct input The inputting of material into a computer by writers for the
Cuttings Catalogued material from newspapers cut out and stored in a purpose of screen editing.
cuttings library for future reference, (nowadays electronically) in US
clippings. Directory A list of stories of a given classification held in a computer and
available to those with access.
Cuttings jobs A story based on cuttings.
Disaster caps Large heavy, sanserif type, used on a major (usually
Cypher A character in a type range which represents something else, i.e., disaster) page one story.
ampersand (&) and £ and $ signs.
Disclaimer A printed item explaining that a story printed previously has
Database The material to which a computer gives access. nothing to do with persons or an organization with the same or similar
name as used in the story.
Dateline Place and date of a story given usually at the start.
Display ads Advertisements in which large type or illustration
Dead Matter discarded and not to be used again. predominate.

Deadline Latest time a story can be filed, accepted or set. District reporter Reporter working from a base away from the main
office.
Deck One unit of a headline.
Double The same story printed twice in the paper.
Define To specify on a computer screen the material a command is
intended to cover. Double-column Across two columns.

Delayed drop An intro which reserved the point of a story till later. Dress Redress or revision of a story; also rejig.

DA-notice An official instruction to editors that a story is subject to the Drop letter An outsize initial capital letter on the intro of a story;
Official Secrets Act and therefore should not be used. also drop figure.

Descender The part of a letter that projects below the x-line.

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Drop quotes Outsize quotes used to mark off important quoted sections in EPD Electronic picture desk.
a story.
Exp Expanded (of type).
Dummy Blank copy of the paper (now on screen) showing the position
and sizes of the advertisements and the space available for editorial use; Execute Computer command meaning to put into effect.
also mock-up of editorial pages as preparation for a new format.
Facsimile Exact reproduction of an original, as in facsimile transmission
Earpieces Advertisements on either side of the masthead, or centred of pages from one production centre to another by electronic means.
titlepiece, of a newspaper’s page one.
Family All the type of any one type range.
Edit Prepare copy for the press.
Feature Subjective articles used in newspapers, as opposed to objective
Edition An issue of the paper prepared for a specific area; news material; newspaper material containing advice, comment, opinion or
hence editionize, to prepare such. assessment; sometimes any editorial content other than news.

Editor Chief editorial executive who is responsible for the editing and File A reporter’s own computer input; to send or submit a story; a writer’s
contents of a newspaper. or agency’s day’s output.

Editorial The leading article or opinion of the paper. Files Back issues.

Editorialize To insert, or imbue with, the newspaper’s own opinion. Filler A short news item of one or two paragraphs.

Editor’s conference Main planning conference of a newspaper. Filmset type Photoset type, as used in a paste-up.

Egyptian A type family which has heavy ‘slab’ serifs. Fit-up Artwork involving several elements joined together.

Ellipsis Omission of letters or words in a sentence, represented by several Flash Urgent brief message on agency service – usually an important fact.
dots.
Flashback A story or picture taken from a past issue.
Em Unit of type measure based on the standard 12pt roman lower case
letter ‘m’; also called a mutton (in US a pica). Flush Set to one side (as of type).

Embargo Request not to publish before a nominated time. Fold Point at which the paper is folded during printing; hence folder, a
device attached to the press which does this.
En Half an em, based on the standard roman lower case letter ‘n’.
Folio Page.

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Follow-up A story that follows up information in a previous story in order Gothic Family of sanserif type with a great variety of available widths –
to uncover new facts. medium condensed, extra condensed, square, etc.

Format 1 The shape and regular features of a newspaper; its regular Graphics Any drawn illustrative material used in page design.
typographical appearance; 2 Any pre-set instruction programmed into a
computer. Grot Abbreviation for Grotesque, a family of sans headline type.

Font All the characters in a given size of any type. Gutter The margin between two printed pages.

Forme The completed newspaper page or pair of pages when ready to be Hair space The thinnest space used between letters in typesetting systems.
made into a printing plate.
Half lead (pronounced leed) The second most important story on a page.
Frame The adjustable easel at which paste-up pages are made up from
photoset and photographic elements. Half-tone The reproduction process, consisting of dots of varying density,
by which the tones of a photograph are reproduced on a page.
Freelance Self-employed person, i.e. journalist.
Handout Pre-printed material containing information supplied for the use
Free sheets Newspapers that rely solely on advertising income and are of the press.
given free to readers.
Hanging indent Style of typesetting in which the first line of each
Front office Usually the advertising and editorial part of a newspaper paragraph is set full out and the remaining lines indented on the left.
office to which the public is admitted.
Hard copy Typewritten or handwritten copy, as opposed to copy centred
Full out Typeset to the full measure of a column. into a computer.

Gatekeeper Sociologist’s name for a copy-taster. Hard news News based on solid fact.

Gatherers Journalists who gather and write material for a newspaper – a Head, heading Words for headline.
sociologists’ term.
Header The part of the computer screen in which commands and basic
Ghost writer One who writes under another’s name; one who writes on instructions are entered, and in which the computer communicates with the
behalf of someone else. user.

Good pages Pages that do not have to be changed for later editions. Heavies Name sometimes given to the quality or serious national press as
opposed to the popular press; newspapers that specialize in serious news.

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H & J Computer term for ‘hyphenated and justified’, meaning that the Italic Type characters that slope from right to left.
material has been prepared on the screen in the length and sequence of
equal lines in which it will be typeset. Jack line A short line left at the top of a column (usually avoided in page
make-up). Also a widow.
Hold To keep copy for use later.
Journalese Newspaper-generated slang; shoddy, cliché-ridden language.
Hood Lines of type above a picture or story and attached by rules top and
side. Justify To space out a line of type to fit a nominated width.

Hook A term used in some computer systems for a queue or desk to which Keyboard The panel of keys on a computer or workstation by which copy
stories can be sent after testing to await possible use. is entered.

Horizontal make-up Page design in which stories and headlines cross the Kicker A story in special type and setting that stands out from the main
page in several legs as opposed to being run up and down. part of the page.

Hot metal The printing system in which type is cast from molten metal Kill To erase or throw away a story so that it cannot be used.
into ‘slugs’ for assembly into pages.
Label A headline without a verb.
House style Nominates spellings and usages used to produce consistency
in a newspaper or printing house. Layout The plan of a page.

Imprint Name and address of the printer and publisher, usually found at Lead (pronounced leed) The main story on a page; the page lead.
the bottom of the back page of a newspaper.
Lead (pronounced led) The space between lines of type material derived
Indent Material set narrower than the column measures, leaving white from the hot metal system which used strips of metal, or leads, of set point
space either at the front or at both sides. width.

Insert Any copy inserted into a story already written or in type. Leader Editorial opinion, or leading article.

Intro The introduction or beginning of a story. Leg Any portion of text arranged in several columns on the page.

Investigative journalism A form of reporting in which a news situation is Legal kill A legal instruction not to use.
examined in depth by a team of reporters under a project leader, i.e. as an
investigation of all aspects. Legman A reporter who assists with gathering the facts but does not write
the story; hence leg work.
Issue All copies of a day’s paper and its editions.

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Letterpress A method of printing from a raised or relief surface, as with Make-up The act of making up a page.
metal or polymer stereo plates on rotary presses.
Masking Excluding part of a photograph by paper overlay to indicate area
Letter-spacing Space the width of an average letter in a given type. to be printed.

Lift To use, and keep in a page, matter that has appeared in a previous Masthead The name or title of a newspaper at the top of page one.
edition.
Measure Width of any setting.
Light box A device consisting of a ground glass screen illuminated from
below through which prints pictures can be viewed face downwards so that Medium A weight of type between light and bold, or heavy.
they can be cropped and scaled on the back.
Memory The part of a computer that retains information fed into it; where
Light face Type of a lighter weight or character than standard. written and edited stories are stored.

Lineage Computation of lines used as a basis of payment to writers; Merchandizing Information about price and place of purchase in
sometimes used for payment of non-staff newspaper contributors. consumer journalism features.

Line block An engraved plate in the hot metal printing system, which MF Abbreviation for more to follow.
reduced the lines of a drawing in continuous black, as opposed to a half-
tone block which rendered tones by dots of varying density. MFL More to follow later.

Line drawing Drawing made up of black strokes, as with a cartoon or Milled rule A Simplex rule or border with a serrated edge as on the edge
comic strip. of a coin.

Literals Typographical errors. Montage A number of pictures mounted together.

Local corr A district correspondent. Mood picture (or shot) A picture in which atmosphere is more important
than content.
Logo Name, title, recognition word, as of a regular column or section of
newspaper. Mop-up A story that puts together different aspects of an event.

Long primer Old name for lOpt type; also l.p. Morgue Old name for newspaper picture and cuttings library.

Lower case Small, as opposed to capital, letters of an alphabet. Motif Drawing or picture used to symbolize a subject, or to identify a
feature or story.
Machine minder Operator in charge of a press.

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MS Manuscript of any text before printing. Obit Obituary item.

Mug shot Picture showing only a person’s head. Offset Printing by transferring the page image from smooth plastic
printing plate to a roller which then sets it off on to paper.
Must An item that must be used, and containing must in its instructions.
Open quotes Punctuation marks denoting the start of a quoted section.
Mutton Old name for an em.
Overline A line of smaller type over a main headline; also a strapline.
Nationals Newspapers on sale all over the country.
Overmatter Left-over printed material not used in the edition.
New lead A version of a story based on later information.
PA Press Association, home national news agency in Britain.
News agency An organization that collects, edits and distributes news to
subscribing newspapers. Page facsimile transmission Method by which completed pages are
digitized and reduced to an electronic signal for transmission by wire or
News desk The newsroom, where the collection of news is organized, and satellite to another printing centre for simultaneous production.
where reporters are based (in US, city desk).
Pagination The numbering of pages; the number of pages to work
Nibs News in brief. towards.

Night editor The senior production executive of a daily paper. Panel Story enclosed in rules or borders; see Box.

Nonpl Norpareil, the old name for 6pt type. Paste-up The method of making up pages from photoset material by
attaching them to a page card, as in cut-and-paste.
Nose The intro or start to a story; hence to re-nose.
Photoset The name given to photocomposed type; hence phototypesetter.
NS Newspaper Society, an association for provincial newspaper
proprietors in Britain. Pica 12pt type; unit of measurement based on multiples of 12 points (pica
= one em).
Nuggets Small items of news; separate sections of a story.
Picture desk Where collecting and checking of pictures is organized;
NUJ National Union of Journalists (in Britain). hence picture editor.

Nut Old name for an en; hence nutted, type indented one nut, or nut each Platen Surface which holds the paper in a printing press and presses it
side. against an inked surface.

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Point Unit of type measurement. The British-American point is 0.01383 Quire Unit of freshly printed, ordered newspapers, usually twenty-six
in, or about one seventy-second of an inch. See also Didot point. The size copies.
of type is measured by depth in points.
Quotes Raised punctuation marks to indicate quoted speech.
Populars Mass circulation newspapers of popular appeal.
Qwerty Standard keyboard layout based on the first five characters of the
Print Total number of newspapers printed of one issue; also a picture or top bank of letter keys.
bromide printed from a photographic negative.
Ragged (left or right) Copy set justified on one side only, sometimes used
Print order The number of copies of an issue ordered to be printed. in captions.

Print-out A copy of material in a computer printed out for reference or Range The number and variety of characters available in a particular type.
filing.
Rate card List of newspaper advertising charges based on specific sizes
Printing plate The plate, metal or polymer, from which the page is and placings.
printed.
Reader participation Editorial material or items which involve
Projection The display and headline treatment given to a story in the page. contributions by readers, such as readers’ letters, competitions and articles
based on invited opinions.
Promotion Any form of planned publicity that has a specific aim.
Readership The total number of people who read a newspaper – not the
Publishing room Where the newspapers are counted, wrapped and number of copies in circulation. The estimated number of readers per copy
prepared for distribution. of magazines and newspapers can vary considerably.

Puff An item in a newspaper which publicizes something or somebody. Redress See Rejig.

Pull-out Separate section of a newspaper that can be pulled out, often with Reel Spindle holding a roll of newsprint; sometimes, a roll of newsprint;
separate pagination. hence reel room, where rolls of newsprint are stacked for use.

Pundit A regular newspaper columnist who dispenses opinion. Register The outline of printed matter as it appears on the paper;
important in colour printing where the main colours are printed separately
Qualities Serious, as opposed to popular, newspapers. on to the picture image.

Queue A particular collection or directory of stories held in a computer – Rejig The revision of a story in the light of later information, or a change
features queue, newsroom queue, etc. of position in the paper, often between editions.

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Release The date or time that handout material becomes available for use. Rotary press Traditional press in which newspapers were printed by the
letterpress method from curved metal or polymer relief plates.
Re-nose To put a new intro on to a story, using different material or a
different angle. Rough Outline sketch of page layout.

Re-plate To replace a printing plate to allow a later version of a page on to Rule A printed border of varying width.
the press.
Run Length of time taken to print an issue of a newspaper.
Reporter Person who gathers and writes up news.
Running story A story that develops and continues over a long period.
Retainer Periodic payment made to retain someone’s services, as with
local correspondents; see Stringers. Run on To carry on printing without changing plates for an edition.

Retouching Improving the quality of a photograph, now usually done Rush Second most urgent classification of news agency material
electronically. after flash; hence rushfull, a full version based on rushes.

Reuters British based international news agency. Saddle A metal mount used for attaching polymer plates to a rotary press
to achieve correct printing height.
Revamp General change given to a story or page in the light of a
reconsidered approach. Sale or return Newspapers sold subject to a fixed payment for unsold
copies carried.
Reverse Type printed white on a black or tone background.
Sans Sanserif, types without tails, or serifs, at the end of the letter strokes.
Reverse indent See Hanging indent.
Satellite printing Printing at subsidiary production centres by the use of
Revise To check and correct, or improve, edited material. page facsimile transmission.

Rewrite To turn a story into new words rather than to edit on copy. Scaling Calculating the depth of a picture to be used.

ROP Run of press. For instance colour is and printed during run of press Scalpel Used to lift, cut up and place material in paste-up pages.
rather than as a separate or additional process.
Schedule List of reporting or feature jobs to be covered for use in an issue
Rota picture A news picture obtained under the rota system, in which of a newspaper.
limited coverage of an event is allowed on a shared basis.
Scheme To plan and draw a page; also a page layout.

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Scoop Exclusive story. Section A separately folded part of a newspaper; hence sectional
newspapers.
Screamer Exclamation mark.
Send A command to transfer material in a computer to another queue or
Screen The density of dots in half-tone reproduction of photographs. desk, or to the page.

Screen Where stories held in the computer are projected for reading or Separation The separate elements of a colour picture by which the colour
editing; hence screen subbing, subbing by electronic means by use of a is transferred to the page.
cursor.
Sequence The order in which a story is presented (in subbing).
Scroll (up or down) To display material on to a computer screen so that it
can be read in sequence. Series Range of typesizes, or types.

Seal Standard words, often in colour, at the top of a page indicating the
edition; also a logo.

Serif Type characterized by strokes that have Shorts Short items of edited matter, usually of Slip To change a page between editions;
little tails, or serifs. one, two or three paragraphs. hence slip edition.

Service column An advice, or consumer, Sidebar Story placed alongside a main story to Snap Piece of information in advance of full
column. which it relates. details in news agency story.

Set and hold Put into type for use later. Side-head A headline or cross-head set flush Spike Home for unwanted stories. Computers
left, or indented left. have an electronic spike to which stories can be
Set flush To set full to the margin. sent.
Sign-off The name of the writer at the end of a
Set forme The last forme (of page or pair of story. Spill To run down and fill space (of type).
pages) to go to press.
Situationer A story giving background to a Splash The main page one story.
Set solid To set without line spacing. situation.
Split screen The use of a terminal to display
Setting format Setting of a nominated size, Sizing See Scaling. two stories at once.
width and spacing that is programmed into the
computer for cases of frequent use. Slab-serif Type with heavy square-ended Spot colour Non-processed colour applied to
serifs. the page during run of press.

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Spread A main story that crosses two Star Type ornament; hence star-line, a line of Stone Bench where pages used to be made up
adjoining pages. stars. under hot metal system; hence stone sub, the
journalist who supervised this work in cut-and-
Squares Black or open, a species of type Star-burst Headline or slogan enclosed in star paste make-up.
ornament used to mark off sections of text. shaped outline used in blurbs and advertising.
Stop press Late news printed from a separate
Stand-first An explanation in special type set Start-up When the presses begin to print. cylinder on to the page while on the press, or
above the intro of a story, i.e. it stands first. afterwards.
Stock bills Newspaper display bills on fixed
Stand-up drop An initial letter in large type subject such as ‘today’s TV, ‘latest scores’,
that stands above the line of the text at the start etc.
of a story.

Strap-line Headline in small type that goes Tag-line An explanatory line or Top A top of the page story; mostly any story
above the main headline; also overline. acknowledgement under the bottom line of a that merits a good headline and more than
headline. three paragraphs long.
Streamer Headline that crosses the top of the
page, also a banner headline. Tear-out A picture printed with a simulated Trim To cut a story a little.
torn edge, usually a flashback of a printed
Stringer A local correspondent. picture, or a part of a document; also rag-out. Turn head A head covering a story that has
been continued from another page.
Subeditor Person who checks and edits Telephoto lens Camera lens that magnifies an
material for a newspaper to fit set space, and image telescopically. Typebook Catalogue of types held.
writes the headline.
Textsize A broadsheet, or full-size newspaper Typechart A tabulated list giving character
Subhead Secondary headline. page. counts for given types.

Subst head Headline in place of another. Tie-in A story that is connected with one Underscore To carry a line or rule under type.
alongside.
Syndication The means by which a Update To work in later information.
newspaper’s material is offered for a fee for Tie-on A story that is connected with the story
use in other publications or countries. above. Visualize To plan and work out how a page or
display will look.
Tabloid Half size (newspaper). Tip-off Information from an inside source.

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Web-offset A system of printing in which the Weight The thickness of a type. Wire A means of transmitting copy by
inked page image is transferred from a smooth electronic signal which requires a receiver or
printing plate on to a rubber roller and then Widow A short line left at the top of a column decoder; hence wire room, where such copy is
offset on to paper, as opposed to being printed of reading type; also jackline. transmitted or received.
directly on to paper by relief impression, as in
letterpress. Wing in To set a headline within the top rule
of a panel or box, leaving a piece of rule
showing on either side.

Word processor Electronic system by which Work station Any computer connected to a WYSIWYG What you see is what you get
text can be keyboarded into a computer, stored, system or network. (acronym).
edited, amended and finally printed (i.e.
processed) when required. WOB White on black type. X-height The mean height of letters in a type
range, exclusive of ascenders or descenders.
WOT White on tone type.

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New Subediting | ILLUSTRATIONS 165